Cement production basic knowledge 

1．Cement:   

In the most general sense of the word, a cement is a binder, a substance

which sets and hardens independently, and can bind other materials
together. The word "cement" traces to the Romans, who used the term "opus
caementicium" to describe masonry which resembled concrete and was made
from crushed rock with burnt lime as binder. The volcanic ash and
pulverized brick additives which were added to the burnt lime to obtain
a hydraulic binder were later referred to as cementum, cimentum, cäment
and cement. Cements used in construction are characterized as hydraulic
or non-hydraulic.

The most important use of cement is the production of mortar and

concrete—the bonding of natural or artificial aggregates to form a strong
building material which is durable in the face of normal environmental
effects.

Concrete should not be confused with cement because the term cement refers
only to the dry powder substance used to bind the aggregate materials of
concrete. Upon the addition of water and/or additives the cement mixture
is referred to as concrete, especially if aggregates have been added.

Portland cement (often referred to as OPC, from Ordinary Portland Cement)

is the most common type of cement in general use around the world, because
it is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar, stucco and most
non-specialty grout. It is a fine powder produced by grinding Portland
cement clinker (more than 90%), a limited amount of calcium sulfate which
controls the set time, and up to 5% minor constituents (as allowed by
various standards).

As defined by the European Standard EN197.1: 

Portland cement clinker is a hydraulic material which shall consist of
at least two-thirds by mass of calcium silicates (3CaO.SiO2 and 2CaO.SiO2),
the remainder consisting of aluminium- and iron-containing clinker phases
and other compounds. The ratio of CaO to SiO2 shall not be less than 2.0.
The magnesium content (MgO) shall not exceed 5.0% by mass. 
 

Portland cement

Portland cement clinker is made by heating, in a kiln, a homogeneous

mixture of raw materials to a sintering temperature, which is about
1450 °C for modern cements. The aluminium oxide and iron oxide are present
as a flux and contribute little to the strength. For special cements, such
as Low Heat (LH) and Sulfate Resistant (SR) types, it is necessary to limit
the amount of tricalcium aluminate (3CaO.Al2O3) formed. The major raw
material for the clinker-making is usually limestone (CaCO3) mixed with
a second material containing clay as source of alumino-silicate. Normally,
an impure limestone which contains clay or SiO2 is used. The CaCO3 content
of these limestones can be as low as 80%. Second raw materials (materials
in the rawmix other than limestone) depend on the purity of the limestone.
Some of the second raw materials used are: clay, shale, sand, iron ore,
bauxite, fly ash and slag. When a cement kiln is fired by coal, the ash
of the coal acts as a secondary raw material.

 
2. History:   
History of the origin of cement 
 
Early uses 
It is uncertain where it was first discovered that a combination of
hydrated non-hydraulic lime and a pozzolan produces a hydraulic mixture
(see also: Pozzolanic reaction), but concrete made from such mixtures was
first used on a large scale by Roman engineers.[1] They used both natural
pozzolans (trass or pumice)a local name of volcanic tuff. and (ground
brick or pottery) in these concretes. Many excellent examples of
structures made from these concretes are still standing, notably the huge
monolithic dome of the Pantheon in Rome and the massive Baths of
Caracalla.[2] The vast system of Roman aqueducts also made extensive use
of hydraulic cement.[3] The use disappeared in medieval Europe, although
weak pozzolanic concretes continued to be used as a core fill in stone
walls and columns. 
 

Modern cement

Modern hydraulic cements began to be developed from the start of the

Industrial Revolution (around 1800), driven by three main needs:

• Hydraulic renders for finishing brick buildings in wet climates

• Hydraulic mortars for masonry construction of harbor works etc, in
contact with sea water.
• Development of strong concretes.

