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Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier
David - Retrato de Monsieur Lavoisier (recortado) .jpg
Retrato de Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier y su esposa por Jacques-Louis David (detalle)
Nació 26 de agosto de 1743
París , Francia
Murió 8 de mayo de 1794 (50 años)
París, Francia
Causa de la muerte Ejecución por guillotina
Lugar de descanso Catacumbas de París
alma mater Collège des Quatre-Nations , Universidad de París
Conocido por
Ácidos y bases
Combustión
Calorimetría
Ciclo del carbono
Análisis elemental
Gasómetro
Oxígeno identificado
Hidrógeno identificado
Reacciones redox
Estequiometria
Ley de Conservación de la masa
Termoquímica
Esposos) Marie-Anne Paulze Lavoisier (casada entre 1771 y 1794)
Carrera científica
Los campos Biólogo, químico
Estudiantes notables Éleuthère Irénée du Pont
Influences Guillaume-François Rouelle, Étienne Condillac
Signature
Antoine Lavoisier Signature.svg
Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier ( francés: [ɑtwan lɔʁɑ də lavwazje] Reino Unido : / l
æ v w ʌ z i eɪ / lav- WUZ -ee-ay , [1] de Estados Unidos : / l ə v w ɑː z i eɪ /
lə- VWAH -zee-ay , [2] [3] ; 26 de agosto de 1743 - 8 de mayo de 1794), [4] también
Antoine Lavoisier después de la Revolución Francesa , fue unNoble y químico francés
que fue fundamental en la revolución química del siglo XVIII y que tuvo una gran
influencia tanto en la historia de la química como en la historia de la biología .
[5] Se acepta generalmente que los grandes logros de Lavoisier en química se
derivan en gran parte de su cambio de ciencia de una cualitativa a una cuantitativa
. Lavoisier es más conocido por su descubrimiento del papel que juega el oxígeno en
la combustión . Reconoció y nombró oxígeno (1778) e hidrógeno (1783), y se opuso a
la teoría del flogisto . Lavoisier ayudó a construir elsistema métrico , escribió
la primera lista extensa de elementos y ayudó a reformar la nomenclatura química .
Predijo la existencia del silicio (1787) [6] y descubrió que, aunque la materia
puede cambiar de forma o forma, su masa siempre permanece igual .
Lavoisier era un miembro poderoso de varios consejos aristocráticos y administrador
de la Ferme générale . La Ferme générale fue uno de los componentes más odiados del
Antiguo Régimen por las ganancias que obtuvo a expensas del Estado, el secreto de
los términos de sus contratos y la violencia de sus agentes armados. [7] Todas
estas actividades políticas y económicas le permitieron financiar su investigación
científica. En el apogeo de la Revolución Francesa, fue acusado de fraude fiscal y
venta de tabaco adulterado , y fue guillotinado .

Contenido
1 Biografía
1.1 Temprana edad y educación
1.2 Trabajo científico temprano
1.3 Lavoisier como reformador social
1.3.1 Investigación en beneficio del bien público
1.3.2 Patrocinio de las ciencias
1.4 Ferme générale y matrimonio
1,5 Adulteración del tabaco
1,6 Real Comisión de Agricultura
1,7 Comisión de la pólvora
1.8 Durante la revolución
1,9 Días finales y ejecución
1.9.1 Post mortem
2 Contribuciones a la química
2.1 Teoría de la combustión del oxígeno
2.1.1 El "aire fijo" de Joseph Black
2.1.2 Joseph Priestley
2.2 Pionero de la estequiometría
2.3 Nomenclatura química
2.4 Revolución química y oposición
3 Obras destacadas
3.1 Memorias de pascua
3.2 Desmantelando la teoría del flogisto
3.3 Tratado elemental de química
3.4 Trabajo fisiológico
4 Legado
5 Premios y honores
6 Escritos seleccionados
6.1 En traducción
7 Ver también
8 Notas
9 Otras lecturas
10 enlaces externos
Biografía

El Collège des Quatre-Nations en París

Temprana edad y educación
Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier was born to a wealthy family of the nobility in Paris on
26 August 1743. The son of an attorney at the Parlement of Paris, he inherited a
large fortune at the age of five upon the death of his mother.[8] Lavoisier began
his schooling at the Collège des Quatre-Nations, University of Paris (also known as
the Collège Mazarin) in Paris in 1754 at the age of 11. In his last two years
(1760–1761) at the school, his scientific interests were aroused, and he studied
chemistry, botany, astronomy, and mathematics. In the philosophy class he came
under the tutelage of Abbé Nicolas Louis de Lacaille, a distinguished mathematician
and observational astronomer who imbued the young Lavoisier with an interest in
meteorological observation, an enthusiasm which never left him. Lavoisier entered
the school of law, where he received a bachelor's degree in 1763 and a licentiate
in 1764. Lavoisier received a law degree and was admitted to the bar, but never
practiced as a lawyer. However, he continued his scientific education in his spare
time.

Early scientific work

Lavoisier's education was filled with the ideals of the French Enlightenment of the
time, and he was fascinated by Pierre Macquer's dictionary of chemistry. He
attended lectures in the natural sciences. Lavoisier's devotion and passion for
chemistry were largely influenced by Étienne Condillac, a prominent French scholar
of the 18th century. His first chemical publication appeared in 1764. From 1763 to
1767, he studied geology under Jean-Étienne Guettard. In collaboration with
Guettard, Lavoisier worked on a geological survey of Alsace-Lorraine in June 1767.
In 1764 he read his first paper to the French Academy of Sciences, France's most
elite scientific society, on the chemical and physical properties of gypsum
(hydrated calcium sulfate), and in 1766 he was awarded a gold medal by the King for
an essay on the problems of urban street lighting. In 1768 Lavoisier received a
provisional appointment to the Academy of Sciences.[9] In 1769, he worked on the
first geological map of France.

Lavoisier as a social reformer

Lavoisier conducting an experiment on respiration in the 1770s

Research benefitting the public good
While Lavoisier is commonly known for his contributions to the sciences, he also
dedicated a significant portion of his fortune and work toward benefitting the
public.[10][11][12][13] Lavoisier was a humanitarian—he cared deeply about the
people in his country and often concerned himself with improving the livelihood of
the population by agriculture, industry, and the sciences.[11] The first instance
of this occurred in 1765, when he submitted an essay on improving urban street
lighting to the French Academy of Sciences.[11][12][13]

Three years later in 1768, he focused on a new project to design an aqueduct. The
goal was to bring water from the river Yvette into Paris so that the citizens could
have clean drinking water. But, since the construction never commenced, he instead
turned his focus to purifying the water from the Seine. This was the project that
interested Lavoisier in the chemistry of water and public sanitation duties.[13]

Additionally, he was interested in air quality and spent some time studying the
health risks associated with gunpowder's effect on the air.[12] In 1772, he
performed a study on how to reconstruct the Hôtel-Dieu hospital, after it had been
damaged by fire, in a way that would allow proper ventilation and clean air
throughout.[13]

At the time, the prisons in Paris were known to be largely unlivable and the
prisoners' treatment inhumane.[10] Lavoisier took part in investigations in 1780
(and again in 1791) on the hygiene in prisons and had made suggestions to improve
living conditions, suggestions which were largely ignored.[10][13]

Once a part of the Academy, Lavoisier also held his own competitions to push the
direction of research towards bettering the public and his own work.[12] One such
project he proposed in 1793 was to better public health on the "insalubrious arts".

