TALKING POINT

STORM over the KAROO

Hydraulic fracturing is a method used to extract shale gas - the world’s latest
energy resource. However, in the USA and elsewhere, the method has come
under fire for its many negative and severe environmental impacts. Now oil and
gas companies are targeting the Karoo. Should this controversial development
be allowed to take place in South Africa? Bronwyn Howard reports.
The Karoo, a place of vast open spaces separated from the together with dinosaur and mammal-like fossils. The
coast by spectacular mountain ranges, is special. On crisp Nama Karoo is home to some 2 147 plant species, of which
mornings, before the heat builds, the air is crystal clear. At 377 are endemic. The region also harbours certain out-of-
this time of day it is often so still you can hear the grass range Succulent Karoo plants in the Gamsberg Mountains.
rustling in the wind, while the last blush of sunrise fades Most animals have extended their ranges into the Karoo
from the sky. Scrubby bush covers endless plains from adjacent biomes and the Nama Karoo does not have a
interspersed with flat-topped koppies. After good rains, large number of endemic species. However, there is one
succulent plants bloom suddenly en masse and the veld is endemic and five near-endemics among small mammals
carpeted with vivid pink, orange and yellow. By afternoon, including Visagie’s golden mole, Grant’s rock mouse and
the land is breathless with heat, shimmering with mirages, the Endangered riverine rabbit. The quagga, which once
and only the lone cry of the occasional Pied Crow or bird of occurred here, was hunted to extinction in the 19th century.
prey breaks the stillness. The Karoo is a stronghold for Among birds, the region boasts two endemics and five
raptors in particular and there are always many to be seen, near-endemics. There are 10 near-endemic reptile species.
perched on roadside fences and lines, or on the occasional Despite its tremendous diversity and size, a mere 1% of the
small tree. Ground birds such as bustards, korhaans and Nama Karoo is formally protected.
Blue and Southern Grey Crowned Cranes are also found
here. As the sun goes down and the heat dissipates, flocks Most of the Nama Karoo comprises rangeland for livestock
of smaller birds congregate in trees in tranquil towns, their grazing and is still intact, although heavy grazing has left
chatter echoing down the streets. parts seriously degraded. Unfortunately, there are
significant raptor mortalities occasioned by birds of prey
The Nama Karoo is the largest biome in South Africa, feeding on poisoned carcasses or drowning in farm
covering over 20% of the country’s total land area. Its reservoirs. Large birds such as cranes and bustards, many
fossil record, internationally renowned, dates back some of which are threatened species, also risk injury or death
3 billion years. These include fossils of unicellular and from power line collisions, although Eskom and other role-
biogenic filamentous structures - the earliest forms of life - players are working to reduce such incidents. In addition
to pastoralism, threats to this region’s biodiversity include
mining, agriculture and the collection of succulents and
reptiles. Clearing of natural vegetation for cultivation
destroys the natural habitat of many plants and animals.
Pesticides, principally those used to control brown locust
outbreaks, also impact wildlife severely with high
concentrations being found at the top of the food chain,
especially among raptors. The introduction of alien
invasive plants could alter the region’s ecology and
hydrology. Climate change, increased stocking rates,
cultivation of marginal lands and the salinisation of surface
water are all likely to further the spread of alien plants.

