Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 26 Ž2000.

11–18
www.elsevier.nlrlocaterjpetscieng

Experiences after 10 years of waterflooding the Ekofisk Field,

Norway
H. Hermansen) , G.H. Landa, J.E. Sylte, L.K. Thomas
Phillips Petroleum Company Norway, P.O. Box 220, IndustriÕeien 1, 4098 Tananger, Norway
Received 12 December 1998; accepted 15 December 1999

Abstract

This paper describes the experiences and results after more than 10 years of waterflooding the fractured Ekofisk chalk
formations from a reservoir engineering and reservoir management perspective. Water injection was initiated at Ekofisk in
1987 following two successful pilot projects. The waterflood was implemented in a series of stages, and currently 800,000
BWPD is being injected into the entire vertical column of the reservoir using 38 injectors in a staggered line drive pattern. A
total of 2 billion barrels of water has been injected in the first 10 years of waterflood operations. Field average water
production is currently below 80,000 BWPD. Oil rate responses, GOR declines and low water production rates indicate a
very efficient oil displacement process is occurring. Examples of waterflood performance in terms of areal and vertical
sweep efficiency, production responses and displacement efficiency will be reviewed together with overall reservoir
management aspects including seabed subsidence and reservoir compaction. q 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights
reserved.

Keywords: waterflood; chalk formations; Ekofisk; reservoir

1. Introduction 500 ft with porosities ranging from less than 30% to

The Ekofisk Field is located in the Norwegian
Sector of the North Sea, Fig. 1. The reservoir is an
elongated anticline with the major axis running
North–South covering approximately 12,000 acres,
Fig. 2. It produces from two fractured chalk horizons
the Ekofisk and Tor Formations separated by a tight
zone. The overlying Ekofisk Formation has a depth
of about 9600 ft and varies in thickness from 350 to
)
Corresponding author. Tel.: q47-5202-1843; fax: q47-5202-
1124.
E-mail address: hhroar@ppco.com ŽH. Hermansen..
a maximum of 48%. The underlying Tor Formation
varies in thickness from 250 to 500 ft. Its porosities
range from less than 30% to 40%. Approximately
two thirds of the 7 billion STB hydrocarbon pore
volume in place is found in the Ekofisk Formation.
Ekofisk Field initial reservoir pressure was 7135
psia at a depth of 10,400 ft. The field initially
contained an undersaturated volatile oil with a bub-
ble point pressure of 5560 psia at an initial tempera-
ture of 2688F.
This paper describes the development and opera-
tions of Ekofisk from start of production in 1971 to
current time. Reservoir management strategies and

0920-4105r00r$ - see front matter q 2000 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 2 0 - 4 1 0 5 Ž 0 0 . 0 0 0 1 6 - 4
12 H. Hermansen et al.r Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 26 (2000) 11–18