In Britain particularly, good quality building stone became ever more

expensive during a period of rapid growth, and it became a common practice
to construct prestige buildings from the new industrial bricks, and to
finish them with a stucco to imitate stone. Hydraulic limes were favored
for this, but the need for a fast set time encouraged the development of
new cements. Most famous was Parker's "Roman cement."[4] This was developed
by James Parker in the 1780s, and finally patented in 1796. It was, in
fact, nothing like any material used by the Romans, but was a "Natural
cement" made by burning septaria - nodules that are found in certain clay
deposits, and that contain both clay minerals and calcium carbonate. The
burnt nodules were ground to a fine powder. This product, made into a
mortar with sand, set in 5–15 minutes. The success of "Roman Cement" led
other manufacturers to develop rival products by burning artificial
mixtures of clay and chalk.

John Smeaton made an important contribution to the development of cements

when he was planning the construction of the third Eddystone Lighthouse
(1755-9) in the English Channel. He needed a hydraulic mortar that would
set and develop some strength in the twelve hour period between successive
high tides. He performed an exhaustive market research on the available
hydraulic limes, visiting their production sites, and noted that the
"hydraulicity" of the lime was directly related to the clay content of
the limestone from which it was made. Smeaton was a civil engineer by
profession, and took the idea no further. Apparently unaware of Smeaton's
work, the same principle was identified by Louis Vicat in the first decade
of the nineteenth century. Vicat went on to devise a method of combining
chalk and clay into an intimate mixture, and, burning this, produced an
"artificial cement" in 1817. James Frost,[5] working in Britain, produced
what he called "British cement" in a similar manner around the same time,
but did not obtain a patent until 1822. In 1824, Joseph Aspdin patented
a similar material, which he called Portland cement, because the render
made from it was in color similar to the prestigious Portland stone.

All the above products could not compete with lime/pozzolan concretes
because of fast-setting (giving insufficient time for placement) and low
early strengths (requiring a delay of many weeks before formwork could
be removed). Hydraulic limes, "natural" cements and "artificial" cements
all rely upon their belite content for strength development. Belite
develops strength slowly. Because they were burned at temperatures below
1250 °C, they contained no alite, which is responsible for early strength
in modern cements. The first cement to consistently contain alite was made
by Joseph Aspdin's son William in the early 1840s. This was what we call
today "modern" Portland cement. Because of the air of mystery with which
William Aspdin surrounded his product, others (e.g. Vicat and I C Johnson)
have claimed precedence in this invention, but recent analysis[6] of both
his concrete and raw cement have shown that William Aspdin's product made
at Northfleet, Kent was a true alite-based cement. However, Aspdin's
methods were "rule-of-thumb": Vicat is responsible for establishing the
chemical basis of these cements, and Johnson established the importance
of sintering the mix in the kiln.

William Aspdin's innovation was counter-intuitive for manufacturers of

"artificial cements", because they required more lime in the mix (a
problem for his father), because they required a much higher kiln
temperature (and therefore more fuel) and because the resulting clinker
was very hard and rapidly wore down the millstones which were the only
available grinding technology of the time. Manufacturing costs were
therefore considerably higher, but the product set reasonably slowly and
developed strength quickly, thus opening up a market for use in concrete.
The use of concrete in construction grew rapidly from 1850 onwards, and
was soon the dominant use for cements. Thus Portland cement began its
predominant role. 
 

 
 
3. Production 
There are three fundamental stages in the production of Portland cement: 
(1) Preparation of the raw mixture 
(2) Production of the clinler 
(3) Cement grinding