To the west lies the Succulent Karoo, a biodiversity

hotspot. It is home to over 6 300 plant species, of which
2 440 are endemic, together with 225 bird, 76 mammal,
over 90 reptile and just over 20 amphibian species (one Both the Nama Karoo and Succulent Karoo have
frog and 15 reptile species are endemic). 26 species of incredible biodiversity, particularly as far as plant life
freshwater fish are also found. This biome is only 2% is concerned, with thousands of species, many of which
protected and faces environmental threats including are endemic to the Karoo.
overgrazing and the mining industry, which abstracts large
quantities of the area’s precious water. gas deposits is being compared to the gold rushes of the
1800s. Following the recent political upheavals across
Now development has finally reached out to embrace this North Africa and the Middle East, most are agreed that the
immense land with its scattered human communities, world has to find a new source of energy other than oil.
resilient wildlife and soaring birds. Good news - you would
think. However, the nature of this development has Now large oil and gas companies, some based in South
communities across the Karoo and elsewhere up in arms Africa and others abroad, are eyeing the Karoo as southern
and conservationists concerned. If the proposals go ahead, Africa’s new powerhouse. Shell Oil has applied for permits
it is very likely that the Karoo’s wonderful wildlife, birds, to explore no less than almost 95 000 km2 of the Karoo
and plants will be pushed to the brink of survival. And its Basin, in an effort to establish conclusively whether natural
people will probably not fare much better. gas could be economically and viably exploited in the
Karoo - although it says this process could take as long as
It is an accident of geology that these unique, often nine years. In spite of this, however, Shell has already
panoramic landscapes were found to have gas deposits registered and is one of two short-listed companies hoping
trapped in subterranean rock far below the surface as long to supply Petro SA’s Mossel Bay gas-to-fuel plant, should
ago as the 1960s when Soekor, the then state oil sufficient gas be found. Petro SA’s natural gas resources in
exploration company, first discovered them. With climate the region are expected to be exhausted by 2014 and Shell
change a reality and many countries urged to cut their hopes to supply gas-driven power stations with this gas.
carbon footprints and emissions, gas is the new “clean” fuel Shell is joined by entities including Falcon Oil & Gas (a US-
of choice. It is, so the arguments go, far cleaner to burn gas based company) and Bundu Gas & Oil Exploration.
than coal. Gas can be used to heat buildings, generate Between the various groups, the area under application for
electricity and perhaps even power cars. So convincing is prospecting licenses covers a staggering 200 000 km2 -
this argument that, in the United States, the scramble for almost the entire Karoo!
Not only is the vast area under
Shale gas, the world’s newest energy resource, is known to lie beneath the Karoo consideration (which includes
scrub and some 200 000 km2 of the region is now under application for its environmentally sensitive
exploration and subsequent extraction - should the gas be found in viable areas, biodiversity hotspots,
quantities. private farms and small
towns) an issue, the
technology these companies
plan to use to release the gas
from its ancient bed in
impermeable rock is one
which appears to have a
number of detrimental
environmental impacts. The
process used to liberate the
gas is called hydraulic
fracturing, known colloquially
as “fracking”.

Hydraulic fractures exist in

nature, where they are known
as volcanic dykes, sills or
weathering caused by ice. Industrial fracking creates
fissures in rock, the aim being to release natural gas stored
in pockets. The technique increases the rate at which
fluids such as oil, gas or water can be produced from a
reservoir, including unconventional reservoirs such as
shale rock or coal beds. Fracking enables the production of
natural gas and oil from rock formations deep beneath the
earth’s surface (generally 1 500 - 6 100 m down). At such
depths, there may not be sufficient porosity and
permeability to allow natural gas and oil to flow from the
rock into the wellbore at economic rates. Creating
conductive fractures in the rock is essential to produce gas
from these reservoirs because of the extremely low natural
permeability of shale.
A hydraulic fracture is formed by pumping fracturing fluid
(comprising water, sand and a cocktail of chemicals) into a
wellbore at a rate sufficient to increase the pressure
downhole to a value in excess of the fracture gradient of
the rock formation. The pressure causes the formation to
crack, allowing fracking fluid to enter and extend the crack
further into the formation. To keep the fracture open after
the injection stops, a solid proppant (commonly sand but
also manmade ceramics depending on the type of
permeability or grain strength needed) is added to the
fracture fluid. The propped hydraulic fracture then
becomes a high permeability conduit through which fluids
can flow to the well. Hydraulic fracture stimulation is
commonly applied to wells drilled in low permeability
reservoirs.
in the region’s carbon footprint. Certain birds and plants,
for instance, are only found in specific parts of the Karoo
and they could be affected by fracking.”
More than 60% of South Africa’s endemic and range-
restricted birds occur in or are confined to the Karoo.
These include several larks, chats, tits and warblers, as well
as the Karoo Korhaan, Namaqua Sandgrouse, Karoo Robin
and Karoo Eremomela. These birds are found in areas with
low human populations and most are consequently not
classified as threatened, despite there being few protected
areas in the Karoo. Ernst Retief of BirdLife South Africa
compiled a report with regards to birds found in the region
that would be affected by the Shell and Falcon applications.
The affected areas are home to some 361 bird species. Of
these, Denham’s, Kori and Ludwig’s Bustard, Blue and
Southern Grey Crowned Crane, Martial Eagle, Southern
Ground Hornbill and Lesser Kestrel are all recorded as
Vulnerable in South Africa. Near-threatened species
include African Crowned Eagle, Lanner and Peregrine
Falcon, Greater Flamingo, Black Harrier,
Half-collared Kingfisher, Blue Korhaan, and Melodious and
Sclater’s Lark. Rare vagrants include the Vulnerable
Bateleur and Near-threatened African Openbill.

