by Nathan Shedroff, Chief Creative Officer, vivid studios
One of the most important skills for almost everyone to have in the next decade and
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beyond will be those that allow us to create valuable, compelling, and empowering
information and experiences for others. To do this, we must learn existing ways of
organizing and presenting data and information and develop new ones. Whether our
communication tools are traditional print products, electronic products, broadcast
programming, interactive experiences, or live performances makes little difference.
Nor does it matter if we are employing physical or electronic devices or our own
bodies and voices. The process of creating is roughly the same in any medium. The
processes involved in solving problems, responding to audiences, and communicat-
ing to others are similar enough to consider them identical for the purposes of this
paper. These issues apply across all types of media and experiences, because they
directly address the phenomena of information overload, information anxiety, media
literacy, media immersion, and technological overload—all which need better solu-
tions. The intersection of these issues can be addressed by the process of Informa-
tion Interaction Design. In other circles, it is called simply Information Design, Infor-
mation Architecture, or Interaction Design, Instructional Design, or just plain Common
Sense.
Many people create or engineer interactions, presentations, and experiences for
others. Almost all interactions— whether part of a book, a directory, a catalog, a
newspaper, or a television program—can be created or addressed by one process.
This process can be used to produce every CD-ROM, kiosk, presentation, game, and
online service. It can also be used for every dance, music, comedy, or theater
performance. While the traditions and technologies may change with every discipline,
the process does not.
Information Interaction Design is the intersection of the disciplines of Information
Design, Interaction Design, and Sensorial Design. Information Design’s roots are in
publishing and graphic design, although few people in these industries intentionally
practice them. Information Design addresses the organization and presentation of
data: its transformation into valuable, meaningful information. While the creation of
this information is something we all do to some extent, it has only recently been
identified as a discipline with proven processes that can be employed or taught.
Unfortunately, there are few resources for learning about the practices of Information
or Interaction Design.

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Interaction Design, which is essentially story-creating and telling, is at once both an
ancient art and a new technology. Media have always effected the telling of stories
and the creation of experiences, but currently new media offer capabilities and
opportunities not yet addressed in the history of interaction and performance. In
particular, the demands of interactivity are often misunderstood by all but the most
experienced storytellers and performers. How these skills are expressed through
interactive technologies and what demands and interests audiences will have for
these remains to be understood. Consequently, there are also few sources of infor-
mation about these issues and the techniques used to meet them. This is new
territory that is desperate for some new ideas and cogent explanations. It is also the
most critical component to the success of interactive products.
Sensorial Design is simply the employment of all techniques with which we communi-
cate to others through our senses. After writing, visual design techniques in disci-
plines such as graphic design, videography, cinematography, typography, illustration,
and photography are usually the first to be recognized and employed, but the disci-
plines that communicate through other senses are just as important. Sound design
and engineering and musical and vocal performance are also useful in the appropri-
ate circumstances. In fact, sometimes they are the only appropriate media for com-
municating a particular message. Tactile, olfactory, and kinesthetic senses are rarely
employed (often due to technological or market constraints), but are just as valid and
can add enriching detail to an experience.
The disciplines of sensorial media are worlds unto themselves, with their own histo-
ries, traditions, and concerns. To learn each well takes time and skill. Therefore, it is
crucial to learn at least an overview of the important issues and techniques of each
discipline so that they can be employed properly when presenting ideas and commu-
nicating messages—especially within a team. In each of these areas, experts should
participate in employing the various media in support of a project’s information and
interaction goals and messages.
These levels of understanding are significant because they define the boundaries
with which we can create and communicate. While Information Design primarily
focuses on the representation of data and its presentation, the emphasis in Interac-
tion Design is on the creation of compelling experiences. When designing projects, I
usually find it easier to start with the information design process if a substantial
amount of data already exists and the interaction design process if it does not. The
following sections describe the processes I have found useful for both.
Information Design
While few designers have been explicitly taught the issues paramount to clear
communication (e.g., organization, presentation, goals and messages, clarity, and
complexity), these functions at least have been addressed on a subconscious level
by anyone who attempts to organize their thoughts and communicate them. Informa-
tion Design doesn’t ignore aesthetic concerns but it doesn’t focus on them either.
However, there is no reason why elegantly structured or well-architected data can’t
also be beautiful. Information Design does not replace graphic design and other
visual disciplines, but is the structure through which these capabilities are
expressed.
An understanding of Information Design starts with the essential view that the vast
amount of things that bombard our senses everyday are not pieces of information but
merely data. Richard Saul Wurman expresses this in his book, Information Anxiety 1 .
1
Richard Saul Wurman is one of the most renowned information architects. His book Information Anxiety is one of the few sources of
Information Design instruction. His issue of Design Quarterly , “Hats,” is a condensed version of his most important understandings. Information
Anxiety, Richard Saul Wurman, New York, NY: Doubleday, 1989. “Hats,” Richard Saul Wurman, Design Quarterly #145, Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press, 1989.