Sponsorship of the sciences

Lavoisier had a vision of public education having roots in "scientific sociability"
and philanthropy.[12]

Lavoisier gained a vast majority of his income through buying stock in the General
Farm, which allowed him to work on science full-time, live comfortably, and allowed
him to contribute financially to better the community.[13] (It would also
contribute to his demise during the Reign of Terror many years later.[14])
It was very difficult to secure public funding for the sciences at the time, and
additionally not very financially profitable for the average scientist, so
Lavoisier used his wealth to open a very expensive and sophisticated laboratory in
France so that aspiring scientists could study without the barriers of securing
funding for their research.[10][13]

He also pushed for public education in the sciences. He founded two organizations,
Lycée [fr] and Musée des Arts et Métiers, which were created to serve as
educational tools for the public. Funded by the wealthy and noble, the Lycée
regularly taught courses to the public beginning in 1793.[12]

Ferme générale and marriage

Portrait of Lavoisier explaining to his wife the result of his experiments on air
by Ernest Board
At the age of 26, around the time he was elected to the Academy of Sciences,
Lavoisier bought a share in the Ferme générale, a tax farming financial company
which advanced the estimated tax revenue to the royal government in return for the
right to collect the taxes. On behalf of the Ferme générale Lavoisier commissioned
the building of a wall around Paris so that customs duties could be collected from
those transporting goods into and out of the city.[15] His participation in the
collection of its taxes did not help his reputation when the Reign of Terror began
in France, as taxes and poor government reform were the primary motivators during
the French Revolution.

Lavoisier consolidated his social and economic position when, in 1771 at age 28, he
married Marie-Anne Pierrette Paulze, the 13-year-old daughter of a senior member of
the Ferme générale.[4] She was to play an important part in Lavoisier's scientific
career—notably, she translated English documents for him, including Richard
Kirwan's Essay on Phlogiston and Joseph Priestley's research. In addition, she
assisted him in the laboratory and created many sketches and carved engravings of
the laboratory instruments used by Lavoisier and his colleagues for their
scientific works. Madame Lavoisier edited and published Antoine's memoirs (whether
any English translations of those memoirs have survived is unknown as of today) and
hosted parties at which eminent scientists discussed ideas and problems related to
chemistry.[16]

A portrait of Antoine and Marie-Anne Lavoisier was painted by the famed artist
Jacques-Louis David. Completed in 1788 on the eve of the Revolution, the painting
was denied a customary public display at the Paris Salon for fear that it might
inflame anti-aristocratic passions.[17]

For three years following his entry into the Ferme générale, Lavoisier's scientific
activity diminished somewhat, for much of his time was taken up with official Ferme
générale business. He did, however, present one important memoir to the Academy of
Sciences during this period, on the supposed conversion of water into earth by
evaporation. By a very precise quantitative experiment, Lavoisier showed that the
"earthy" sediment produced after long-continued reflux heating of water in a glass
vessel was not due to a conversion of the water into earth but rather to the
gradual disintegration of the inside of the glass vessel produced by the boiling
water. He also attempted to introduce reforms in the French monetary and taxation
system to help the peasants.

Adulteration of tobacco
The Farmers General held a monopoly of the production, import and sale of tobacco
in France, and the taxes they levied on tobacco brought revenues of 30 million
livres a year. This revenue began to fall because of a growing black market in
tobacco that was smuggled and adulterated, most commonly with ash and water.
Lavoisier devised a method of checking whether ash had been mixed in with tobacco:
"When a spirit of vitriol, aqua fortis or some other acid solution is poured on
ash, there is an immediate very intense effervescent reaction, accompanied by an
easily detected noise." Lavoisier also noticed that the addition of a small amount
of ash improved the flavour of tobacco. Of one vendor selling adulterated goods, he
wrote "His tobacco enjoys a very good reputation in the province... the very small
proportion of ash that is added gives it a particularly pungent flavour that
consumers look for. Perhaps the Farm could gain some advantage by adding a bit of
this liquid mixture when the tobacco is fabricated." Lavoisier also found that
while adding a lot of water to bulk the tobacco up would cause it to ferment and
smell bad, the addition of a very small amount improved the product. Thereafter the
factories of the Farmers General added, as he recommended, a consistent 6.3% of
water by volume to the tobacco they processed.[18] To allow for this addition, the
Farmers General delivered to retailers seventeen ounces of tobacco while only
charging for sixteen.[19] To ensure that only these authorised amounts were added,
and to exclude the black market, Lavoisier saw to it that a watertight system of
checks, accounts, supervision and testing made it very difficult for retailers to
source contraband tobacco or to improve their profits by bulking it up. He was
energetic and rigorous in implementing this, and the systems he introduced were
deeply unpopular with the tobacco retailers across the country. This unpopularity
was to have consequences for him during the French Revolution.[20]

Royal Commission on Agriculture

Lavoisier urged the establishment of a Royal Commission on Agriculture. He then
served as its Secretary and spent considerable sums of his own money in order to
improve the agricultural yields in the Sologne, an area where farmland was of poor
quality. The humidity of the region often led to a blight of the rye harvest,
causing outbreaks of ergotism among the population. In 1788 Lavoisier presented a
report to the Commission detailing ten years of efforts on his experimental farm to
introduce new crops and types of livestock. His conclusion was that despite the
possibilities of agricultural reforms, the tax system left tenant farmers with so
little that it was unrealistic to expect them to change their traditional
practices.[21]

Gunpowder Commission

Éleuthère Irénée du Pont (right) and mentor Antoine Lavoisier

Lavoisier's researches on combustion were carried out in the midst of a very busy
schedule of public and private duties, especially in connection with the Ferme
Générale. There were also innumerable reports for and committees of the Academy of
Sciences to investigate specific problems on order of the royal government.
Lavoisier, whose organizing skills were outstanding, frequently landed the task of
writing up such official reports. In 1775 he was made one of four commissioners of
gunpowder appointed to replace a private company, similar to the Ferme Générale,
which had proved unsatisfactory in supplying France with its munitions
requirements. As a result of his efforts, both the quantity and quality of French
gunpowder greatly improved, and it became a source of revenue for the government.
His appointment to the Gunpowder Commission brought one great benefit to
Lavoisier's scientific career as well. As a commissioner, he enjoyed both a house
and a laboratory in the Royal Arsenal. Here he lived and worked between 1775 and
1792.

