AS
Biology:
Biodiversity
and
Evolution
 1


Biodiversity



Species:
A
group
of
similar
organisms
able
to
reproduce
and
give
fertile

offspring.


Habitat:
The
area
inhabited
by
a
species.


Biodiversity:
The
variety
of
living
organisms
in
one
area.




Biodiversity
can
means
many
thing,
the
number
of
different
habitats
in
an
area,
the

number
of
different
species
in
an
area,
the
abundance
of
a
specie
in
an
area
and

also
genetic
diversity
–
the
same
species
with
different
genetic
traits.




Sampling:




A
sample
can
be
taken
to
estimate
the
biodiversity
in
an
area.




Methods:
Quadrat
for
plants,
sweepnet
for
flying
insects,
pitfall
trap
for
ground

insects,
net
for
aquatic
animals
etc.




It
needs
to
be
unbiased;
you
should
try
and
make
picking
the
areas
you
sample

as
random
as
possible.




Species
Richness:
Number
of
different
species
in
an
area.

Species
Evenness:
Relative
abundance
of
species.




Simpsons
Index
of
Diversity:

Takes
into
account
species
evenness
and
species
richness.
The
closer
the
final

value
is
to
1
the
more
diversity
there
is.



D
=
1­(Σ(n/N)2)



n=
Total
number
of
individual
in
ONE
species.


N=
Total
number
of
organisms
of
ALL
species.


Σ
=
sum
of



Example:
There
are
6
species
of
slower
in
a
field.
There
are
18
organisms
in
total.




Type
 A
 B
 C
 D
 E
 F

Freq.
 5
 4
 1
 2
 2
 4

(n/N) 
2 0.077
 0.049
 0.003
 0.012
 0.012
 0.049



Σ
=
0.077
+
0.049
+
0.049
+
0.012
+
0.012
+
0.003


Σ
=
0.202

1­0.202
=
0.798

=
Fairly
Diverse










Rebecca
Maynard

AS
Biology:
Biodiversity
and
Evolution
 2


Global
Biodiversity:


This
is
the
total
number
of
named
and
unnamed
species
on
Earth.




There
are
between
1.5
and
1.75
million
named
species.
(scientists
are
not
sure

because
there
is
not
one
central
database
and
some
disagree
about

classification.)



Scientists
have
estimated
there
are
between
5
million
and
100
million
species
on

Earth.
Recent
estimates
are
around
14
million.
(There
is
such
a
range
because

they
have
different
techniques
to
make
their
estimates,
biodiversity
is
greater

closer
to
the
equator
and
most
areas
of
the
rain
forest
is
unexplored,
little
is

known
about
very
small
organisms)











































































Rebecca
Maynard

AS
Biology:
Biodiversity
and
Evolution
 3


Classification



Classification:
Is
the
act
of
arranging
organisms
into
groups
based
on
their

similarities
and
differences.




Phylogeny:
Is
the
study
of
the
evolutionary
history
of
groups
of
organisms.


It
shows
that
all
organisms
came
from
one
common
ancestor.
We
can
tell
how

closely
two
organisms
are
related
to
each
other.




Taxonomy:
The
study
of
all
classification.




The
classification
system
now
takes
into
account
phylogeny
when
arranging

organisms
into
groups.




Taxonomic
Hierarchy:




There
are
eight
levels
of
taxonomic
groups.




Domain

Kingdom

Phylum

Class

Order

Family

Genus

Species



Don’t
Knock
Phillips
Carefully
Ordered
Family
Games
Selection



Five
Kingdoms:




Kingdom
 Examples
 Features

Prokaryotae

 Bacteria
 Prokaryotic,
unicellular,
no

nucleus

Protoctista
 Algae,
Protozoa
 Usually
live
in
water,
single‐
celled
or
simple.

Fungi
 Moulds,
yeasts,
mushrooms
 Chitin
cell
wall,
saprotrophic

(absorbs
substances
from

dead
of
decaying
organisms)

Plantae
 Mosses,
ferns,
flowering
plants.

 Multi‐cellular,
Cellulose
cell

wall,
can
photosynthesise,

autotrophic
(make
own
food)

Animalia
 Mollusks,
insects,
fish,
mammals,
 No
cell
wall,
multi‐cellular,

birds,
reptiles.

 heterotrophic
(consume

plants
and
animals
for
food.)






Rebecca
Maynard

AS
Biology:
Biodiversity
and
Evolution
 4




Binomial
Naming
System:




1) The
nomenclature
(naming
system)
used
for
classification
is
called
the

binomial
naming
system.