Laboratory studies to evaluate waterflood poten-

tial were initiated in 1979. Initial laboratory results
indicated favorable water imbibition into the Tor
Formation chalks. A water injection pilot ŽThomas et
al., 1987. was initiated in April, 1981 to confirm
laboratory results and reduce operational risk. The
results were favorable and a decision was made in
1983 to waterflood the northern Tor Formation. A
30-slot water-injection platform, 2r4 K, with an
injection capacity of 375,000 BWPD was approved
for this purpose and water injection commenced in
Fig. 1. Ekofisk index map. 1987. The initial plans for the Tor Formation Water-
flood required use of 20 of the existing slots and
details of reservoir characterization and reservoir approximately half of the injection capacity to de-
simulation are presented. Redevelopment activities velop an estimated 162 MMBOE.
that are currently underway will also be discussed. Encouraged by the positive results of the Tor
Formation water injection pilot, a water injection
pilot ŽSylte et al., 1988. was initiated into the lower
2. Development history one third of the Ekofisk Formation ŽLower Ekofisk
Formation. to question the lower waterflood poten-
The Ekofisk Field ŽSulak, 1990. was discovered
in 1969. Test production was started in 1971 from
the discovery well and three appraisal wells tied into
the converted jackup rig Gulftide to eliminate initial
concerns of well productivity losses due to pressure
depletion and closure of the natural fracture system.
Commercial oil production rates in excess of 10,000
STBrD per well were experienced over several
months and a decision was made in 1972 to develop
the field and drill 30 wells from three platforms and
to install process facilities to handle an oil produc-
tion rate of 300,000 STBrD. The permanent produc-
tion facilities with a total of 54 well slots were
operational in May 1974 and development drilling
was initated June 1974. Oil production peaked at
350,000 STBrD in October 1976 after drilling 30
production wells and eight injectors for gas reinjec-
tion. All produced gas was reinjected until installa-
tion of a gas pipeline to Emden, Germany September
1977. An oil pipeline to Teeside, England was com-
missioned October 1975.
In 1976, the field went through the bubble point
and the field average GOR increased from a solution
GOR of 1500 SCFrSTB to 9000 SCFrSTB in 1986.
The primary depletion recovery factor with gas rein-
jection was initially estimated to be 18% of the
original oil in place of which 6–8% was produced
above the bubble point. Fig. 2. Ekofisk structure map.
 H. Hermansen et al.r Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 26 (2000) 11–18
tial and high variability demonstrated by the labora-
tory results. A successful pilot injection project from
1985 to 1987 concluded that the Lower Ekofisk
Formation responded as favorably as the Tor Forma-
tion. Based on these results it was decided to also
inject water into the Lower Ekofisk Formation and
expand the Tor Formation waterflood field wide
ŽHallenbeck et al., 1989.. This project involved
drilling of 11 additional injectors, commingling se-
lected injectors and modification to the two 15-slot
production platforms, 2r4 and 2r4 C, to allow
drilling of 16 additional production wells to develop
an estimated 192 MMBOE. The drilling of additional
producers was initiated in early 1990.
Further extension and optimization of the water-
flood demonstrated a need for a higher injection
capacity. This work justified the increase in water
injection capacity from 375,000 BWPD to 500,000
BWPD on 2r4 K and provided gas lift facilities on
two production facilities.
Evaluation of waterflooding the upper two thirds
of the Ekofisk Formation ŽUpper Ekofisk Formation.
was initiated in 1990. Upper Ekofisk Formation lab-
oratory data indicated less water wettability than
both the Lower Ekofisk and Tor Formations. A water
injection test was initiated in 1990. Residual oil
saturations were measured in a sidetrack of this well
after 6 months of injection. Results from this pilot
showed that recoveries were again better than labora-
tory measured values and they approached the values
observed in the Lower Ekofisk and Tor formations.
A major field study was then conducted in 1992
which concluded that the most optimum develop-
ment scenario would be to initiate a waterflood in
the Upper Ekofisk Formation as soon as possible by
adding perforations to all existing injectors. Due to
the timing issues a converted drilling rig was brought
in to the Ekofisk Complex and hooked up to the 2r4
K platform supplying an additional 320,000 BWPD
for injection. An estimated 105 MMBOE is expected
to be recovered.
The potential for compaction of high porosity,
overpressured chalk was recognized before the de-
velopment of the Ekofisk Field. Initial development
work, however, assumed that the reservoir com-
paction would not result in seabed subsidence. Sur-
face observations made in 1984 after significant
reservoir pressure depletion demonstrated that the
13
initial assumptions were incorrect. The measured
seabed subsidence of approximately 10 ft in 1984
initiated rock mechanics studies to allow prediction
of future seabed subsidence. These studies concluded
that the steel platforms and the concrete storage tank
needed protection in severe weather. In 1986, it was
decided to jack up the steel platforms and build a
concrete protective barrier around the tank.
A decision was made in 1994 to gradually phase
out existing facilities and install a new wellhead