Lavoisier was a formative influence in the formation of the Du Pont gunpowder

business because he trained Éleuthère Irénée du Pont, its founder, on gunpowder-
making in France; the latter said that the Du Pont gunpowder mills "would never
have been started but for his kindness to me."[22]: 40 

During the Revolution

In June 1791, Lavoisier made a loan of 71,000 livres to Pierre Samuel du Pont de
Nemours to buy a printing works so that du Pont could publish a newspaper, La
Correspondance Patriotique. The plan was for this to include both reports of
debates in the National Constituent Assembly as well as papers from the Academy of
Sciences.[23] The revolution quickly disrupted the elder du Pont's first newspaper,
but his son E.I. du Pont soon launched Le Republicain and published Lavoisier's
latest chemistry texts.[22]: 15 

Lavoisier also chaired the commission set up to establish a uniform system of

weights and measures[24][25] which in March 1791 recommended the adoption of the
metric system.[26] The new system of weights and measures was adopted by the
Convention on 1 August 1793.[27] Lavoisier himself was removed from the commission
on weights and measures on 23 December 1793, together with mathematician Pierre-
Simon Laplace and several other members, for political reasons.[25]

One of his last major works was a proposal to the National Convention for the
reform of French education. He also intervened on behalf of a number of foreign-
born scientists including mathematician Joseph Louis Lagrange, helping to exempt
them from a mandate stripping all foreigners of possessions and freedom.[28]

Final days and execution

Lavoisier, by Jacques-Léonard Maillet, ca 1853, among culture heroes in the

Louvre's Cour Napoléon
As the French Revolution gained momentum, attacks mounted on the deeply unpopular
Ferme générale, and it was eventually abolished in March 1791.[29] In 1792
Lavoisier was forced to resign from his post on the Gunpowder Commission and to
move from his house and laboratory at the Royal Arsenal. On 8 August 1793, all the
learned societies, including the Academy of Sciences, were suppressed at the
request of Abbé Grégoire.[27]

On 24 November 1793, the arrest of all the former tax farmers was ordered.
Lavoisier and the other Farmers General faced nine accusations of defrauding the
state of money owed to it, and of adding water to tobacco before selling it.
Lavoisier drafted their defense, refuting the financial accusations, reminding the
court of how they had maintained a consistently high quality of tobacco. The court
was however inclined to believe that by condemning them and seizing their goods, it
would recover huge sums for the state.[19] Lavoisier was convicted and guillotined
on 8 May 1794 in Paris, at the age of 50, along with his 27 co-defendants.[30]

According to popular legend, the appeal to spare his life so that he could continue
his experiments was cut short by the judge, Coffinhal: "La République n'a pas
besoin de savants ni de chimistes; le cours de la justice ne peut être suspendu."
("The Republic needs neither scholars nor chemists; the course of justice cannot be
delayed.")[31] The judge Coffinhal himself would be executed less than three months
later, in the wake of the Thermidorian reaction.

Lavoisier's importance to science was expressed by Lagrange who lamented the

beheading by saying: "Il ne leur a fallu qu'un moment pour faire tomber cette tête,
et cent années peut-être ne suffiront pas pour en reproduire une semblable." ("It
took them only an instant to cut off this head, and one hundred years might not
suffice to reproduce its like.")[32][33]

Post-mortem
A year and a half after his execution, Lavoisier was completely exonerated by the
French government. During the White Terror, his belongings were delivered to his
widow. A brief note was included, reading "To the widow of Lavoisier, who was
falsely convicted".[34]

About a century after his death, a statue of Lavoisier was erected in Paris. It was
later discovered that the sculptor had not actually copied Lavoisier's head for the
statue, but used a spare head of the Marquis de Condorcet, the Secretary of the
Academy of Sciences during Lavoisier's last years.[citation needed] Lack of money
prevented alterations from being made. The statue was melted down during the Second
World War and has not been replaced. One of the main "lycées" (high schools) in
Paris and a street in the 8th arrondissement are named after Lavoisier, and statues
of him are found on the Hôtel de Ville and on the façade of the Cour Napoléon of
the Louvre. His name is one of the 72 names of eminent French scientists, engineers
and mathematicians inscribed on the Eiffel Tower as well as on buildings around
Killian Court at MIT in Cambridge, MA.

Contributions to chemistry
Oxygen theory of combustion

Antoine Lavoisier's phlogiston experiment. Engraving by Mme Lavoisier in the 1780s

taken from Traité Élémentaire de Chimie (Elementary treatise on chemistry)
During late 1772 Lavoisier turned his attention to the phenomenon of combustion,
the topic on which he was to make his most significant contribution to science. He
reported the results of his first experiments on combustion in a note to the
Academy on 20 October, in which he reported that when phosphorus burned, it
combined with a large quantity of air to produce acid spirit of phosphorus, and
that the phosphorus increased in weight on burning. In a second sealed note
deposited with the Academy a few weeks later (1 November) Lavoisier extended his
observations and conclusions to the burning of sulfur and went on to add that "what
is observed in the combustion of sulfur and phosphorus may well take place in the
case of all substances that gain in weight by combustion and calcination: and I am
persuaded that the increase in weight of metallic calces is due to the same cause."

Joseph Black's "fixed air"

During 1773 Lavoisier determined to review thoroughly the literature on air,
particularly "fixed air," and to repeat many of the experiments of other workers in
the field. He published an account of this review in 1774 in a book entitled
Opuscules physiques et chimiques (Physical and Chemical Essays). In the course of
this review, he made his first full study of the work of Joseph Black, the Scottish
chemist who had carried out a series of classic quantitative experiments on the
mild and caustic alkalies. Black had shown that the difference between a mild
alkali, for example, chalk (CaCO3), and the caustic form, for example, quicklime
(CaO), lay in the fact that the former contained "fixed air," not common air fixed
in the chalk, but a distinct chemical species, now understood to be carbon dioxide
(CO2), which was a constituent of the atmosphere. Lavoisier recognized that Black's
fixed air was identical with the air evolved when metal calces were reduced with
charcoal and even suggested that the air which combined with metals on calcination
and increased the weight might be Black's fixed air, that is, CO2.

Joseph Priestley
Main article: Joseph Priestley

Joseph Priestley, an English chemist known for isolating oxygen, which he termed
"dephlogisticated air"
In the spring of 1774, Lavoisier carried out experiments on the calcination of tin
and lead in sealed vessels, the results of which conclusively confirmed that the
increase in weight of metals in combustion was due to combination with air. But the
question remained about whether it was in combination with common atmospheric air
or with only a part of atmospheric air. In October the English chemist Joseph
Priestley visited Paris, where he met Lavoisier and told him of the air which he
had produced by heating the red calx of mercury with a burning glass and which had
supported combustion with extreme vigor. Priestley at this time was unsure of the
nature of this gas, but he felt that it was an especially pure form of common air.
Lavoisier carried out his own researches on this peculiar substance. The result was
his memoir On the Nature of the Principle Which Combines with Metals during Their
Calcination and Increases Their Weight, read to the Academy on 26 April 1775
(commonly referred to as the Easter Memoir). In the original memoir Lavoisier
showed that the mercury calx was a true metallic calx in that it could be reduced
with charcoal, giving off Black's fixed air in the process.[35] When reduced
without charcoal, it gave off an air which supported respiration and combustion in
an enhanced way. He concluded that this was just a pure form of common air and that
it was the air itself "undivided, without alteration, without decomposition" which
combined with metals on calcination.