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Data is fairly worthless to most of us; it is the product of research or creation (such as
writing), but it is not an adequate product for communicating. To have informational
value, it must be organized, transformed, and presented in a way that gives it mean-
ing.
Information is also not the end of the continuum of understanding. Just as data can
be transformed into meaningful information, so can information be transformed into
knowledge and, further, into wisdom. Knowledge is a phenomenon that we can build
for others just as we can build information for others from data. This is done through
Interaction Design and the creation of experiences. Think for a moment how difficult it
is to build a meaningful experience for others. It is first necessary to understand your
audience; what their needs, abilities, interests, and expectations are; and how to
reach them. Brenda Laurel2 often states that interactive media “is not about informa-
tion, it is about experience.” She is absolutely correct but, in creating these experi-
ences for others (and even for ourselves to some degree), we must understand and
properly structure the information and data with which we use to build experiences.
The Continuum of Understanding
A Bit About Data
Data is the product of discovery, research, gathering, and creation. It is the raw
material we find or create that we use to build our communications. Unfortunately,
most of what we experience is merely data. It is fairly easy to distinguish as often it is
boring, incomplete, or inconsequential. Data isn’t valuable as communication be-
cause it isn’t a complete message. Most of the technology we call “Information
2
Brenda Laurel is one of the most qualified interface designers in the industry and the biggest proponent of designing experiences. Her edited
book, The Art of Human Computer Interface Design , is a great place to start and her book, Computers as Theater , is a good place to continue.
The Art of Human Computer Interface Design, Brenda Laurel Ed., Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., 1990.
 Technology” is, in fact, only data technology because understanding and communica-
tion of information is not addressed. These technologies are primarily concerned with
storage, processing, and transmission. Data is useful only to producers or anyone
playing a role in production. Data is not meant for “consumers” and too often we
deluge our audience with data instead of information, leaving them to sort it out and
make sense of it. Many providers even boast of the large amount of meaningless,
contextless data they throw at their customers. CNN, for example, actually calls their
data bits “factoids” and interjects them between otherwise meaningful presentations.

Successful communications do not present data. If, for example, presenters haven’t
bothered to provide context and build meaning, audiences have little patience for
doing it themselves. As designers, we constantly must ask ourselves what service we
provide.

More About Information

Information makes data meaningful for audiences because it requires the creation of
relationships and patterns between data. Transforming data into information is
accomplished by organizing it into a meaningful form, presenting it in meaningful and
appropriate ways, and communicating the context around it. These processes are
described in more detail below.