Rawmix preparation

A limestone prehomogenization pile being built by a boom stacker

 A completed limestone prehomogenization pile

The raw materials for Portland cement production are a mixture (as fine
powder in the 'Dry process' or in the form of a slurry in the 'Wet process')
of minerals containing calcium oxide, silicon oxide, aluminium oxide,
ferric oxide, and magnesium oxide. The raw materials are usually quarried
from local rock, which in some places is already practically the desired
composition and in other places requires the addition of clay and
limestone, as well as iron ore, bauxite or recycled materials. The
individual raw materials are first crushed, typically to below 50 mm. In
many plants, some or all of the raw materials are then roughly blended
in a "prehomogenization pile." The raw materials are next ground together
in a rawmill. Silos of individual raw materials are arranged over the feed
conveyor belt. Accurately controlled proportions of each material are
delivered onto the belt by weigh-feeders. Passing into the rawmill, the
mixture is ground to rawmix. The fineness of rawmix is specified in terms
of the size of the largest particles, and is usually controlled so that
there are less than 5%-15% by mass of particles exceeding 90 μm in
diameter. It is important that the rawmix contains no large particles in
order to complete the chemical reactions in the kiln, and to ensure the
mix is chemically homogenous. In the case of a dry process, the rawmill
also dries the raw materials, usually by passing hot exhaust gases from
the kiln through the mill, so that the rawmix emerges as a fine powder.
This is conveyed to the blending system by conveyor belt or by a powder
pump. In the case of wet process, water is added to the rawmill feed, and
the mill product is a slurry with moisture content usually in the range
25-45% by mass. This slurry is conveyed to the blending system by
conventional liquid pumps.

Rawmix blending

The rawmix is formulated to a very tight chemical specification. Typically,

the content of individual components in the rawmix must be controlled
within 0.1% or better. Calcium and silicon are present in order to form
the strength-producing calcium silicates. Aluminium and iron are used in
order to produce liquid ("flux") in the kiln burning zone. The liquid acts
as a solvent for the silicate-forming reactions, and allows these to occur
at an economically low temperature. Insufficient aluminium and iron lead
to difficult burning of the clinker, while excessive amounts lead to low
strength due to dilution of the silicates by aluminates and ferrites. Very
small changes in calcium content lead to large changes in the ratio of
alite to belite in the clinker, and to corresponding changes in the
cement's strength-growth characteristics. The relative amounts of each
oxide are therefore kept constant in order to maintain steady conditions
in the kiln, and to maintain constant product properties. In practice,
the rawmix is controlled by frequent chemical analysis (hourly by X-Ray
fluorescence analysis, or every three minutes by prompt gamma neutron
activation analysis). The analysis data is used to make automatic
adjustments to raw material feed rates. Remaining chemical variation is
minimized by passing the raw mix through a blending system that
homogenizes up to a day's supply of rawmix (15,000 tonnes in the case of
a large kiln).

Formation of clinker

Precalciner kiln
 Typical clinker nodules

The raw mixture is heated in a cement kiln, a slowly rotating and sloped
cylinder, with temperatures increasing over the length of the cylinder
up to a peak temperature of 1400-1450 ℃. A complex succession of chemical
reactions take place (see cement kiln) as the temperature rises. The peak
temperature is regulated so that the product contains sintered but not
fused lumps. Sintering consists of the melting of 25-30% of the mass of
the material. The resulting liquid draws the remaining solid particles
together by surface tension, and acts as a solvent for the final chemical
reaction in which alite is formed. Too low a temperature causes
insufficient sintering and incomplete reaction, but too high a
temperature results in a molten mass or glass, destruction of the kiln
lining, and waste of fuel. When all goes to plan, the resulting material
is clinker. On cooling, it is conveyed to storage. Some effort is usually
made to blend the clinker, because although the chemistry of the rawmix
may have been tightly controlled, the kiln process potentially introduces
new sources of chemical variability. The clinker can be stored for a number
of years before use. Prolonged exposure to water decreases the reactivity
of cement produced from weathered clinker.

The enthalpy of formation of clinker from calcium carbonate and clay

minerals is about 1700 kJ/kg. However, because of heat loss during
production, actual values can be much higher. The high energy requirements
and the release of significant amounts of carbon dioxide makes cement
production a concern for global warming. See "Environmental effects"
below.