platform with 50 slots and new process and trans-
portation facilities to provide for a long-term cost-ef-
fective strategy that maximizes ultimate recovery.
Drilling from the new wellhead platform, 2r4 X,
commenced in October 1996. The new process and
transportation facilities were installed August 1998.
The current oil recovery estimate from Ekofisk
field is 38% of the original oil in place. The increase
in recovery from the initial estimate of 18% is due
primarily to the extensive waterflooding, implemen-
tation of an effective well monitoring and stimula-
tion techniques, compaction drive, aggressive infill
drilling, the Ekofisk redevelopment and extended
field life, and overall field optimization.
3. Water injection performance
Currently, 800,000 BWPD is being injected into
the entire vertical column of the reservoir using 38
injectors in a staggered line drive pattern. A total of
2 billion barrels of water has been injected in the
first 10 years of waterflood operations. The Tor
Formation is the most mature waterflood with a total
of 1.1 billion barrels being injected followed by
Lower Ekofisk Formation, 0.5 billion barrels, and
Upper Ekofisk Formation, 0.4 billion barrels. Field
average water production approaches 80,000 BWPD,
Fig. 3, which indicates a very efficient oil displace-
ment and limited water breakthrough even after 10
years of waterflood operations. Fig. 4 shows the
dramatic increase in historical oil production rate
from a low of 70,000 BOPD in 1987 to the current
production level of 290,000 BOPD, which has re-
sulted from the waterflood.
Before initiating a waterflood in the highly frac-
tured chalk formations of the Ekofisk Field, a num-
ber of uncertainties needed to be addressed. These
14 H. Hermansen et al.r Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 26 (2000) 11–18
Fig. 3. Ekofisk water production.
included recovery potential, sweep efficiency, water
injectivity and rock stability. Both laboratory and
pilot injection tests were performed to evaluate these
uncertainties. Initial screening laboratory tests on
spontaneous water imbibition potential indicated that
the underlying Tor Formation had the highest poten-
tial for waterflooding. A pilot injection test was
performed in 1981 to 1984. Interpretation of pilot
results indicated favorable response similar to or in
excess of laboratory results. Throughout the pilot
injection tests stable injection rates of 20,000–25,000
BWPD were maintained at a constant tubing pres-
sure. No plugging, near wellbore stability or scaling
problems were observed through the injection period.
The Ekofisk Formation was initially given lower
waterflood priority based on laboratory spontaneous
imbibition data. However, the large original oil in
place volumes, uncertainty in laboratory results, and
the possibility that other waterflood recovery mecha-
nisms than spontaneous imbibition might play a role
justified a pilot injection test to evaluate field perfor-
mance. Laboratory experiments were performed to
evaluate the forced imbibition portion of the imbibi-
tion capillary pressure curve. Results indicated that
significant additional oil volumes could be mobilized
if high enough pressure gradients existed in the field
andror capillary continuity between matrix blocks
existed. Encouraged by these results the Lower
Ekofisk Formation pilot was initiated in 1985. Inter-
pretation of results and sidetrack drilling into the
waterflooded area indicated similar residual oil satu-
rations as experienced in the Tor Formation. Core
preparation procedures for spontaneous imbibition
tests have since been refined and provide results
more in agreement with in situ observations.
An injectivity test in the Upper Ekofisk Formation
was initiated in 1990. Due to mechanical problems
an injection rate of less than 3000 BWPD was
obtained over a 1-year period. A sidetrack of the
injection well 160 ft away observed lower residual
oil saturations than anticipated from laboratory stud-
ies. However, compared to the Lower Ekofisk and
Tor Formations less favorable results were observed.
The results obtained in this injection test initiated
further studies, which resulted in increased water
injection capacity up to 830,000 BWPD and selec-
tive reperforation of injectors and producers into the
Upper Ekofisk layers.
The response of the field wide water injection has
been very positive and visible. Individual wells have
experienced significant increase in oil rates, dramatic
drops in GOR and limited water breakthrough. Sig-
nificant water breakthrough has been observed in
only few wells and then often related to major fault
and fracture trends.
A major effort has been made to avoid situations
where injectors and producers are in direct commu-
nication along the major fault or fracture trends. In
situations where this has occurred, very rapid break-
through and high water cuts have resulted. A good
example of this is between the water injection well
K-19 and the producer C-06A. Pulse testing and well
performance confirmed direct communication be-
tween these two wells. Well C-06A was subse-
quently sidetracked to a position 400 ft to the west
Ždownstructure. of the original well away from the
mapped fault trends, and this well came in with an
excellent oil rate and essentially with water free
production. Fig. 5 shows a comparison of the long-
term rate performance before and after the sidetrack.
Fig. 4. Ekofisk oil production.
 H. Hermansen et al.r Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 26 (2000) 11–18 15