2) Everyone
organism
is
given
an
internationally
accepted
two‐parts
Latin

scientific
name.


3) The
first
part
is
the
genus
and
has
a
capital
letter.
The
second
part
is
the

species
name
and
has
a
lower
case
letter.
Eg.
Homo
Sapiens.


4) Names
are
always
in
italics
unless
handwritten
where
they
underlined.

5) This
prevents
confusion.
For
example,
there
are
over
100
different

species
of
raspberry
and
one
species
of
buttercup
with
90
common

names.




Dichotomous
Keys:




A
way
to
identify
organisms
based
on
observable
features.


They
consist
of
a
series
of
questions
with
only
2
answers.
An
answer
will
yield

either
the
name
of
an
organism
or
a
direction
to
move
onto
another
question.




Classification
Systems
have
become
more
Advanced:




Early
classification
relied
on
observable
features
only.
However,
scientists
could

not
agree
on
the
relative
importance
of
features
to
determine
groupings.


Now
there
are
several
other
ways
to
make
groupings
such
as:


1) Molecular
evidence
–
DNA

2) Embryological
evidence
–
looking
at
how
similar
organisms
are
in
early

development.


3) Anatomical
evidence
–
similarities
in
structure
and
function
of
different

parts
of
the
body.

4) Behavioral
Evidence
–
behavior
and
social
organisations
evidence
eg.

Pack
animal
vs.
lone
animal.




Five
Kingdoms
vs
Three
Domains:



The
Three
Domain
system
was
suggested
in
1990.
Previously
the
largest
groups

were
the
kingdoms.
In
the
Three
Domain
system
organisms
with
cells
that

contain
a
nucleus
go
into
the
Eukarya
domain,
which
contains
4
of
the
5

kingdoms.
The
last
kingdom
–
Prokaryotae
(which
contained
unicellular

organisms
with
no
nucleus)
are
separated
into
two
domains
–
the
Archaea
and

Bacteria.


This
change
was
proposed
because
the
kingdom
Prokaryotae
showed
such
large

differences
between
Archaea
and
Bacteria
(from
molecular
and
cell
membrane

evidence)
Archaea
are
arguably
closer
to
Eukarya
than
bacteria.
This
Three

Domain
system
reflects
this
difference.











Rebecca
Maynard

AS
Biology:
Biodiversity
and
Evolution
 5


Evolution



Variation:
The
differences
that
exist
between
individuals.


1) Within
species:
called
intraspecific
variation.


2) Between
species:
called
interspecific
variation.




Variation
can
be
continuous
or
discontinuous
for
example
in
humans,
height
and

weight
is
continuous
because
there
are
no
distinct
categories.
Blood
type
is

discontinuous
because
there
are
distinct
categories.




Examples
of
continuous
variation:
milk
yield,
mass,
number
of
leaves,
width,

length.



Examples
of
discontinuous
variation:
sex,
blood
group,
colour,
seed
shape,

antibiotic
resistance,
pigment
production.




Genetic
and
Environmental
Factors:



Genetic
Factors:

1) Different
species
can
have
different
genes.


2) Same
genes
but
different
alleles
in
one
species.



Environmental
Factors:

1) Differences
in
environment,
climate,
food,
lifestyle
etc





Both:


1) Height
can
be
genetic
but
also
due
to
lifestyle
eg.
How
much
calcium
you

intake.


2) Genetics
may
allow
a
microorganism
to
grow
a
flagellum
but
they
may

only
be
able
to
in
some
environments
eg.
If
metal
ions
are
present.




Adaptations:




Adaptations
are
changes
that
help
the
organism
survive
and
reproduce
better.


Adaptations
develop
because
of
evolution
by
natural
selection.




1) Behavioural
Adaptations:
eg.
Possums
play
dead
when
under
threat.

Scorpions
dance
before
mating
to
make
sure
they
are
mating
something

of
the
same
species.


2) Physiological
Adaptations:
Processes
inside
the
body
that
will
help

survival.
Brown
bears
hibernate
–
this
lowers
their
metabolism
over

winter.
This
conserves
energy
so
they
don’t
need
to
look
for
food
in

winter.
This
increases
survival
chances.

3) Anatomical
Adaptations:
structural
features
of
animals
eg.
Insects
that

develop
camouflage
or
whales
that
develop
a
thick
layer
of
blubber
to

keep
them
warm.