Cement grinding
 A 10 MW cement mill, producing cement at 270 tonnes per hour
In order to achieve the desired setting qualities in the finished product,
a quantity (2-8%, but typically 5%) of calcium sulfate (usually gypsum
or anhydrite) is added to the clinker and the mixture is finely ground
to form the finished cement powder. This is achieved in a cement mill.
The grinding process is controlled to obtain a powder with a broad particle
size range, in which typically 15% by mass consists of particles below
5 μm diameter, and 5% of particles above 45 μm. The measure of fineness
usually used is the "specific surface", which is the total particle
surface area of a unit mass of cement. The rate of initial reaction (up
to 24 hours) of the cement on addition of water is directly proportional
to the specific surface. Typical values are 320-380 m2·kg−1 for general
purpose cements, and 450-650 m2·kg−1 for "rapid hardening" cements. The
cement is conveyed by belt or powder pump to a silo for storage. Cement
plants normally have sufficient silo space for 1–20 weeks production,
depending upon local demand cycles. The cement is delivered to end-users
either in bags or as bulk powder blown from a pressure vehicle into the
customer's silo. In developed countries, 80% or more of cement is
delivered in bulk, and many cement plants have no bag-packing facility.
In poor countries,bags are the normal mode of delivery. 
 
4．  Performance index 
4.1 The main technical index of cement
（1）specific gravity and bulk density: The specific gravity of Portland cement
is 3:1, and the bulk density is usually 1300kg/M3 .
（2）fineness：Cement fineness refers to the granularity of cement particle. More
fine of the particle, the faster of the hardening, and the higher of early strength.
（3）setting time：the needed time for cement from mixing with water to starting
primary coagulation is called initial setting time. The needed time for cement
from mixing with water to finish coagulation is called final setting time. For
Portland cement, the initial time should not less than 45 min and final setting
time should not over 12 hours.
（4）strength：Strength of cement should match National Standard.
 （5）volume stability: It refers to the equality of volume changing during cement
hardening, if there are more impurity in the cement, it will cause irregular
deformation.
（6）heat of hydration: Mix cement with water will cause exothermic reaction,
during hardening of cement, continuous release the heat is called heat of
hydration.
（7）standard consistency: It refers to the consistency of cement paste when it
has certain resistance to normal testing bar’s sinking inside of cement paste.  
 
5. Basic knowledge of cement chemistry 
Gelled  material：——people  use  it  since  ancient  times(e.g  the  pyramid,  the 
Colosseum 3000 years ago).There are mainly two kinds of building gelled materials: 
non‐hydraulic  gelled  material—which  cant  get  hardened  in  water(see  the  table 
below) , and    hydraulic gelled material. 

Non‐hydraulic  gelled  material  was 

non‐hydraulic gelled material,for example: 
widely used during the ancient times.   
1
(i) anhydrite (CaSO4. /2 H2O) 
High  solubility    of    Calvital  and 
1 1
CaSO4. /2 H2O + 1 /2H2O ⇒ CaSO4.2H2O (plaster) 
plaster  means  that  they  will  get 
(ii) lime‐base    gelled material (CaO) 
worsened  quickly    under  humid 
CaO + H2O ⇒ Ca(OH)2    + CO2→ CaCO3 (calcite) 
circumstances. Ancient Roman people 
made  good  use  of  lime‐base    gelled  material  and  its    mortar(  gelled 
material+sand).  They  use  wet  net  paste  as  base  to  form  superficial  layer  with  high 
density.    When the net paste meets with the air, it will form    outer surface    with   
calcspar,  which  has  low  permeability.  This  outer  surface  will  protect  Ca(OH)  under 
it,even today    we can find the example of Roman lime mortar in    Hadrians Wall. 
Not until recently is lime mortar used in domestic buildings. Natural materials need 
warming process. Such as natural plaster’s    segmental dehydration (≈200oC), the 
calcinations  of  calcspar  (≈850oC).  hydraulic  gelled  material——can  last  for  much 
more time. Its hydrous product is insoluble indeed——gelled material that can get 
hardened  in  water.  The  earliest  systematic  development  is  owed  to  the  Roman 
people. They used limestone with silicon and aluminum, besides they put    volcanic 
ash soil as additive    into limestone that had been burned earlier. This is regarded as 
the    precursor of modern portland cement. 