Fig. 5. 2r4-C06 oil and water production rates before and after
sidetrack in 1995. Fig. 7. 2r4-B03 tritiated water response in weeks after injection.

A tracer slug was injected into well K-04 to efficiency and to provide an injection strategy to
evaluate anisotropy directions in the northeastern maximize recovery. Wells drilled into known flooded
area of the field. As can be seen from Fig. 6, the sections have normally shown excellent vertical
tracer arrived at well C-23 5 weeks after injection at sweep ŽFig. 8.. However, in well B-24C in 1994
a high concentration. Well B-03 is located on the ŽFig. 9., a flooded interval was encountered in the
extension of a fault mapped between K-04 and C-23 middle of an apparently uniform section indicating a
approximately the same distance from the injector, vertical permeability barrier not previously observed
but in the opposite direction of C-23. The tracer
arrived at B-03, however, more than 55 weeks after
injection and at a much lower concentration ŽFig. 7..
These two examples demonstrate the importance
of detailed fault and fracture mapping and a thor-
ough understanding of major stress orientations to
determine important permeability anisotropies. The
first example also highlights the occurrence of high
permeability areas along and within a few hundred
feet of major fracture and faults planes. Continued
efforts in improving capabilities in mapping and
identifying these major features is absolutely critical
to future successful infill drilling at Ekofisk to im-
prove waterflood sweep efficiency.
The vertical distribution of fractures and fracture
intensities are critical to model the vertical sweep