The Experience of Knowledge

With every experience, we acquire knowledge; it is the understanding gained through
experiences—good or bad. Knowledge is communicated by building compelling
interactions with others or with tools so that the patterns and meanings in their
information can be learned by others.
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There are many types of experiences that confer different types of knowledge. Some
knowledge is personal, having meaning unique to one person’s experiences,
thoughts, or point of view. Local knowledge is knowledge shared by a few people
because of their shared experiences. Global knowledge is more general, limited, and
process-based, since it relies on such heavy levels of shared understandings and
agreements about communication. Effective communication must take into account
the audience’s level of knowledge. This makes it more difficult to communicate to
larger audiences because the pool of shared knowledge is less detailed and more
generalized. Knowledge is gained through a process of integration, both in the
presentation and in the mind of the participant. Information forms the stimulus of an
experience while wisdom can be the understanding of the message gained through
the experience. Knowledge is a fundamentally participatory level of communication
and we should always make it our goal because it allows the most valuable mes-
sages to be conveyed. It is also the last level that we can directly effect since it is
either local or global.
What is Wisdom?
Wisdom is the most vague and intimate level of understanding. It is much more
abstract and philosophical than other levels and less is known about how to create or
effect it. Wisdom is a kind of “meta-knowledge” of processes and relationships gained
through experiences. It is the result of contemplation, evaluation, retrospection, and
interpretation—all of which are particularly personal processes. We cannot create
wisdom like we can data and information, and we cannot share it with others like we
can with knowledge. We can only create experiences that offer opportunities and
describe processes. Ultimately, it is an understanding that must be gained by one’s
self.
Organizing Things
The first step in transforming data into information is to explore its organization. This
simple yet crucial process can appear futile, but often you can discover something
through it that you had never seen before. It is important to realize that the very
organization of things affects the way we interpret and understand their separate
pieces. Take any set of things: students in a classroom, financials for a company,
information about a city, or animals in a zoo. How would you organize these? Which
is best? Richard Saul Wurman3 suggests five ways to organize everything, but seven
seems clearer to me. Literally everything can be organized by alphabet, location,
time, continuum, number, or category. Additionally, things often can be randomly
organized (in other words, by not organizing them).
Often, there are often better ways to organize data than the traditional ones that first
occur to us. Each organization of the same set of data expresses different attributes
and messages. It is important to experiment, reflect, and choose which organization
best communicates our messages. It is also important to note that these seven ways
of organizing make it easy to brainstorm, but it is up to us to choose the most appro-
priate way to present data to our audiences. Some of the more important ways of
organizing are presented below.
Alphabets
Most books have alphabetical indexes because, while we may know exactly what we
are looking for, we often do not know where to find it. Though the alphabet is an
arbitrary sequence of symbols, indexes work well because we have been taught
alphabetical sequence from an early age. It is not universally useful, as you will find if
you ever try to use a phone directory in a language that uses a different alphabet
than your own. Many indexes are organized alphabetically, but few products are
3
Richard Saul Wurman, Information Anxiety, 1989.

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(primarily dictionaries, encyclopedias, and other reference works). This is because
few data have any great meaning based on the first letter of their labels. The alpha-
bet actually is a continuum (from A to Z) but it is a special one for the reasons stated
above.
Locations
Locations are natural ways of organizing data with important relationships with or
connections to other data. How easy would it be to find the exits to an airplane if they
were listed and described in text with no diagram? Many projects can benefit by
locational organizations but seldom are, simply because their designers never
experimented with the idea. Producing maps and diagrams is not as easy as writing
text, but if you have ever used an atlas or Access travel guide, you know how much
better a sense of a place can be achieved when things are oriented by geographical
relationships. Consider a subway map that simply lists all station stops in sequence
versus one that arranges them in a representation of the city they serve. This may
sound obvious (and it should be), but why do not car manuals organize parts by their
location in the car, or medical books by location in the body (the one thing you are
sure of when you know you aren’t feeling well)?
Time
Organizing things by time or sequence may sound obvious for bus and train sched-
ules or historic timelines but it can be just as effective for instructions such as cook-
ing, driving, or building. Time need not be addressed only in minutes and hours but
also in days, months, years, centuries, processes, or milestones.
Continuums
Any qualitative comparison can be described with a continuum. All ratings systems,
whether numbers of stars or the number of RBIs of a professional baseball player,
indicate a value scale. Arranging items in a continuum indicates that this value scale
is the most important aspect of the data. As with any organization of data, the primary
organization expresses a different message and importance than other organizations.
Numbers
I categorize number systems as a separate way of arranging things. Much like
alphabets, numbers are merely an arbitrary continuum (usually Base-10, since our
species has ten fingers). But unlike alphabets, Base-10 numbers are much more
universal because they combine in different forms due to mathematical relationships.
It is common but not necessary for number organizations to be continuums. For
example, the Dewey Decimal System, used for organizing books in many libraries, is
not a continuum because it is a number system that does not represent any magni-
tude or attribute; it simply assigns numbers to categories and sub-categories.
Categories
Categories are a common organization and a reliable one, since they allow similar
things to be grouped together by attributes that are considered important in some
way. Defining the specific categories is crucial, as they will communicate the
designer’s prejudices and understandings more easily than any other organization.
As with all organizations, these control the perceptions of the information.
Randomness
While random or arbitrary organizations might not seem a useful way to organize
things and “add value” to them, it is sometimes the best way if a challenge of some
kind is involved. Consider a game where all of the pieces are arranged already or
one where its sequence is already determined and carefully, logically laid out. Such a
game would not be very fun to play. There may be other times where random organi-
zations present a better experience than an orderly one and it is up to the designer to
explore these possibilities and employ good judgment.
 Advanced Organizations
In case these descriptions seem too dry and utilitarian, let me describe an example
where the organization of data can provide an intense emotional reaction. If you are
familiar with the Vietnam War Memorial in Washington, DC, you may already know
how quiet yet moving this monument is. What you may not realize is the importance
of the monument’s organization. The names of all of the US military personnel who
died in the Vietnam war are inscribed on the surfaces of two long, black granite walls.
The walls start out short (around twelve
inches) and grow to more than nine feet in the
center where the two meet. They are con-
structed this way for a special reason. All of
the names are arranged by time (date of
death), from the first who died during the
“police action,” to the mounting death toll at the
height of the war, trickling off as the US pulled
out of the area. The names thus chart the
pattern of US involvement in Vietnam and the
personal stories of the real people involved
and most affected. Imagine how different the
monument would be without this organization. Suppose the names were organized
by alphabet (which was actually proposed once the design was accepted). While it
might be easier to find a particular person, the search and the names themselves
would be reduced to a mechanical list, a granite White Pages. Lost would be the
individuality of each name and life. In a list of seventeen John Smiths, which one is
yours?