Portland cement——was invented by Joseph Aspdin in the middle of 19th century. 
It  is  the  product  of  burned  mixture  of  crumble  limestone  and  fine  clay,  containing   
65%—70%  CaO,  18‐24%  SiO2,  3‐8%  Fe2O3,  3‐8%  Al2O3，and  a  small  quantity  of 
secondary  oxide  （e.g  Na2O,  K2O,  MgO  etc.)  Much  more  effective  manufacturing 
process  is  used  in      modern  cement  plant.People  can  get  that    cement  through 
materials  in  a  right  proportion,  which  obtains  prospective  scale  of  intensity  and 
durability. 
 
 
 
 II、The formattion of    clinker minerral   

 
 
The  key 
k is  efffective  pu
ulverizing  and 
Raw materrial used in modern cement plantt  enizing  of  raw  mateerial.  They  get 
homoge
limestone  clayy  dried  and  deh
hydrated  iin  suspen
nsion 
chalk  sch
hist  preheatter  and  preecalcinator,  after  that  the 
sh
hell  kao
olin  mixture
e    materiaal(raw  matterial)  will  be 
m
marlite  oth
her  silicate  minerals  burned  in  rottary  kiln.  When  the 
o
obtaining iro
on、aluminum    temperrature  comes  up    to  1500oC(at  the 
probably    chalybeate 
c   correctivee materials    firing  zone 
z of  kiln  ),materials  have  gone 
g
thro on and sinttering.    Viaa cooling prrocess we can get    clinker 
ough solid sstate reactio
and
d afterwardss it will be sent    for pu with plaster.   
ulverizing w
  
The formation of    clinker mineral   
1、Dehydration and decompose of raw material 
With the dehydration, decomposition and activation of inserted water and clay 
mineral：   

              H 2O(insertedwater) ⎯100

⎯ ⎯
℃
→ H 2O(steam) ↑  

                      Al 2O3 ⋅ 2 SiO2 ⋅ 2 H 2O ⎯450

⎯℃～ ⎯600
⎯⎯℃
→ Al 2O3 ⋅ 2 SiO2 + 2 H 2O ↑  

                      Al 2O3 ⋅ 2 SiO2 ⎯
⎯→ Al 2O3 + 2 SiO2  

2、Decomposition of carbonate 
When the temperature is above 600℃, the carbonate of raw material begins to 
decompose. When the temperature is around 750℃, MgCO3    decomposes         
acutely and quickly  ；Ca CO3      decomposes quickly at the temperature of    900℃, 
and stops decomposing at1000℃.   

                MgCO 3 ⎯about
⎯⎯ ⎯→ MgO + CO 2 ↑  
750℃

                CaCO 3 ⎯about
⎯⎯ ⎯→ CaO + CO 2 ↑            
910℃

3、Solid phase reaction 
Due to the dehydration of clay、  decomposition of carbonate etc,    SiO2、Al2O3、
 Fe2O3、CaO come into being    in the raw material, they are active and do exist 
separately. They start the    combination reaction with each other, and the reaction 
speed gets faster gradually with the    temperature increment. The solid phase 
reaction, which occurs      among    the motes by mutual contact, is    polystage 
reaction, and it’s much complicated. The reacting process is as follows:   

        800～900℃： CaO + Fe2O3 ⎯

⎯→ CaO ⋅ Fe2O3  

                        CaO + Al2O3 ⎯
⎯→ CaO ⋅ Al2O3  

900～1000℃： 3(CaO ⋅ Al2O3 ) + 2CaO ⎯

⎯→ 5CaO ⋅ 3 Al2O3                

                          2CaO + SiO2 ⎯
⎯→ 2CaO ⋅ SiO2  

                          CaO ⋅ Fe2O3 + CaO ⎯

⎯→ 2CaO ⋅ Fe2O3  

      （the formation reaction of C2S stops at about 1200℃） 

1000～1200℃： 5CaO ⋅ 3 Al2O3 + 4CaO ⎯

⎯→ 3(3CaO ⋅ Al2O3 )  