After returning from Paris, Priestley took up once again his investigation of the
air from mercury calx. His results now showed that this air was not just an
especially pure form of common air but was "five or six times better than common
air, for the purpose of respiration, inflammation, and ... every other use of
common air". He called the air dephlogisticated air, as he thought it was common
air deprived of its phlogiston. Since it was therefore in a state to absorb a much
greater quantity of phlogiston given off by burning bodies and respiring animals,
the greatly enhanced combustion of substances and the greater ease of breathing in
this air were explained.

Pioneer of stoichiometry
Lavoisier's researches included some of the first truly quantitative chemical
experiments. He carefully weighed the reactants and products of a chemical reaction
in a sealed glass vessel so that no gases could escape, which was a crucial step in
the advancement of chemistry.[36] In 1774, he showed that, although matter can
change its state in a chemical reaction, the total mass of matter is the same at
the end as at the beginning of every chemical change. Thus, for instance, if a
piece of wood is burned to ashes, the total mass remains unchanged if gaseous
reactants and products are included. Lavoisier's experiments supported the law of
conservation of mass. In France it is taught as Lavoisier's Law and is paraphrased
from a statement in his Traité Élémentaire de Chimie: "Nothing is lost, nothing is
created, everything is transformed." Mikhail Lomonosov (1711–1765) had previously
expressed similar ideas in 1748 and proved them in experiments; others whose ideas
pre-date the work of Lavoisier include Jean Rey (1583–1645), Joseph Black (1728–
1799), and Henry Cavendish (1731–1810).[37]

Chemical nomenclature
Lavoisier, together with Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau, Claude-Louis Berthollet,
and Antoine François de Fourcroy, submitted a new program for the reforms of
chemical nomenclature to the Academy in 1787, for there was virtually no rational
system of chemical nomenclature at this time. This work, titled Méthode de
nomenclature chimique (Method of Chemical Nomenclature, 1787), introduced a new
system which was tied inextricably to Lavoisier's new oxygen theory of chemistry.
[38] The Classical elements of earth, air, fire, and water were discarded, and
instead some 55 substances which could not be decomposed into simpler substances by
any known chemical means were provisionally listed as elements. The elements
included light; caloric (matter of heat); the principles of oxygen, hydrogen, and
azote (nitrogen); carbon; sulfur; phosphorus; the yet unknown "radicals" of
muriatic acid (hydrochloric acid), boric acid, and "fluoric" acid; 17 metals; 5
earths (mainly oxides of yet unknown metals such as magnesia, baria, and strontia);
three alkalies (potash, soda, and ammonia); and the "radicals" of 19 organic acids.
The acids, regarded in the new system as compounds of various elements with oxygen,
were given names which indicated the element involved together with the degree of
oxygenation of that element, for example sulfuric and sulfurous acids, phosphoric
and phosphorous acids, nitric and nitrous acids, the "ic" termination indicating
acids with a higher proportion of oxygen than those with the "ous" ending.
Similarly, salts of the "ic" acids were given the terminal letters "ate," as in
copper sulfate, whereas the salts of the "ous" acids terminated with the suffix
"ite," as in copper sulfite. The total effect of the new nomenclature can be gauged
by comparing the new name "copper sulfate" with the old term "vitriol of Venus."
Lavoisier's new nomenclature spread throughout Europe and to the United States and
became common use in the field of chemistry. This marked the beginning of the anti-
phlogistic approach to the field.

Chemical revolution and opposition

Lavoisier is commonly cited as a central contributor to the chemical revolution.
His precise measurements and meticulous keeping of balance sheets throughout his
experiment were vital to the widespread acceptance of the law of conservation of
mass. His introduction of new terminology, a binomial system modeled after that of
Linnaeus, also helps to mark the dramatic changes in the field which are referred
to generally as the chemical revolution. Lavoisier encountered much opposition in
trying to change the field, especially from British phlogistic scientists. Joseph
Priestley, Richard Kirwan, James Keir, and William Nicholson, among others, argued
that quantification of substances did not imply conservation of mass.[39] Rather
than reporting factual evidence, opposition claimed Lavoisier was misinterpreting
the implications of his research. One of Lavoisier's allies, Jean Baptiste Biot,
wrote of Lavoisier's methodology, "one felt the necessity of linking accuracy in
experiments to rigor of reasoning."[39] His opposition argued that precision in
experimentation did not imply precision in inferences and reasoning. Despite
opposition, Lavoisier continued to use precise instrumentation to convince other
chemists of his conclusions, often results to five to eight decimal places.
Nicholson, who estimated that only three of these decimal places were meaningful,
stated:

If it be denied that these results are pretended to be true in the last figures, I
must beg leave to observe, that these long rows of figures, which in some instances
extend to a thousand times the nicety of experiment, serve only to exhibit a parade
which true science has no need of: and, more than this, that when the real degree
of accuracy in experiments is thus hidden from our contemplation, we are somewhat
disposed to doubt whether the exactitude scrupuleuse of the experiments be indeed
such as to render the proofs de l'ordre demonstratif.[40]

Notable works

Lavoisier's Laboratory, Musée des Arts et Métiers, Paris

Easter memoir
The "official" version of Lavoisier's Easter Memoir appeared in 1778. In the
intervening period, Lavoisier had ample time to repeat some of Priestley's latest
experiments and perform some new ones of his own. In addition to studying
Priestley's dephlogisticated air, he studied more thoroughly the residual air after
metals had been calcined. He showed that this residual air supported neither
combustion nor respiration and that approximately five volumes of this air added to
one volume of the dephlogisticated air gave common atmospheric air. Common air was
then a mixture of two distinct chemical species with quite different properties.
Thus when the revised version of the Easter Memoir was published in 1778, Lavoisier
no longer stated that the principle which combined with metals on calcination was
just common air but "nothing else than the healthiest and purest part of the air"
or the "eminently respirable part of the air". The same year he coined the name
oxygen for this constituent of the air, from the Greek words meaning "acid former".
[35][41] He was struck by the fact that the combustion products of such nonmetals
as sulfur, phosphorus, charcoal, and nitrogen were acidic. He held that all acids
contained oxygen and that oxygen was therefore the acidifying principle.