An alphabetical organization would have completely depersonalized the monument

and devastated its emotional power, so would most other organizations. Imagine if
the names were organized by category (e.g., pilots listed here, infantry listed there) or
on a continuum based on rank or, for that matter, height (e.g., the tallest men at one
end, the shortest at another). What is key to this emotional experience is that those
who died are found among those whom they died with. Without this organization, in
fact, there is no longer meaning to the wall growing and tapering down in height. Any
other organization would have created a different memorial entirely and, most likely,
one without the power and emotion created in the existing one. All of this is some-
what subliminal. When you visit the monument, its information structure isn’t the first
thing you perceive, but it works nonetheless. This is true of any project, whether it is
a sensitive and emotional monument, a powerful and inspiring museum, a useful and
concise catalog, or a thrilling and interesting performance.

Multiple Organizations
Almost all organizations are actually nested, multiple organizations. Most directories,
for example, might list names by division or location, then by department or title, then
by alphabet. Catalogs may break products into categories first, then arrange them in
a continuum based on price (such as highest cost to lowest). Be aware that a primary
organization is not necessarily the only organization and it allows for secondary or
more sub-organizations when working with larger groups of things. Of course, each
of these needs to be clear and meaningful as well.

It is also useful to include indexes that organize the same items in different ways.
This is important for enabling people to find things in ways that are most appropriate
for the things they know or the ways they learn. All people learn differently and
have varying skills. Some may be comfortable with maps while others prefer lists.
Some may not understand an alphabetical listing while others can’t relate to a
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if people understand the organization, they may not have the correct information. For
example, they may know the street they need to go to, but not where to find it on a
map (this is where street indexes come in handy). They may know that they want a
recipe for a low-calorie dessert, but don’t want to search through every recipe in their
cookbooks to find one.
It is precisely the ability to see the same set of things in different organizations that
allows people to uncover the patterns in the relationships between these things.
Ideally, people should be able to rearrange the organizations themselves or be
provided with different arrangements so they can begin to understand these patterns
for themselves.
Metaphors
Much has been made of the ability of metaphors to help people quickly understand
things. While metaphors are generally helpful, they are a false crutch to cling to.
Metaphors are not required nor are they always the best approach. Too many
interactive projects, for example, start with the question “what metaphor should the
interface use?” Most often, the “interface” shouldn’t use any narrowly outlined meta-
phor.
Metaphors are simply one way of setting context (i.e., transforming data into informa-
tion). It is important that the context implied is the one intended and that it matches
the desired understandings. Too often, metaphors set the wrong context and help
create expectations that are not accurate and which cannot be met.
Metaphors are especially useful when they relate well to a user’s or reader’s experi-
ence. However, to be used well they must be abandoned when they begin to fail or
when they are asked to do more than the limits of their capabilities. A good example
is the desktop metaphor used by many personal computers. The strength of this idea
is that it uses familiar objects to indicate relationships by analogy (e.g., a trash can
for discarding files or folders for keeping groups of files and other folders together).
Fortunately the designers ignored the metaphor when it broke down (e.g., dialog
boxes) and didn’t try to take it further than was appropriate.
Recently, a colleague suggested that metaphors could be another way of organizing
data. She may be correct, and more thought should be devoted to this question, but I
believe it is more accurate to say that metaphors are a means of representing things
than a way to organize or present them. For me, metaphors only achieve a cognitive
orientation of meaning rather than one of structure.
Goals and Messages
All effective communications involve defining the goals of the experience and the
messages to be communicated as early in the development process as possible.
These definitions drive all decisions, from Information Design, through Interaction
Design, and including all aspects of Sensorial Design. Every decision, no matter how