However, the serious negative consequences of fracking on

the environment, water supply, people and wildlife are
now becoming apparent in almost every country where
fracking has become the preferred method of leaching gas
from low permeability reservoirs. Derek Light, a Graaff-
Reinet based lawyer working on behalf of landowners and
other Interested & Affected Parties, listed some of the
possible impacts facing the Karoo if the exploration goes
ahead: “The Karoo is very dependent on groundwater and
we’re naturally extremely concerned that the fracking
process could contaminate the aquifers we all rely on.
However, there are a lot of other impacts associated with
this including air pollution, the degredation of the Martial Eagle, one of the Karoo’s threatened bird
environment and biodiversity and, of course, the increase species, which could be affected if fracking goes ahead.
While no Important Bird Areas (IBAs) fall within the
proposed exploration zones for either the Shell or Falcon
projects, a number border on or are close to the proposed
development area and could accordingly be threatened by
fall-out from the exploration including groundwater
pollution, air pollution, increased road traffic leading to
disturbance, as well as the inevitable habitat destruction
which often follows development of this nature. They
include the Alexandria Coastal Belt, Karoo Nature Reserve,
the Katberg/Readsdale Forest Complex, Amatole Forest
Complex, the Cedarberg/Koue Bokkeveld Complex, the
Swartberg Mountains, the Kouga/Baviaanskloof Complex,
the Platberg Karoo Conservancy area, Anysberg Nature
Reserve and the Gariep/Oviston/Tussen-die-Riviere
region. Formal protected areas abutting or near the
proposed sites include Karoo National Park (also an IBA)
as well as Mountain Zebra National Park.
The main concern with regards to fracking is the effect this
is likely to have on water - and groundwater in particular.
This is of great concern in the Karoo, where communities
and farmers, not to mention birds and wildlife, are
exceedingly reliant on groundwater. Fracking uses vast
quantities of water - anything from 10 million to over 25
million litres per well. In addition, several wells may be
drilled from one spot. One hydraulic “frack” uses the
equivalent amount of water that would sustain the Karoo
town of Graaff-Reinet for three days. Shell has proposed
using seawater brought in by train but this is probably not
feasible as the water is too salty and would react badly
with chemicals used in the fracturing process. Wastewater
generated could also increase the salinity of Karoo
groundwater.
As it is, the Little Karoo is semi-arid to arid and fresh water
is regarded as a critical constraint to development. Rainfall
is generally very low and variable with much of the Little
Karoo’s low-lying central valley receiving only 100 - 300
mm/year. Further west, this decreases with some areas
receiving as little as 50 - 100 mm/ year. The Little Karoo’s
rainfall regime is also characterized by high rainfall events,
which can result in floods. The western part of the Little
Groundwater is an extremely important resource in the water-scarce Karoo - and
fracking purports to use millions of litres of water, which the region can ill afford.
Karoo receives winter rain, while the eastern areas receive
summer rain; the former is generally more reliable. The
entire Little Karoo receives more than 80% of the potential
solar radiation annually, resulting in high evaporation
rates. Potential evaporation exceeds 2 250 mm/year in the
dry central region - more than ten times the rainfall. Run-
off water volumes are very low and variable, resulting in
low reservoir yields.
In a 2005 study into the region’s water resources
conducted by the CSIR, the water situation in the Little
Karoo was described as an impending crisis, as demand
had already surpassed sustainable use and the balancing of
human and ecological requirements as envisaged in the
National Water Act was no longer possible. Extensive land
degredation has modified the hydrology and geohydrology
of the Little Karoo and its aquatic and groundwater
dependent ecosystems. Vegetation loss and trampling by
livestock has altered key processes such as water
infiltration, which has increased soil erosion and
transformed river flow regimes.
Most groundwater in the Little Karoo is saline because the
geological structures which form most aquifers give rise to
naturally saline groundwater, which is exacerbated by high
evaporation rates. Natural salinity affects river systems
draining the Great Karoo and this is increased by run-off
from agricultural lands situated in the Touws, Buffels and
Grootrivier catchments.
Most water in the Little Karoo is used for irrigation with
the balance being for urban use. Migration from rural to
urban areas is increasing; the population of Kannaland
(Ladismith) increased by 14% between 1996 and 2001
while Oudtshoorn’s population increased by 7%. Many of
the Great Karoo sub-catchments and some sub-catchments
near Oudtshoorn are stressed, with more than 50% of the
recharge being abstracted. Flow rates in all catchments
are further reduced by the effects of alien invasive plants.
Climate change is expected to reduce winter rainfall while
increasing summer rainfall and intensity to the east, as
well as increasing air temperatures by 2 - 3°C. The proprietary rights. However, Shell Oil recently stated that
decrease in winter rainfall is projected to affect the it would disclose all chemical substances to be used at each
western Little Karoo, the southern mountains and the borehole to extract shale gas.
Swartberg. The reduction in the strength and number of
cold fronts could also reduce the probability of substantial Energy in Depth, an organization representing the oil and
amounts of rain falling on inland mountains, which is gas industry in the United States, claims on its web site that
important for the Little Karoo’s surface water resources. 99.5% of fracking fluid is in fact water with the balance
The increase in air temperatures will increase evaporation. made up of acids, glutaraldehyde (used as a disinfectant/
Recharge to groundwater, as well as surface run-off are sterilizer for medical equipment), table salt, N n-
likely to decrease significantly, although mountainous Dimethylformaminide (used in pharmaceuticals, acrylic
areas may be less affected. According to projections, water fibres and plastics), petroleum distillates, clear gum, citric
deficits are likely to increase significantly. The Karoo can acid, potassium chloride, ammonium biosulphate,
therefore ill afford a thirsty activity such as fracking. proppant (sand), ethylene glycol (found in automotive
antifreeze, household cleansers and chalk) and
Birds will also be affected if the amount of available fresh
water reduces. Bradley Gibbons, who manages the Karoo
Crane Conservation Project of the Endangered Wildlife
Trust’s African Crane Conservation Programme, says there
are concerns about both Blue and Southern Grey Crowned
Cranes, which are found in the areas affected by the two
projects. “The cranes roost in the Karoo’s wetlands. Fresh
water is very important for the maintenance of those
wetlands. Cranes also drink the water from farm dams,
windmills and troughs put out for livestock.” He adds, “The
project areas include several large farms where there are
important breeding and roosting sites for cranes. Cranes
in the Karoo are afraid of people; they are also very
sensitive to disruption and won’t breed if they are
disturbed. We also believe that they could leave their
territories if fracking takes place in or near them.”