Dismantling phlogiston theory

Further information: Phlogiston theory
Lavoisier's chemical research between 1772 and 1778 was largely concerned with
developing his own new theory of combustion. In 1783 he read to the academy his
paper entitled Réflexions sur le phlogistique (Reflections on Phlogiston), a full-
scale attack on the current phlogiston theory of combustion. That year Lavoisier
also began a series of experiments on the composition of water which were to prove
an important capstone to his combustion theory and win many converts to it. Many
investigators had been experimenting with the combination of Henry Cavendish's
inflammable air, which Lavoisier termed hydrogen (Greek for "water-former"), with
"dephlogisticated air" (air in the process of combustion, now known to be oxygen)
by electrically sparking mixtures of the gases. All of the researchers noted
Cavendish's production of pure water by burning hydrogen in oxygen, but they
interpreted the reaction in varying ways within the framework of phlogiston theory.
Lavoisier learned of Cavendish's experiment in June 1783 via Charles Blagden
(before the results were published in 1784), and immediately recognized water as
the oxide of a hydroelectric gas.[42]

In cooperation with Laplace, Lavoisier synthesized water by burning jets of

hydrogen and oxygen in a bell jar over mercury. The quantitative results were good
enough to support the contention that water was not an element, as had been thought
for over 2,000 years, but a compound of two gases, hydrogen and oxygen. The
interpretation of water as a compound explained the inflammable air generated from
dissolving metals in acids (hydrogen produced when water decomposes) and the
reduction of calces by inflammable air (a combination of gas from calx with oxygen
to form water).[39]

Despite these experiments, Lavoisier's antiphlogistic approach remained unaccepted

by many other chemists. Lavoisier labored to provide definitive proof of the
composition of water, attempting to use this in support of his theory. Working with
Jean-Baptiste Meusnier, Lavoisier passed water through a red-hot iron gun barrel,
allowing the oxygen to form an oxide with the iron and the hydrogen to emerge from
the end of the pipe. He submitted his findings of the composition of water to the
Académie des Sciences in April 1784, reporting his figures to eight decimal places.
[39] Opposition responded to this further experimentation by stating that Lavoisier
continued to draw the incorrect conclusions and that his experiment demonstrated
the displacement of phlogiston from iron by the combination of water with the
metal. Lavoisier developed a new apparatus which utilized a pneumatic trough, a set
of balances, a thermometer, and a barometer, all calibrated carefully. Thirty
savants were invited to witness the decomposition and synthesis of water using this
apparatus, convincing many who attended of the correctness of Lavoisier's theories.
This demonstration established water as a compound of oxygen and hydrogen with
great certainty for those who viewed it. The dissemination of the experiment,
however, proved subpar, as it lacked the details to properly display the amount of
precision taken in the measurements. The paper ended with a hasty statement that
the experiment was "more than sufficient to lay hold of the certainty of the
proposition" of the composition of water and stated that the methods used in the
experiment would unite chemistry with the other physical sciences and advance
discoveries.[43]

Elementary Treatise of Chemistry

Lavoisier and Berthollet, Chimistes Celebres, Liebig's Extract of Meat Company

Trading Card, 1929
Lavoisier employed the new nomenclature in his Traité élémentaire de chimie
(Elementary Treatise on Chemistry), published in 1789. This work represents the
synthesis of Lavoisier's contribution to chemistry and can be considered the first
modern textbook on the subject. The core of the work was the oxygen theory, and the
work became a most effective vehicle for the transmission of the new doctrines. It
presented a unified view of new theories of chemistry, contained a clear statement
of the law of conservation of mass, and denied the existence of phlogiston. This
text clarified the concept of an element as a substance that could not be broken
down by any known method of chemical analysis and presented Lavoisier's theory of
the formation of chemical compounds from elements. It remains a classic in the
history of science. While many leading chemists of the time refused to accept
Lavoisier's new ideas, demand for Traité élémentaire as a textbook in Edinburgh was
sufficient to merit translation into English within about a year of its French
publication.[44] In any event, the Traité élémentaire was sufficiently sound to
convince the next generation.

Physiological work

Lavoisier (wearing goggles) operates his solar furnace to prevent contamination

from combustion products.
The relationship between combustion and respiration had long been recognized from
the essential role which air played in both processes. Lavoisier was almost
obliged, therefore, to extend his new theory of combustion to include the area of
respiration physiology. His first memoirs on this topic were read to the Academy of
Sciences in 1777, but his most significant contribution to this field was made in
the winter of 1782/1783 in association with Laplace. The result of this work was
published in a memoir, "On Heat." Lavoisier and Laplace designed an ice calorimeter
apparatus for measuring the amount of heat given off during combustion or
respiration. The outer shell of the calorimeter was packed with snow, which melted
to maintain a constant temperature of 0 °C around an inner shell filled with ice.
By measuring the quantity of carbon dioxide and heat produced by confining a live
guinea pig in this apparatus, and by comparing the amount of heat produced when
sufficient carbon was burned in the ice calorimeter to produce the same amount of
carbon dioxide as that which the guinea pig exhaled, they concluded that
respiration was, in fact, a slow combustion process. Lavoisier stated, "la
respiration est donc une combustion," that is, respiratory gas exchange is a
combustion, like that of a candle burning.[45]

This continuous slow combustion, which they supposed took place in the lungs,
enabled the living animal to maintain its body temperature above that of its
surroundings, thus accounting for the puzzling phenomenon of animal heat. Lavoisier
continued these respiration experiments in 1789–1790 in cooperation with Armand
Seguin. They designed an ambitious set of experiments to study the whole process of
body metabolism and respiration using Seguin as a human guinea pig in the
experiments. Their work was only partially completed and published because of the
disruption of the Revolution; but Lavoisier's pioneering work in this field served
to inspire similar research on physiological processes for generations to come.

Legacy

Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier by Jules Dalou 1866

Lavoisier's fundamental contributions to chemistry were a result of a conscious
effort to fit all experiments into the framework of a single theory. He established
the consistent use of the chemical balance, used oxygen to overthrow the phlogiston
theory, and developed a new system of chemical nomenclature which held that oxygen
was an essential constituent of all acids (which later turned out to be erroneous).

Lavoisier also did early research in physical chemistry and thermodynamics in joint
experiments with Laplace. They used a calorimeter to estimate the heat evolved per
unit of carbon dioxide produced, eventually finding the same ratio for a flame and
animals, indicating that animals produced energy by a type of combustion reaction.

Lavoisier also contributed to early ideas on composition and chemical changes by

stating the radical theory, believing that radicals, which function as a single
group in a chemical process, combine with oxygen in reactions. He also introduced
the possibility of allotropy in chemical elements when he discovered that diamond
is a crystalline form of carbon.

He was also responsible for the construction of the gasometer, an expensive

instrument he used at his demonstrations. While he used his gasometer exclusively
for these, he also created smaller, cheaper, more practical gasometers that worked
with a sufficient degree of precision that more chemists could recreate.[46]

He was essentially a theorist, and his great merit lay in his capacity to take over
experimental work that others had carried out—without always adequately recognizing
their claims—and by a rigorous logical procedure, reinforced by his own
quantitative experiments, expounding the true explanation of the results.[citation
needed] He completed the work of Black, Priestley and Cavendish, and gave a correct
explanation of their experiments.