simple or mundane, should support the defined goals and messages. This ensures
that inappropriate data, techniques, technology, or styles are not used. For every
decision, the solution should be one that best meets the goals and messages defined
at the beginning of the project. While it sounds obvious, too often the ideas that drive
the presentation are at odds with the messages presented.
Many times, the goals and messages stipulated by a client will not be correct. Clients
are usually too close to their problems to see solutions clearly enough. It is important
to uncover one or two layers of goals behind those stated and agree to these if you
want to be successful. Otherwise, you may find yourself unable to satisfy a client or
communicate the correct messages to your audience.
 Clarity
The most important goal of effective communication is clarity. Clarity is not the same
as simplicity. Richard Saul Wurman taught me this well. Simple things are clear if the
message is intended to be brief and small, but often the message is about a complex
relationship that can only be presented with a necessarily large amount of data. This
complexity can be made clear through effective organization and presentation and
need not be reduced to meaningless, “bite-sized” chunks of data. Clarity includes the
focus on one particular message or goal at a time, rather than an attempt to accom-
plish too much at once. Simplicity is often responsible for the “dumbing” of informa-
tion rather than the illumination of it.

Interaction Design
Think about what experiences are. How do you create them? How do you know when
they are successful? What are the most satisfying experiences you can remember?
Unfortunately, few people are ever taught how to create wonderful experiences for
others. I believe that one of the nicest experiences you can have is to enjoy a stimu-
lating conversation with another person over great meal. I would rather do this than
watch television, read a book, or use any interactive product I have ever seen. But
how do you set up and maintain such an experience? We are taught history, science,
mathematics, language, and many valuable processes, but hardly anything about
having a great conversation, though this is one of the most satisfying things you can
enjoy. Why?

While some people seem to have natural abilities for creating wonderful experiences
for others (such as the “life of the party” or a great instructor), most of us must learn
the hard way: through trial and error. Wouldn’t it be great if we could be taught
explicitly how to create meaningful interactions for each other? This is what Interac-
tion Design addresses and, unfortunately, it is a new field with few texts, few classes,
and almost no curriculum (even less than Information Design). The best sources for
learning these skills—and these are critical to the success of any interactive project
or presentation—are the performing arts. Indeed, the most prominent new media
Interaction Designers all seem to have backgrounds in some type of performance,
whether it is dance, theater, singing, storytelling, or improvisation. Because of the
history of interaction in performing arts, some of the only sources for guidance come
from the fields of script-writing, storytelling, performance, and instructional design.
Each of these disciplines is particularly concerned with the communication of varied
stories and messages through the creation of interesting and wonderful experiences.
We can look to these disciplines for knowledge about interactivity, but we must
remember to pay attention to the limitations of the technologies and media through
which our messages are conveyed.

Continuums of Interactivity
One way to consider the meaning of interactivity is to envision all experiences (and
products) as inhabiting a continuum of interactivity. On one side are passive experi-
ences like reading a typical book or watching television. While some have argued
that even in these events there is an interaction between the mind and the device or
the imagination and the story, these are somewhat esoteric and philosophical no-
tions. In comparison, these activities don’t exhibit the kinds of choice, control, produc-
tivity, or creativity of experiences like painting, conversing, or producing a television
program. The difference that defines interactivity can include the amount of control
the audience has over the tools, pace, or content; the amount of choice this control
offers; and the ability to use the tool or content to be productive or to create.
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 Therefore, all products and experiences can be placed along this continuum. It is
important to note that there is no good or bad side of this continuum. The only
judgment should be if the level of interactivity or place along the continuum is appro-
priate to the goals of the experience or the messages to be communicated.