Rebecca
Maynard

AS
Biology:
Biodiversity
and
Evolution
 6


Darwin’s
Theory
of
Evolution
by
Natural
Selection:



Observations:


1) Organisms
produce
more
offspring
than
survive.

2) There’s
variation
in
the
characteristics
of
members
of
one
species.

3) Some
of
these
characteristics
are
passed
from
one
generation
to
the
next.

4) Individuals
that
are
best
adapted
to
their
environment
are
more
likely
to

survive.



Theory:

1) Individuals
within
a
population
show
variation
in
their
phenotype.

2) Predation,
disease
and
competition
create
a
struggle
for
survival.

3) Individuals
with
adaptations
to
resist
the
above
are
more
likely
to
survive

and
to
reproduce
and
pass
on
characteristics.


4) Over
time
the
number
with
advantageous
characteristics
increases.

5) Over
generations
this
leads
to
evolution
as
favourable
adaptations

become
more
common.




At
first
their
was
conflict
to
Darwin’s
theory
as
it
contradicted
religious
beliefs.





Speciation:
Speciation
is
the
formation
of
a
new
species.
It
occurs
when

populations
of
one
species
become
some
different
they
can
no
longer
breed.




Support
of
ToE:



Fossil
Record
Evidence:
By
arranging
fossils
in
order
of
age
we
can
see
gradual

changes
in
organisms
that
provide
evidence
of
evolution.




DNA
Evidence:
The
theory
of
evolution
states
all
organisms
developed
from

common
ancestors.
Closely
related
species
diverged
more
recently.
So
organisms

that
diverged
more
recently
have
DNA
more
similar.




Molecular
Evidence:
Scientists
compare
sequence
of
amino
acids
in
proteins
and

compare
antibodies.
Organisms
that
diverged
more
recently
have
more
similar

molecules.




Evolving
Resistance:




Some
populations
of
bacteria
can
and
have
evolved
resistance
to
antibiotics.
This

is
because
there
is
variation
in
the
population
of
bacteria.
Genetic
mutations

mean
some
become
resistant
to
antibiotics
(or
that
the
antibiotics
will
take

longer
to
kill
them).
If
the
population
of
bacteria
is
exposed
to
that
antibiotic

only
the
ones
resistant
will
survive.
They
will
reproduce
–
creating
many
more

resistant
bacteria.




This
means
infections
are
becoming
harder
to
treat
and
it
takes
doctors
longer
to

find
cures.
If
a
bacteria
has
become
resistant
to
all
known
antibiotics
new
ones

must
be
developed
which
is
expensive
and
time
consuming.




Rebecca
Maynard

AS
Biology:
Biodiversity
and
Evolution
 7




The
same
is
true
with
pesticides
and
insects.
It
means
crop
infestations
with

pesticide
resistant
insects
are
much
harder
to
control
and
take
a
lot
longer
to

treat
–
which
means
more
crops
are
destroyed.
Farmers
may
need
to
use

broader
pesticides
–
that
kill
all
insects
including
beneficial
ones.


When
disease
carrying
insects
become
immune
the
spread
of
disease
can

increase.























































































Rebecca
Maynard

AS
Biology:
Biodiversity
and
Evolution
 8



 Maintaining
Biodiversity



Importance
of
Biodiversity:




Economic
Reasons:
Food,
drink,
textiles,
drugs,
renewable
fuels,
wood,
paper,

dyes,
adhesives,
oils,
rubber
and
pesticides
can
all
come
from
animals
and
plants.



Ecological
Reasons:
Disruption
of
food
chain
can
cause
death
among
the
food

chain
from
over
hunting
or
starvation
due
of
lack
of
food.


Disruption
of
nutrient
cycle
–
for
example
if
a
worm
population
dies
out

somewhere
the
soil
quality
will
decline,
this
will
affect
growth
of
plants
and
the

amount
of
food
available
to
animals.




Ethical
Reasons:
Organisms
have
a
right
to
exits
–
they
should
not
become

extinct
because
of
our
activities.
This
can
be
for
moral
or
religious
reasons.




Aesthetic
Reasons:
Biodiversity
normally
means
a
more
attractive

environment.




Agriculture:


‐Many
fruits
and
vegetables
are
pollinated
by
insects.


‐It
means
a
greater
variety
of
food
and
nutrients.


‐Many
pests
have
natural
predators
eg
slug‐>bird.

‐Cross
breeding
can
produce
offspring
with
more
desirable
qualities.


‐A
variety
of
crops
means
if
a
disease
kills
one
type
of
crop,
others
might

be
okay.