Overall, his contributions are considered the most important in advancing chemistry
to the level reached in physics and mathematics during the 18th century.[47]

Awards and honours

During his lifetime, Lavoisier was awarded a gold medal by the King of France for
his work on urban street lighting (1766), and was appointed to the French Academy
of Sciences (1768).[9] He was elected as a member of the American Philosophical
Society in 1775.[48]

Lavoisier's work was recognized as an International Historic Chemical Landmark by

the American Chemical Society, Académie des sciences de L'institut de France and
the Société Chimique de France in 1999.[49] Antoine Laurent Lavoisier's Louis 1788
publication entitled Méthode de Nomenclature Chimique, published with colleagues
Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau, Claude Louis Berthollet, and Antoine François,
comte de Fourcroy,[50] was honored by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award
from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society,
presented at the Académie des Sciences (Paris) in 2015.[51][52]

Medal commemorating Franklin and Lavoisier, 2018

A number of Lavoisier Medals have been named and given in Lavoisier's honour, by
organizations including the Société chimique de France, the International Society
for Biological Calorimetry, and the DuPont company[53][54][55] He is also
commemorated by the Franklin-Lavoisier Prize, marking the friendship of Antoine-
Laurent Lavoisier and Benjamin Franklin. The prize, which includes a medal, is
given jointly by the Fondation de la Maison de la Chimie in Paris, France and the
Science History Institute in Philadelphia, PA, USA.[56][57]