Fig. 6. 2r4-C23 tritiated water response in weeks after injection. Fig. 8. 2r4-B18B waterflooded section.
16 H. Hermansen et al.r Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 26 (2000) 11–18
Fig. 9. 2r4-B24C waterflooded section.
in any other well or significant layering effect due to
variations in fracture intensities. Detailed core and
open hole log analysis work provided a correlation
between groups of lithofacies, fracture and effective
permeability improved the understanding of vertical
permeability variations. However, further work is
needed to improve capabilities in identifying possi-
ble vertical permeability barriers.
4. Reservoir compaction and seabed subsidence
Sea bed subsidence is currently estimated to be 22
ft in the center of the subsidence bowl. Initially,
reservoir compaction was believed to be related to
increase effective stresses due to reservoir pressure
depletion alone ŽJohnson and Rhett, 1986.. After the
implementation of the Ekofisk Waterflood, reservoir
Fig. 10. Ekofisk Field extraction rates. Voidage balanced produc-
tion.
pressure depletion has been stalled and currently the
field is managed in a voidage-balanced mode as
demonstrated in Fig. 10. However, seabed subsi-
dence rates have continued at a fairly constant rate.
Recent information acquired from a dedicated
reservoir compaction monitoring well indicates addi-
tional compaction mechanisms to be active. Cased
hole water saturation logging reveals that intervals
experiencing increasing water saturation maintain a
high compaction rate even at constant pressure,
whereas average compaction rates have decreased to
almost zero in reservoir zones experiencing pressure
maintenance or repressurization and no water break-
through. This would indicate a weakening of the
chalk material when in contact with nonequilibrium
cold seawater. Recent laboratory data also support
these observations.
Uniaxial stress–strain measurements extrapolated
to zero creep are presented in Fig. 11 for a 40%
Fig. 11. Ekofisk uniaxial stress laboratory data for a 40% porosity
chalk sample.
 H. Hermansen et al.r Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 26 (2000) 11–18
Fig. 12. Ekofisk water weakening sensitivity.
porosity chalk sample. These tests show that the
chalk strength decreases with increasing water satu-
ration until a fully water weakened state is reached at
a water saturation of approximately 25%. Incorpora-
tion of this data into the Ekofisk full field reservoir
model in replacement of previous data ŽJohnson and
Rhett, 1986., which was only stress dependent, has
resulted in a much improved match of observed
compaction from the start of the major water injec-
tion in 1989 to present time ŽFig. 12.. Bowl volumes
displayed on this plot are subsidence values. Values
of 1.1 times the subsidence bowl volumes are also
displayed to illustrate the expected range, 1.0–1.1, of
compaction to subsidence volumes.
5. Ekofisk field redevelopment
As part of the Ekofisk field redevelopment a new
wellhead platform, 2r4 X was installed September
1996 and commenced drilling operations October
1996. As of September 1998 a total of 19 new
producing wells have been drilled from the platform
rig and a jack-up rig cantilevered over the well bay
area. Currently 45 wells are planned to be drilled
through 2005 to replace production from the existing
2r4 A and 2r4 B wells of which more than 15 will
be horizontal producers. Detailed optimization work
17
of well locations using the full field Ekofisk 3D
reservoir simulation model calibrated to 25 years of
field performance has realized in excess of 200
MMBOE of additional reserves.
6. Future development opportunities
In 1994 a study was initiated to look at additional
enhanced recovery potential from Ekofisk. Two
schemes were identified for further evaluation: wa-
ter-alternating gas, WAG, and surfactant injection.
Extensive laboratory tests have been performed and
mechanistic and full field simulations have been
made to evaluate these processes.
A WAG pilot was initiated in June 1996 to test
gas injection in well W06, which had been injecting
water since 1991 with a total of 44 million barrels.
This test was unsuccessful, going from an injection
rate of 14 million SCFrday initially to zero in a
matter of hours. Subsequent analysis of the injection
test showed both measured and calculated bottom
hole temperatures of 548F, which are below the
hydrate formation temperature at reservoir pressure.
Simulations were then made to calculate detailed
temperature profiles in the vicinity of the well to
18 H. Hermansen et al.r Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering 26 (2000) 11–18
determine how far away from the well that hydrate-
forming conditions exist. This region was shown to
be several hundred feet, which is to be expected after
5 years of cold water injection. Various remedial
measures were then evaluated for gas injection with
heated water and co-injection of water and gas as the
most likely candidates.
The current plans for Ekofisk include continued
water injection until year 2012. At that point, water
injection will cease, the field will be blown down to
the end of the license period in year 2028. Opportu-
nities will exist to optimize the waterflood with the
drilling of the 2r4 X producers. Also, a major
recompletionrsidetrack program is being evaluated
for a number of existing water injection wells. This
ongoing optimization of the Ekofisk waterflood has
the potential for significant improvement in water-
flood recoveries. Opportunities also exist for opti-
mization of reserves under blowdown, being primar-
ily associated with acceleration of reserves with
additional production wells and enhanced com-
paction drive due to pressure depletion.
7. Conclusions
1. Waterflooding the Ekofisk fractured chalk has
been a success, contributing to the significant in-
crease in oil production rates experienced from 1987.
2. Experiences from almost 10 years of water-
flood operations highlights the importance of de-
tailed reservoir characterization and mapping of fault
and fracture trends to capture areal and vertical
heterogeneities to minimize water breakthrough.
3. A continuation of the detailed geological, geo-
physical and engineering studies will be necessary as
additional wells are drilled to further improve the
understanding of permeability anisotropies.
4. Seabed subsidence and reservoir compaction
continues to be a critical parameter in production
strategy evaluations. Continued subsidence and com-
paction after several years of negative reservoir ex-
traction volumes may result in a future revision of
the current production strategy.
5. Future development opportunities at Ekofisk
include WAG and optimum timing of secondary
depletion.
Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge permission to publish
the above paper from Phillips Petroleum Norway and
Coventurers, including Fina Exploration Norway
SCA, Norsk Agip, Elf Petroleum Norge, Norsk Hy-
dro, and Den norsk stats oljeselskap, TOTAL Norge,
and Saga Petroleum.
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