Derek Light voices another concern: “Fracking requires the

use of dangerous chemicals, which are combined in a
Cranes in the Karoo are very sensitive to disturbance
highly poisonous mix.” In the United States, oil and gas
companies have declined to provide lists of chemicals used
and could abandon their territories if fracking takes
in fracking on the basis that this would infringe on their place near them.
isopropanol (used in glass cleaner, antiperspirant and hair
colour). According to numerous reports, other chemicals
used - which could be a fraction of the total chemical
content - may include kerosene, benzene, toluene, xylene
and formaldehyde, all of which are extremely toxic to
humans and animals. Even at low levels, many of these
chemicals can cause drowsiness, dizziness, rapid heart
rate, headaches, tumours, confusion and unconsciousness,
while in high concentrations they may cause leukemia and
death. Barium may be found in underground ore deposits
and can cause high blood pressure, breathing difficulties,
muscle weakness, swelling of the brain and kidney damage.
Naturally occurring radioactive substances and strontium
may be released from the earth during the fracking
process; both are carcinogenic and strontium may also
disrupt bone development.
As it is a known fact that there is a great deal of uranium
naturally present beneath the Karoo scrub, there is a very
real possibility that fracking could lead to radioactive
elements contaminating water, soil and other resources.
This is in fact the newest water threat to emerge from
fracking in the US. According to a New York Times report,
at least 116 of 179 wells producing wastewater with high
radiation levels reported levels of radioactive materials
100 times higher than those set for safe drinking water
standards, and at least 15 wells produced water with over
1 000 times the amount of acceptable radioactive
elements. The problem with radioactive wastewater is its
potential to contaminate drinking water and enter the food
chain through fish or farming activities. Once radium
enters the human body - through eating, drinking or
breathing - it can cause cancer and other health problems.