Selected writings

The work of Lavoisier was translated in Japan in the 1840s, through the process of
Rangaku. Page from Udagawa Yōan's 1840 Seimi Kaisō
Opuscules physiques et chimiques (Paris: Chez Durand, Didot, Esprit, 1774). (Second
edition, 1801)
L'art de fabriquer le salin et la potasse, publié par ordre du Roi, par les
régisseurs-généraux des Poudres & Salpêtres (Paris, 1779).
Instruction sur les moyens de suppléer à la disette des fourrages, et d'augmenter
la subsistence des bestiaux, Supplément à l'instruction sur les moyens de pourvoir
à la disette des fourrages, publiée par ordre du Roi le 31 mai 1785 (Instruction on
the means of compensating for the food shortage with fodder, and of increasing the
subsistence of cattle, Supplement to the instruction on the means of providing for
the food shortage with fodder, published by order of King on 31 May 1785).
(with Guyton de Morveau, Claude-Louis Berthollet, Antoine Fourcroy) Méthode de
nomenclature chimique (Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1787)
(with Fourcroy, Morveau, Cadet, Baumé, d'Arcet, and Sage) Nomenclature chimique, ou
synonymie ancienne et moderne, pour servir à l'intelligence des auteurs. (Paris:
Chez Cuchet, 1789)
Traité élémentaire de chimie, présenté dans un ordre nouveau et d'après les
découvertes modernes (Paris: Chez Cuchet, 1789; Bruxelles: Cultures et
Civilisations, 1965) (lit. Elementary Treatise on Chemistry, presented in a new
order and alongside modern discoveries) also here
(with Pierre-Simon Laplace) "Mémoire sur la chaleur[permanent dead link]," Mémoires
de l'Académie des sciences (1780), pp. 355–408.
Mémoire contenant les expériences faites sur la chaleur, pendant l'hiver de 1783 à
1784, par P.S. de Laplace & A. K. Lavoisier[permanent dead link] (1792)
Mémoires de physique et de chimie (1805: posthumous)
In translation
Essays Physical and Chemical (London: for Joseph Johnson, 1776; London: Frank Cass
and Company Ltd., 1970) translation by Thomas Henry of Opuscules physiques et
chimiques
The Art of Manufacturing Alkaline Salts and Potashes, Published by Order of His
Most Christian Majesty, and approved by the Royal Academy of Sciences (1784) trans.
by Charles Williamos[58] of L'art de fabriquer le salin et la potasse
(with Pierre-Simon Laplace) Memoir on Heat: Read to the Royal Academy of Sciences,
28 June 1783, by Messrs. Lavoisier & De La Place of the same Academy. (New York:
Neale Watson Academic Publications, 1982) trans. by Henry Guerlac of Mémoire sur la
chaleur
Essays, on the Effects Produced by Various Processes On Atmospheric Air; With A
Particular View To An Investigation Of The Constitution Of Acids, trans. Thomas
Henry (London: Warrington, 1783) collects these essays:
"Experiments on the Respiration of Animals, and on the Changes effected on the Air
in passing through their Lungs." (Read to the Académie des Sciences, 3 May 1777)
"On the Combustion of Candles in Atmospheric Air and in Dephlogistated Air."
(Communicated to the Académie des Sciences, 1777)
"On the Combustion of Kunckel's Phosphorus."
"On the Existence of Air in the Nitrous Acid, and on the Means of decomposing and
recomposing that Acid."
"On the Solution of Mercury in Vitriolic Acid."
"Experiments on the Combustion of Alum with Phlogistic Substances, and on the
Changes effected on Air in which the Pyrophorus was burned."
"On the Vitriolisation of Martial Pyrites."
"General Considerations on the Nature of Acids, and on the Principles of which they
are composed."
"On the Combination of the Matter of Fire with Evaporable Fluids; and on the
Formation of Elastic Aëriform Fluids."
“Reflections on Phlogiston”, translation by Nicholas W. Best of “Réflexions sur le
phlogistique, pour servir de suite à la théorie de la combustion et de la
calcination” (read to the Académie Royale des Sciences over two nights, 28 June and
13 July 1783). Published in two parts:
Best, Nicholas W. (2015). "Lavoisier's "Reflections on phlogiston" I: Against
phlogiston theory". Foundations of Chemistry. 17 (2): 361–378. doi:10.1007/s10698-
015-9220-5. S2CID 170422925.
Best, Nicholas W. (2016). "Lavoisier's "Reflections on phlogiston" II: On the
nature of heat". Foundations of Chemistry. 18 (1): 3–13. doi:10.1007/s10698-015-
9236-x. S2CID 94677080.
Method of chymical nomenclature: proposed by Messrs. De Moreau, Lavoisier,
Bertholet, and De Fourcroy (1788) Dictionary
Elements of Chemistry, in a New Systematic Order, Containing All the Modern
Discoveries (Edinburgh: William Creech, 1790; New York: Dover, 1965) translation by
Robert Kerr of Traité élémentaire de chimie. ISBN 978-0-486-64624-4 (Dover).
1799 edition
1802 edition: volume 1, volume 2
Some illustrations from 1793 edition
Some more illustrations from the Science History Institute
More illustrations (from Collected Works) from the Science History Institute
See also
Royal Commission on Animal Magnetism
Notes
"Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent". Lexico UK Dictionary. Oxford University Press.
Retrieved 30 July 2019.
"Lavoisier". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Retrieved 30 July 2019.
"Lavoisier". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Retrieved 30 July 2019.
(in French) Lavoisier, le parcours d'un scientifique révolutionnaire CNRS (Centre
National de la Recherche Scientifique)
Schwinger, Julian (1986). Einstein's Legacy. New York: Scientific American
Library. p. 93. ISBN 978-0-7167-5011-6.
In his table of the elements, Lavoisier listed five "salifiable earths" (i.e.,
ores that could be made to react with acids to produce salts (salis = salt, in
Latin)): chaux (calcium oxide), magnésie (magnesia, magnesium oxide), baryte
(barium sulfate), alumine (alumina, aluminum oxide), and silice (silica, silicon
dioxide). About these "elements", Lavoisier speculates: "We are probably only
acquainted as yet with a part of the metallic substances existing in nature, as all
those which have a stronger affinity to oxygen than carbon possesses, are
incapable, hitherto, of being reduced to a metallic state, and consequently, being
only presented to our observation under the form of oxyds, are confounded with
earths. It is extremely probable that barytes, which we have just now arranged with
earths, is in this situation; for in many experiments it exhibits properties nearly
approaching to those of metallic bodies. It is even possible that all the
substances we call earths may be only metallic oxyds, irreducible by any hitherto
known process." – from p. 218 of: Lavoisier with Robert Kerr, trans., Elements of
Chemistry, ..., 4th ed. (Edinburgh, Scotland: William Creech, 1799). (The original
passage appears in: Lavoisier, Traité Élémentaire de Chimie, ... (Paris, France:
Cuchet, 1789), vol. 1, p. 174.)
Schama, Simon (1989). Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution. Alfred A
Knopf. p. 73.
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier" . Catholic
Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Yount, Lisa (2008). Antoine Lavoisier : founder of modern chemistry. Berkeley
Heights, NJ: Enslow Publishers. p. 115. ISBN 978-0-7660-3011-4. Retrieved 25 July
2016.
Duveen, Dennis I. (1965). Supplement to a bibliography of the works of Antoine
Laurent Lavoisier, 1743–1794. London: Dawsons.
McKie, Douglas (1935). Bibliographic Details Antoine Lavoisier, the father of
modern chemistry, by Douglas McKie ... With an introduction by F.G. Donnan. London:
V. Gollancz ltd.
Bibliographic Details Lavoisier in perspective / edited by Marco Beretta. Munich:
Deutsches Museum. 2005.
Bell, Madison Smart (2005). Lavoisier in the year one. New York: W.W. Norton.
McKie, Douglas (1952). Antoine Lavoisier: scientist, economist, social reformer.
New York: Schuman.
Citizens, Simon Schama. Penguin 1989 p. 236
Eagle, Cassandra T.; Jennifer Sloan (1998). "Marie Anne Paulze Lavoisier: The
Mother of Modern Chemistry". The Chemical Educator. 3 (5): 1–18.
doi:10.1007/s00897980249a. S2CID 97557390.
Donovan, Arthur (1996). Antoine Lavoisier: Science, Administration, and
Revolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 273. ISBN 978-0-521-56672-8.
Jean-Pierre Poirier (1998). Lavoisier: Chemist, Biologist, Economist. University
of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 24–26. ISBN 978-0-8122-1649-3.
W.R. Aykroyd (12 May 2014). Three Philosophers: Lavoisier, Priestley and
Cavendish. Elsevier Science. pp. 168–170. ISBN 978-1-4831-9445-5.
Arthur Donovan (11 April 1996). Antoine Lavoisier: Science, Administration and
Revolution. Cambridge University Press. pp. 123–125. ISBN 978-0-521-56672-8.
Citizens, Simon Schama, Penguin 1989 p. 313
Dutton, William S. (1942), Du Pont: One Hundred and Forty Years, Charles
Scribner's Sons, LCCN 42011897.
Chronicle of the French Revolution, Jacques Legrand, Longman 1989, p. 216
 Companion to the French Revolution, John Paxton, Facts on File Publications 1988,
p. 120
A Cultural History of the French Revolution, Emmet Kennedy, Yale University Press
1989, p. 193
Chronicle of the French Revolution, Jacques Legrand, Longman 1989, p. 204
Chronicle of the French Revolution, Jacques Legrand, Longman 1989, p. 356
O'Connor, J.J.; Robertson, E.F. (26 September 2006). "Joseph-Louis Lagrange".
Archived from the original on 2 May 2006. Retrieved 20 April 2006. In September
1793 a law was passed ordering the arrest of all foreigners born in enemy countries
and all their property to be confiscated. Lavoisier intervened on behalf of