Interactivity is different from production value or “richness.” Typical television pro-

grams and films can have incredibly rich stories, techniques, and presentations, but
offer almost no interaction except turning the channel or leaving the theater. Com-
pare this with the experience of improvisational comedy in which a story is created as
the audience watches, gets involved by offering suggestions, or even joins in the
action.

Control and Feedback

The first two spectrums of interactivity focus on how much control the audience has
over the outcome or the rate, sequence, or type of action, and how much feedback
exists in the interface. Typically, experiences with high interactivity offer high levels of
feedback and, at least, some control. Examples of these kinds of experiences are
games in which the game play depends directly on the player’s involvement and
choices, unlike television in which the experience continues whether anyone is
viewing or not.

Productivity and Creative Experiences

Productivity is another spectrum that can coincide with other interactivity spectrums.
Creative experiences allow a user, creator, or participant to make, do, or share
something themselves. Some experiences can be used more productively than
others (such as entertainment), and productivity is traditionally of more concern in
business products than entertainment products—but being creative and producing
something are typically more interesting, entertaining, and fulfilling activities. Creation
tools are important components for creating meaningful, compelling, and useful
experiences. Creative products and experiences require that others participate by
creating or manipulating instead of merely watching and consuming.
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 Co-creative4 technologies are those that offer assistance in the creation process.
People are naturally creative and are almost always more interested in experiences
that allow them to create instead of merely participate. While many situations can
create anxiety if people are not accustomed to performing with the tools or tech-
niques, if this anxiety can be lessened (either through the careful design of the
experience or offered assistance), people express their creativity. This can take the
form of recommendations, guidelines, advice, or actually performing operations for
users.

Another attribute of these experiences is the capability of adding content or tools to a

predefined set, resulting in a “living” product, toolset, or database. Few products are
designed to grow or become more valuable over time with participation from the
audience. Yet, products that help users structure their experiences and share their
knowledge are inherently more valuable than those which do not.

Adaptive Experiences
Adaptive technologies are those that change the experience based on the behavior
of the user, reader, consumer, or actor. These can include “agents,” modifying
behaviors, and “pseudo-intelligence.” Agents are processes that can be set to run
autonomously, performing specific, unsupervised (or lightly supervised) activities and
reporting back when finished. Modifying behaviors are those that change the tools
and/or content involved based on the actions of techniques of the user. Some games,
for example, do this, becoming more difficult as the player becomes more proficient.
Other possibilities include content changing to reflect point of view, level of profi-
ciency required, or amount of detail desired. Both of these techniques might have the
effect of making a device or person in an experience appear intelligent, as might
other techniques. However, this calls into question a much larger discussion of
intelligence, life, and how these are defined. Suffice it to say that certain kinds of
choices in changing behavior based on the actions of others (whether random,
instinctive, or algorithmic) can create the appearance of a more sophisticated system
or process and imply a kind of intelligence.

Communicative Experiences
Like productive and creative experiences, opportunities to meet others, talk with
them, and share their personal stories and opinions, are always viewed as valuable
and interesting. Because these experiences involve two or more people, they also
inherently involve high levels of control, feedback, and adaptivity. The telephone is an
excellent example of a communicative experience, as are chat lines, discussion
boards, and cocktail parties. Some of these are so valuable and enjoyable for some
people, that they have become virtually indispensable.

The Experience Cube

Each of the six spectra in Figure 1 can be plotted on a diagram in order to place
typical interfaces and products and reveal their relationships to each other by these
attributes. Unfortunately, it is difficult to create a six-sided diagram that is clear.
However, a close approximation can be created by combining the Feedback and
Control attributes into one dimension; the Creative, Productive, and Communicative
attributes into another; and the adaptive attributes into a third. This gives us a rough
Experience Cube and shows us some general relationships between experiences
that we can learn from.