              5CaO ⋅ 3 Al2O3 + 3( 2CaO ⋅ Fe2O3 ) + CaO ⎯

⎯→ 3( 4CaO ⋅ Al2O3 ⋅ Fe2O3 )  

4、The firing    of clinker 
When the temperature comes up to 1300℃, C3A and C4AF get fused, and 
liquidoid appears in the materials. Absorbing CaO in the liquidoid, C2S becomes C3S：   

                                      2CaO ⋅ SiO2 + CaO ⎯

⎯→ 3CaO ⋅ SiO2  

This is called lime absorbing process. In real manufacturing process the 
temperature of materials is controlled above 1300℃, usually between    1350～
1500℃, this scope is called  “firing temperature”.   
 
5. The cooling of clinker 
Burned clinker needs to be cooled.the speed of cooling have much effect on the 

quality of clinker. Fast cooling can prevent  β − C2 S   with good hydraulicity 

turning into  γ − C2 S that hardly has any hydraulicity. Fast cooling still can prevent   

liquated MgO、f − CaO   from crystallizing, but existing in cement in glass state, so 

 the stability is improved. Fast cooling also can prevent clinker mineral crystal from 
becoming bigger or fully crystallizing, which can get cement    hydrated easily.   
 
III、The component of clinker 
1、Chemical component of Portland cement clinker 
The main component of Portland cement clinker is CaO、SiO2、Al2O3、Fe2O3 etc，
they  takes  up  more  than  95%  in  clinker.besides  there  are  other  few  oxide,  such  as
（SO3）、
（MgO）、 （P2O5）、
（K2O）、
（Na2O）etc，which takes up less than 5% of clinker.   
According to statistics, usually the wave range of four oxides in Portland cement 
clinker is : 
CaO  ：  62%～67%， 
SiO2    ：  20%～24%， 
Al2O3：  4%～7%， 
Fe2O3：  2.5%～6%。 

2、The Portland cement clinker mineral component 
In the composition of Portland cement clinker，CaO、SiO2、AI2O3、Fe2O3 and so 
on it is not only existence by the independent oxide compound ,but by two kinds or 
two above oxide compounds responded that combines to plant the different oxide 
compound the aggregate, namely existence shape by many kinds of chamotte 
mineral . These chamotte mineral crystal is tiny.So, we may think that the Portland 
cement chamotte is composed of a kind of mineral constituent, and the crystal tiny 
man‐made rock.. 
 
In the Portland cement clinker ingredient's essential mineral has the following 
four kinds: 
calcium silicate :    3CaO·SiO2 ,    the abbreviation is    C3S; 
dicalcium silicate :    2CaO·SiO2,    the abbreviation is    C3S; 
tricalcium aluminate ;    3CaO·Al2O3,    the abbreviation is    C3A 
4CaO·Al2O3·Fe2O,    the abbreviation is    C4AF 
 
 Diffe C3S +  C3A +
C3S  C2S  C3A  C4AF 
rentiates  C2S  C4AF 
rota 42～ 15～ 4～ 10～ 72～ 20～
ry kiln  60  32  11  18  78  24 
 
In addition, includes litter f‐CaO, crystallization magnesia(MgO), 
cholinergic‐bearing mineral, vitreous body and so on.. 
The same as portland cement clinker, but there will be quite differents in the 
main mineral content, because of the production clinker's technological conditions 
are different or Clinker performance requirements of the different ingredients 
chosen by the different programmes. 
The four major minerals have their own characteristics, thus calcined clinker 
and cement also affect the quality of a greater difference. 
      