Lagrange, who certainly fell under the terms of the law. On 8 May 1794, after a
trial that lasted less than a day, a revolutionary tribunal condemned Lavoisier and
27 others to death. Lagrange said on the death of Lavoisier, who was guillotined on
the afternoon of the day of his trial
Chronicle of the French Revolution, Longman 1989 p. 202
Today in History: 1794: Antoine Lavoisier, the father of modern chemistry, is
executed on the guillotine during France's Reign of Terror
Commenting on this quotation, Denis Duveen, an English expert on Lavoiser and a
collector of his works, wrote that "it is pretty certain that it was never
uttered". For Duveen's evidence, see the following: Duveen, Denis I. (February
1954). "Antoine Laurent Lavoisier and the French Revolution". Journal of Chemical
Education. 31 (2): 60–65. Bibcode:1954JChEd..31...60D. doi:10.1021/ed031p60..
Delambre, Jean-Baptiste (1867). Œuvres de Lagrange (in French). Gauthier-Villars.
15–57 – via Wikisource.
Guerlac, Henry (1973). Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier – Chemist and Revolutionary. New
York: Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 130.
(In French) M.-A. Paulze, épouse et collaboratrice de Lavoisier, Vesalius, VI, 2,
105–113, 2000, p. 110.
Lavoisier, Antoine (1777) "Mémoire sur la combustion en général" Archived 17 June
2013 at the Wayback Machine ("On Combustion in General"). Mémoires de l’Académie
des sciences. English translation
Petrucci R.H., Harwood W.S. and Herring F.G., General Chemistry (8th ed. Prentice-
Hall 2002), p. 34
An Historical Note on the Conservation of Mass
Duveen, Denis; Klickstein, Herbert (September 1954). "The Introduction of
Lavoisier's Chemical Nomenclature into America". The History of Science Society. 45
(3).
Golinski, Jan (1994). "Precision instruments and the demonstrative order of proof
in Lavoisier's chemistry". Osiris. 9: 30–47. doi:10.1086/368728. JSTOR 301997.
S2CID 95978870.
Kirwan, Essay on Phlogiston, viii, xi.
Lavoisier, Antoine (1778) "Considérations générales sur la nature des acides"
Archived 17 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine ("General Considerations on the Nature
of Acids"). Mémoires de l’Académie des sciences. lavoisier.cnrs.fr
Gillispie, Charles Coulston (1960). The Edge of Objectivity: An Essay in the
History of Scientific Ideas. Princeton University Press. p. 228. ISBN 0-691-02350-
6.
Lavoisier and Meusnier, "Développement" (cit. n. 27), pp. 205–209; cf. Holmes,
Lavoisier (cn. 8), p. 237.
See the "Advertisement," p. vi of Kerr's translation, and pp. xxvi–xxvii, xxviii
of Douglas McKie's introduction to the Dover edition.
Is a Calorie a Calorie? American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Vol. 79, No. 5,
899S–906S, May 2004
Levere, Trevor (2001). Transforming Matter. Maryland: The Johns Hopkins University
Press. pp. 72–73. ISBN 978-0-8018-6610-4.
Gillespie, Charles C. (1996), Foreword to Lavoisier by Jean-Pierre Poirier,
University of Pennsylvania Press, English Edition.
"APS Member History". search.amphilsoc.org. Retrieved 28 May 2021.
"Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier: The Chemical Revolution". National Historic Chemical
Landmarks. American Chemical Society. Archived from the original on 23 February
2013. Retrieved 25 March 2013.
Guyton de Morveau, Louis Bernard; Lavoisier, Antoine Laurent; Berthollet, Claude-
Louis; Fourcroy, Antoine-François de (1787). Méthode de Nomenclature Chimique.
Paris, France: Chez Cuchet (Sous le Privilége de l’Académie des Sciences).
"2015 Awardees". American Chemical Society, Division of the History of Chemistry.
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign School of Chemical Sciences. 2015.
Retrieved 1 July 2016.
"Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award" (PDF). American Chemical Society,
Division of the History of Chemistry. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
School of Chemical Sciences. 2015. Retrieved 1 July 2016.
"Société Chimique de France". www.societechimiquedefrance.fr. Archived from the
original on 29 March 2019. Retrieved 28 March 2019.
"International Society for Biological Calorimetry (ISBC) - About ISBC_".
biocalorimetry.ucoz.org. Retrieved 28 March 2019.
workflow-process-service. "The Lavoisier Medal honors exceptional scientists and
engineers | DuPont USA". www.dupont.com. Retrieved 28 March 2019.
"Le Prix Franklin–Lavoiser2018 a été décerné au Comité Lavoisier". La Gazette du
Laboratoire. 20 June 2018. Retrieved 15 January 2019.
"Franklin-Lavoisier Prize". Science History Institute. Archived from the original
on 26 March 2020. Retrieved 26 March 2020.
See Denis I. Duveen and Herbert S. Klickstein, "The "American" Edition of
Lavoisier's L'art de fabriquer le salin et la potasse," The William and Mary
Quarterly, Third Series 13:4 (October 1956), 493–498.
Further reading
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier" . Catholic
Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Bailly, J.-S., "Secret Report on Mesmerism or Animal Magnetism", International
Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, Vol. 50, No. 4, (October 2002), pp.
364–368. doi:10.1080/00207140208410110
Berthelot, M. (1890). La révolution chimique: Lavoisier. Paris: Alcan.
Catalogue of Printed Works by and Memorabilia of Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, 1743–
1794... Exhibited at the Grolier Club (New York, 1952).
Daumas, M. (1955). Lavoisier, théoricien et expérimentateur. Paris: Presses
Universitaires de France.
Donovan, Arthur (1993). Antoine Lavoisier: Science, Administration, and Revolution.
Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
Duveen, D.I. and H.S. Klickstein, A Bibliography of the Works of Antoine Laurent
Lavoisier, 1743–1794 (London, 1954)
Franklin, B., Majault, M.J., Le Roy, J.B., Sallin, C.L., Bailly, J.-S., d'Arcet,
J., de Bory, G., Guillotin, J.-I. & Lavoisier, A., "Report of The Commissioners
charged by the King with the Examination of Animal Magnetism", International
Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, Vol.50, No.4, (October 2002), pp.
332–363. doi:10.1080/00207140208410109
Grey, Vivian (1982). The Chemist Who Lost His Head: The Story of Antoine Lavoisier.
Coward, McCann & Geoghegan, Inc. ISBN 9780698205598.
Gribbin, John (2003). Science: A History 1543–2001. Gardners Books. ISBN 978-0-14-
029741-6.
Guerlac, Henry (1961). Lavoisier – The Crucial Year. Ithaca, New York: Cornell
University Press.
Holmes, Frederic Lawrence (1985). Lavoisier and the Chemistry of Life. Madison,
Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press.
Holmes, Frederic Lawrence (1998). Antoine Lavoisier – The Next Crucial Year, or the
Sources of his Quantitative Method in Chemistry. Princeton University Press.
Jackson, Joe (2005). A World on Fire: A Heretic, An Aristocrat And The Race to
Discover Oxygen. Viking.
Johnson, Horton A. (2008). "Revolutionary Instruments, Lavoisier's Tools as Objets
d'Art". Chemical Heritage Magazine. 26 (1): 30–35.
Kelly, Jack (2004). Gunpowder: Alchemy, Bombards, & Pyrotechnics. Basic Books. ISBN
978-0-465-03718-6.
McKie, Douglas (1935). Antoine Lavoisier: The Father of Modern Chemistry.
Philadelphia: J.P. Lippincott Company.
McKie, Douglas (1952). Antoine Lavoisier: Scientist, Economist, Social Reformer.
New York: Henry Schuman.
Poirier, Jean-Pierre (1996). Lavoisier (English ed.). University of Pennsylvania
Press.
Scerri, Eric (2007). The Periodic Table: Its Story and Its Significance. Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-530573-9.
Smartt Bell, Madison (2005). Lavoisier in the Year One: The Birth of a New Science
in an Age of Revolution. Atlas Books, W.W. Norton.
External links
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sciences
Panopticon Lavoisier a virtual museum of Antoine Lavoisier
Bibliography at Panopticon Lavoisier
Les Œuvres de Lavoisier
About his work
Location of Lavoisier's laboratory in Paris
Radio 4 program on the discovery of oxygen by the BBC
Who was the first to classify materials as "compounds"? – Fred Senese
Cornell University's Lavoisier collection
His writings
Works by Antoine Lavoisier at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Antoine Lavoisier at Internet Archive
Les Œuvres de Lavoisier (The Complete Works of Lavoisier) edited by Pietro Corsi
(Oxford University) and Patrice Bret (CNRS) (in French)
Oeuvres de Lavoisier (Works of Lavoisier) at Gallica BnF in six volumes. (in
French)
WorldCat author page
Title page, woodcuts, and copperplate engravings by Madame Lavoisier from a 1789
first edition of Traité élémentaire de chimie (all images freely available for
download in a variety of formats from Science History Institute Digital Collections
at digital.sciencehistory.org.
vte
Age of Enlightenment
vte
French Revolution
Authority control Edit this at Wikidata
Categories: 1743 births1794 deathsScientists from ParisUniversity of Paris
alumni18th-century French chemists18th-century French writers18th-century French
male writersFrench biologistsMembers of the French Academy of SciencesFellows of
the Royal SocietyDiscoverers of chemical elementsCientíficos independientesFermiers
générauxGente de la Revolución IndustrialCatólicos francesesFranceses ejecutados
por guillotina durante la Revolución FrancesaCientíficos ejecutadosEntierros en el
cementerio de PicpusMiembros de la American Philosophical Society
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