Health concerns aside, even the level of 0.5% claimed on The drilling industry in the US appears unconcerned,
the Energy in Depth web site still translates into anything stating that they are producing less wastewater as they are
from 38 000 - 95 000 litres of often toxic chemicals being recycling much of it rather than disposing of it after each
dumped into the ground - per well. job. The trouble, again, is the sheer amount being
produced. The unfortunate truth is that it’s cheaper to
Energy in Depth insists that the process is safe as dump wastewater than to treat it; some companies pay
boreholes are lined with a steel and concrete casing. Often around US$ 2 million annually for hauling and treating
the steel and concrete casing is not strong enough to wastewater.
withstand the pressures of fracking, however, so that
fracturing fluid and gas leak through into groundwater Hydraulic fracturing also pollutes the air. The natural gas
aquifers. There may be natural faults, joints and rock released is mixed with water and must be separated from
fractures in the same area, which apparently cannot be wastewater. This is done on the surface. Evaporators and
verified beforehand and may not show up when the condensate tanks steam off volatile organic compounds
exploration is done. These could become migration (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzine and xylene) 24/7. As
pathways for saline water, chemicals or methane gas. these compounds react with diesel exhaust from trucks
and generators at the well site, ground-level ozone is
There is also the issue of how to deal with wastewater produced. Ozone plumes can travel up to 250 miles.
pumped out of wells. This water is contaminated with Wyoming, a largely rural US state, now experiences air
toxic chemicals and needs to be purified before re-entering pollution levels similar to those found in industrialized
the environment. In the United States, the preferred areas. This is ascribed to drilling operations.
method for disposing of toxic waste from fracking appears
to be to truck it to the nearest sewage water treatment Derek Light speaks for many living in the Karoo when he
plant. Many lack the capacity to deal with the poisons and says, “We are concerned that the current legislation is
toxins present in such water and often discharge inadequate to address fracking and the issues surrounding
impartially or improperly
treated water into major
rivers, hoping that the
fresh water will dilute it.
Normally the sludge that
remains could be trucked
to a landfill site and
dumped. But there is now
so much wastewater that
these solutions are not
really feasible. The
alarming fact is that toxic
water now affects the
drinking supply of
millions of people,
including those living in
large cities such as
Pittsburgh, Harrisburg,
Baltimore and
Philadelphia. Gas has also
seeped into underground
drinking water in at least
five US states; residents
blame natural gas drilling.
it. The process is not being
done responsibly; it is not
properly regulated and has not
been properly investigated.
Regulations need to be put in
place. We need to set up a
committee to look into and
deal with all the issues before
fracking gets the go-ahead.” He
goes on to tell me that current
Environmental Management
Plans submitted are generic
desktop analyses and are not
site-specific. In its executive
summary, Falcon Oil & Gas lists
several potential impacts, all of
which are written off as being
of very low to medium
significance, particularly once
mitigation measures have been
applied. The problem, as
always, is getting such entities
to be specific as to exactly how they will apply mitigation
measures and also to guarantee that they will be
implemented at all - both during and after the activity has
ceased.
The other bit of bad news is that oil and gas companies
have also identified areas in the Free State and KZN,
although the rights to prospect have not yet been applied
for. At least five provinces are potentially affected. Says
Derek: “Millions of litres of water will be poisoned. Water
migrates and contaminated water could poison other
systems. This might only show up after several years.”
But all is not lost. Treasure The Karoo Action Group
(TKAG) was launched by writer Jonathan Deal, who also