1、C3S is the most important mineral composition in Portland cement clinker. Its 
content approximately composes the chamotte above 50%. In the C3S crystal often 
includes few oxide compounds and so on MgO and Al2O3, these materials form the 
solid solution, by named Alite, the abbreviation is A ore. Adding water to reconcile 
C3S,The setting time is normal, The hydrated is quickly, early in the high‐intensity, 
intensity progression rate is big. Its 28 days of intensities, 1 year intensity is highest in 
4 kind of minerals,its volume air shrinkage is smally,and its frost resistance ie great. 
Therefore, we hope have more C3S ingredients in the clinker togenerally. But it’s 
hydration heat is highly,the water resisting property is badly, anti‐sulfate etching 
power is badly too. Moreover, in calcine process, we needs the highly firing 
temperature and the longly firing time can form the C3S, this causes the chamotte 
the calcine operation becomes difficultly.So, in the actual production we has no 
alternative but to cut pursues the C3S quantity, otherwise harmful ingredient f‐CaO 
will be to increase, Causes to reduce the clinker quality. 
 
 2、When C2S function with water,the hydrated speed is slowly, intensity is lowly 
in early time, but the intensity still faster growth after 28 days later,its may approach 
C3S a year later. Its hydration heat is lowly,it dosen’t have volume air shrinkage, the 
water resisting property and the anti‐sulfate etching power is strong. Its formation 
temperature is low in generally, absolute C2S easy to have the multi‐crystal seed 
transformation below in 1450  ℃,especially when is lower than 500℃,when  β‐C2S 
transforms intoγ‐ C2S, its density is more smaller, activeness is very low, and its 
Volume expansion 10% , Lead to the clinker dusting, and causes the chamotte 
intensity to reduce greatly. This kind of phenomenon happened comparatively much 
in which vertical kiln production that bad ly ventilates,few liquid phase quantity, the 
reducing atmosphere is more thicker and cool(ing) down is slowly. Firing at a higher 
temperature, rapid cooling of the clinker, as C2S in the solution into a small amount 
of Al2O3、Fe2O3、MgO,usually can be maintained  β  ‐. This is called  β‐ C2S Belite, 
the abbreviation is B ore. 
C3S and C2S generic term is silicate mineral. The clinker mainly composed of 
them, they occupy the clinker ingredient above 70%, Is the clinker intensity 
important source. Portland cement. This is the Portland cement name origin. 
 
3、C3A：After combined with water，hydration is more faster，the congealment 
hardening is very quick，if does not add retarders and so on gypsum, easy to cause 
the cement flash set. Its intensity is high in early times, however, little growth in the 
latter part of intensity, even shrinks but actually.Its heat of hydration is high, the air 
shrinkage distorts in a big way,the anti‐sulfate corrodes and the alkali resistance to be 
bad..It's also brittle, poor wear resistance. In C3A may melt oxide compounds and so 
on few SiO2, Fe2O3, MgO. 
 
4、C4AF：the hydrated hardening speed is quickly, thus the early strength is high, 
is only inferior to C3A.. Its long‐term strength is also high like C3S, different with C3A. 
It's hydration heat low, the air shrinkage distortsu is small, the anti‐impact and the 
anti‐sulfate corrodes to be good. 
   In fact, C4AF is the C2F—C8A3 continual solid solution, in general in Portland 
cement clinker, this kind of continual solid solution's chemical composition 
approaches in C4AF,so, represents in the chamotte by C4AF the hard aluminate 
mineral, Is called only then Ritter (Celite), or C ore. In the mineral dissolves has few 
oxide compounds and so on MgO、SiO2. The C ore assumes the white under the 
emitting light, therefore is called the white intermediate phase. 
 
C3A and C4AF and clinker in the composition of the vitreous and volatile 
compounds, such as alkali，then Packing between C3S and C2S，are called for the 
intermediate phase。Intermediate phase calcin to certain temperature in chamotte，
fuses the liquid phase。Liquid is the reaction of the necessary conditions for C3S。
Forms the essential mineral C3Sessential certain liquid phase quantity and the low 
liquid phase viscosity。Therefore, in ordinary circumstances，we must have certain 
quantity of C3Aand C4AF, thus guarantees certain liquid phase quantity;at the same 
time，the C3A quantity cannot be excessively more，not only this considered that it 
some bad characteristics which reveals in the hydrated process，it also lies in the 
formation of large liquid viscosity，does not favor essential mineral C3S the 
production。Of course, to the general technological conditions' cement kiln, has 
certain amount C3A regarding the kiln skin (revolving furnace) is also necessary.. 
 