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© 1994 Nathan Shedroff 4
A term coined by Abbe Don. Don is another prominent interface designer who specializes in interfaces for personal narratives. (http://
www.abbedon.com.)
 All experiences, whether
mediated by technology or
not, fit into this cube. This
is important because it
reminds us that the
experiences we create in
our products are viewed in
a much wider context by
our audiences. Unfortu-
nately, most producers of
interactive media or
multimedia don’t realize
this. It must be remem-
bered that a reader, user,
or consumer has access
to many experiences and,
most likely, is not as
enamored with the tech-
nology of any one medium
as the developer might be.
This means that the
competition for interactive
media products is as big
as all of human experi-
ence. In other words, competitors for a CD-ROM on tropical fish are not other tropical
fish CD-ROMs or even laser discs, but television documentaries, narrative and
reference books, aquariums, scuba diving, travel, etc. If the experience you create is
not a compelling one (whether it is justified by the bounds of the technology or not),
you will never find a large audience. This is probably why we have seen only a few
categories of successful interactive media products: children’s books and lessons,
games, reference works, and pornography. Both games and reference works use
interactive media appropriately and create experiences that cannot be duplicated
easily in other media. While some children’s books and products do this, even the
ones that don’t have been successful, probably because the market (parents) can
justify the expense on their children’s education. Curiously, pornography uses
interactive technologies particularly poorly, but it seems there is an overlap of sexual
curiosity with technology.

So, we come back to the question: how does one create meaningful experiences and
interactions? We must first revisit our goals and messages and reevaluate the kinds
of experiences we want our audience to have. We must also ask them what their
needs and wants are with regard to these experiences. This is what market research
attempts to accomplish. It is not user testing (which needs to be done later once
some possibilities have been developed), but a crucial inquiry. The process must
involve brainstorming alternatives that meet these goals, messages, and audience
interests and abilities until possible solutions emerge. These must then be given
shape with the tools of Sensorial Design and tested before they are approved or
labeled successful.

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 Sensorial Design
Sensorial design is simply an all-encompassing category over those disciplines
involved with the creation and presentation of media. Among other disciplines, these
include writing, graphic design, iconography, map making, calligraphy, typography,
illustration, and color theory (graphics); photography, animation, and cinematography
(images); and sound design, singing, and music (sound. Actually, perfumery and
cooking should be considered in this category since these involve the purposeful
stimulation of the senses—even if these senses aren’t as widely addressed. Each of
these disciplines has deep traditions and detailed procedures. It is not appropriate to
focus on them here, but while they are all different in many ways, they all share some
common attributes and concerns. These include the appropriate use of media, style,
technique, media literacy, and bandwidth applicable to the technology of the situa-
tion, as well as an understanding of the human senses.

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 Media Differences
Each medium has different strengths and weaknesses. Each excels in different
capabilities and different types of communication. These are intricately woven into
the way we perceive through our senses5 . Think about our senses and how we use
them. We sorely need to develop a better understanding of our five senses, how they
operate, how they relate to each other, and how to create for them. Diane
Ackerman’s book, A Natural History of the Senses , offers an inspiring discussion on
our sensorial experiences. This is but a beginning toward a better understanding that
we may then use to create more compelling experiences.

Style and Meaning

Using these media appropriately is not always easy. Many times, different parties
involved demand the use of one component when another might be better. The same
is true of style. All style has meaning, whether it is implied, accidental, or deliberate.
Choosing the appropriate attributes and implementing them consistently is imperative
to the development of a cohesive experience. For large projects, this cohesion can
easily get lost as many people implement various parts to their own standards. There
are few details that do not affect the presentation, legibility, and understanding of the
meaning of a message. Even a detail like justified type (flush left, flush right, or
centered) changes the legibility and perception of a paragraph and, therefore, the
text itself. All sensorial details must coordinate not only with each other, but
with the goals and messages of the project. A more integrated and careful synthe-
sis of these processes will result in a more compelling, engaging, and appropriate
experience, as well as a more successful the communication and interaction.

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A good source of information about human senses is the book , A Natural History of the Senses by Diane Ackerman.
© 1994 Nathan Shedroff
 Conclusion?
An interface to any experience, whether technological, physical, or conceptual, must
have a message and a reason for communicating it and begin with the creation of
meaning and the development of appropriate types of interactivity. These decisions
drive the use of sensorial media to present the experience to the audience in an
appropriate and supportive way. Addressing one factor without the others can
contribute to an experience that is incomplete or unbalanced. In many cases, simply
understanding these concepts can lead to the development of better experiences, but
it is usually necessary to address these attributes specifically in an explicit and
procedural way.

This is really not a conclusion as much as it is a beginning. There is still much for all
of us to learn and share about these issues. Both Information Design and Interaction
Design are extremely new disciplines and they will grow considerably as we experi-
ment and create. They are, however, the keys to a better understanding about
communication and will serve us well over the next phase of our development.

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