Climate
Change:



Most
species
need
a
specific
climate
to
survive.
Climate
change
means

inhabitable
areas
become
uninhabitable
and
visa
versa.
This
may
increase
or

decrease
the
range
of
some
species,
increasing
or
decreasing
biodiversity.
If
the

species
cannot
migrate
or
the
change
is
too
fast
species
may
become
extinct

decreasing
biodiversity.




The
range
of
insects
that
carry
disease
could
become
greater.
For
example,
if

previously
cold
areas
become
warmer,
insects
that
thrive
in
warm
environments

may
start
appearing
in
the
newly
warm
area,
spreading
diseases
they
carry.
The

organisms
in
this
environment
may
not
be
resistant
to
this
disease
and
may
be

killed
off,
decreasing
biodiversity.




Areas
that
were
previously
un‐farmable
may
become
hotter
or
colder,
wetter
or

dryer
and
become
more
farmable.
This
increases
biodiversity
in
that
area.




Changes
of
where
crops
grow
or
where
animals
can
live
may
disrupt
food
chains.




Extreme
weather
and
unexpected
conditions
can
also
have
devastating
effects.







Rebecca
Maynard

AS
Biology:
Biodiversity
and
Evolution
 9




Conservation
of
Endangered
Species:



In
Situ
Conservation:
Keeps
species
in
their
natural
habitat.


1) Establish
protected
areas.

2) Preventing
introduction
of
species
that
will
threaten
protected
species.


3) Protecting
habitats.


4) Restoring
damaged
areas.


5) Promoting
species
eg.
giving
food
sources
or
nesting
sites.


6) Legal
protection.




Advantages:


1) Species
and
habitat
conserved.


2) Larger
populations
can
be
looked
after.

3) Less
disruptive.


4) Population
recovery
is
more
likely.




Disadvantages:


1) Can
be
very
difficult
to
control
and
implement.






In
Situ
Conservation:
Removes
species
from
natural
habitat.

1) Relocating
organisms
to
safer
area
for
example
White
Rhinos
relocated

from
the
Congo
to
Kenya
because
they
were
in
danger
from
poachers.

2) Breeding
in
captivity
and
re‐introduction
when
numbers
are
stronger.

3) Botanic
Gardens
are
controlled
environments
to
grow
rare
species
of

plants
that
would
struggle
to
exist
in
the
wild.


4) Seed
banks
–
seeds
can
be
frozen
and
stored
for
over
a
century
without

loosing
fertility.
This
is
helpful
if
natural
reserves
are
destroyed.




Advantages:


1) Protect
animals
in
a
controlled
environment.


2) Predation
and
hunting
easily
controlled.

3) You
can
re‐introduce
a
species
that
left
an
area.




Disadvantages:


1) Only
small
numbers
of
organisms
can
be
kept.


2) It’s
often
less
successful
as
the
animals
may
not
be
able
to
adapt
to
the

new
environment
or
breed.




International
Co­Operation:




Without
international
co‐operation
even
if
one
country
is
trying
to
protect

species
in
another
country
they
may
not
implement
the
same
schemes
and

populations
of
organisms
can
be
killed.











Rebecca
Maynard

AS
Biology:
Biodiversity
and
Evolution
 10


Rio
Convention
on
Biodiversity:
Aims
to
develop
strategies
on
the
conservation
of

biodiversity
and
how
to
use
animal
and
plant
resources
in
a
sustainable
way.
The

convention
made
it
part
of
the
international
law
that
conservation
is
everyone’s

responsibility.
It
provides
guidance
to
governments
on
how
to
conserve.




CITES
Agreement:
An
agreement
designed
to
increase
international
co‐operation

in
regulating
trade
in
wild
animals
and
plant
specimens.
Member
countries
made

it
illegal
to
kill
endangered
species.
It
brought
in
licensing
to
trade
animal
and

plant
resources
and
made
the
trade
of
endangered
species
parts
illegal
(eg.

Rhino
ivory)
It
is
also
designed
to
raise
awareness.




Environmental
Impact
Assessment:




An
EIA
is
an
assessment
of
the
impact
of
a
development
project
might
have
on

the
environment.




1) Estimating
biodiversity
on
the
project
site
and
evaluating
how
the

development
will
impact
biodiversity.


2) Identifying
ways
biodiversity
might
be
maintained.


3) Identifying
endangered
or
threatened
species
on
project
area.

4) Deciding
on
planning
stipulations.
Eg.
Relocation
or
protection.



Rebecca
Maynard