3、Clinker rate value and significance 
Cement clinker is a collection of many fossils, But these minerals are also 
combined from the main oxide compound chemical combinations.So, In production 
control, we should not only to control the clinker in the oxide content,should also 
control the oxide rate is the ratio between the value. Like this,may express between 
the chemical composition and the mineral constituent relations quite conveniently, 
its can express explicitly to cement clinker's performance and the calcine 
influence.So,in production, the rate was as a production value of the control of a 
target. The people were engaged in the cement production the experience to 
summarize the chamotte rate the value for a long time. In the control of the clinker 
production rate than the value of the absolute control of the oxide is more important, 
but also more convenient. The rate of raw material is also the basis for the 
ingredients. Various countries recognize several kind of commonly used rate value 
formulas have four kinds. 
 
In1868,german MishowEllis first proposed the hydraulic index (Hydraulic 
Modulus) takes the control chamotte being suitable lime content a coefficient. 
Calcium oxide and the acid oxide sum in chamotte mass percent ratio, indicated by 
HM or m. Its formula is as follows: 
 

CaO
HM =  
SiO 2 + Al2 O 3 + Fe 2 O 3

 
In the formula: CaO, SiO2  、Al2O3  、Fe2O3 separately on behalf of chamotte in 
various oxide compounds mass percent. 
 
Usually hydraulic index fluctuation between 1.8~2.4. The above equation 
supposes the calcium oxide quantity which various acid oxides unify is the same, in 
fact when various acid oxides proportion has been changed,although the sum total 
was invariable,but needs the calcium oxide quantity not to be the same..So, although 
hydraulic index computation is simply,if only controls the similar hydraulic index, thus 
has the disadvantageous influence to the chamotte quality and the calcine. Only then 
simultaneously controls between various acid oxides the proportion, we can 
guarantee the chamotte ingredient the stability 
 
Afterward, keer proposed that in the chamotte between the acid oxide relates 
rate the value, namely: Silicon rate, also calls the silica modulus, Indicated by SM or n: 
aluminum rate, also calls the Iron Modulus or alumina rate, Indicated by IM or p.Its 
formula is as follows: 
 SiO 2
SM(n ) =  
Al 2 O 3 + Fe 2 O 3

Al 2 O3
IM ( p) =  
Fe2 O3

 
In formula: CaO, SiO2  、Al2O3  、Fe2O3 separately on behalf of chamotte in various 
oxide compounds mass percent. 
 
Usually, portland cement clinker silicon rate between 1.7~2.7, aluminum rate 
between 0.8~1.7. Some species silicon rate can be as high as about 4.0 such as white 
Portland cement clinker, but the anti‐sulfate cement or cement of low heat of 
hydration's aluminum rate may lower to 0.7. 
 
The silicon rate is expresses in the clinker the silica content and the aluminum 
oxide, the ferric oxide sum of mass ratio, also expressed the silicate mineral and the 
melting agent mineral proportion in the clinker. When the aluminum rate is bigger 
than 0.64,mathematics type which and the mineral constituent relates after between 
the inferential reasoning silicon rate is: 
         
C3S  ＋  1.325C2S 
SM = 
1.434C3A  ＋2.046C4AF   

 
In formula: C3S  、C2S、C3A  、C4AF separately on behalf of chamotte in various 
oxide compounds mass percent. 
Obviously, the silicon rate of fluctuates ratio of along with the silicate mineral 
and the melting agent mineral.. If the silicon rate is too higher in the clinker, when 
calcine, because the liquid phase quantity obviously has reducesd, the chamotte 
calcine is difficulties; Especially when the calcium oxide content to be lower, the 
content of calcium silicate is higher, the clinker is easy to pulverize the silicon to lead 
excessively lowly, the silicate mineral are too few in the clinker and affects the 
strength of cement, because and the liquid phase content is excessively high, easy to 
appear congeals the bulk, the knot accretions, the knot circle and so on, affects kiln's 
operation.