created a Facebook page entitled Keep SHELL OIL out of the
Karoo, which rapidly signed up over 3 000 members. Shell
Oil, together with their environmental consultants, Golder
Associates, held a number of public meetings in the Karoo
and Cape Town as part of the public participation
requirements needed for their Environmental
Management Plan. By doing so, Shell opened the
proverbial Pandora’s Box and there was an immediate,
tremendous and unprecedented outcry.
On 1 February 2011, following a public meeting in Cape
Town, the Democratic Alliance waded in and stated that
the proposal was “wholly premature”, calling for a
moratorium on any exploration or mining activity
involving fracking, as the deep geology of the Karoo is
unknown and it is unclear as to how the arid and water-
scarce Karoo would be able to provide sufficient water for
what is known to be a very water-intensive activity. (More
recently, as the likelihood of certain applications being
approved has increased, the DA has reiterated its position
and is to take the matter up with the relevant Ministers.)
International business leader, Johann Rupert, attending a
public meeting in Graaff-Reinet, told farmers: “It would be
criminally negligent of Shell to push ahead with their
exploration application without gathering comprehensive
research and data on the Karoo’s highly sensitive water
systems, geology and natural environment.” Princess Irene
of the Dutch royal family owns a nature reserve in the
Karoo town of Nieu Bethesda and has pledged her support
and active participation in the fight against Shell’s
application. Support has also come from organizations
such as WWF-South Africa and the Wilderness Foundation,
as well as smaller, grassroots entities such as the Southern
Cape Land Committee. Such is the groundswell of public
opinion against fracking developments that mining
company Advasol withdrew their application for a gas
mining license in the Stillbaai area.
At public meetings throughout the Karoo, Shell Oil’s
representatives appeared unable to answer direct
questions regarding whether the groundwater and
aquifers on which the Karoo depends would remain
uncontaminated. During a recent drought, farmers relied
exclusively on groundwater to keep their farms going. In
addition, Karoo towns are becoming seriously short of
water. Shell has since said in a media briefing that it
“would not compete with the people of the Karoo for their
scarce water resources”. In a press release, Jonathan Deal
of the TKAG stated: “There have been no conclusive studies
of the underground water aquifers of the Karoo on the
scale that Shell intends mining. Shell is thus in no position
to claim incontrovertible scientific knowledge of this.
Shell’s plan to use seawater in the Karoo borders on a
lunatic notion and displays wholesale disregard for the
environment, the nation’s roads and all of the towns and
communities between the sea and the Karoo.”
Notwithstanding, it appears that the South African
government is set on allowing the exploration for natural
gas to continue, claiming that using gas for a variety of
energy requirements will reduce the country’s carbon
footprint, currently one of the highest in the world due
largely to our reliance on coal-burning power stations to
generate electricity. However, it appears that, if fracking is
used to access the gas resources beneath the Karoo and
elsewhere, emissions caused by the process will be greater
than those saved by switching from coal-powered energy
to gas. Climate Change Programme Manager at WWF-SA
was quoted in a TKAG press release as saying that using
shale gas for electricity generation could in fact increase
South Africa’s carbon footprint due to fugitive emissions
The Owl House is an interesting tourist attraction in the town of Nieu-Bethesda. Tourism and farming are
important sustainable livelihoods for people living in the Karoo - and could be threatened by fracking.
from methane during fracking, as well as the fossil fuel
burning infrastructure required.
Not only that, Canada’s National Energy Board recently
confirmed that only 20% of the natural gas present in the
rock formation is released through hydraulic fracturing,
whereas conventional gas extraction methods release
around 95% of the gas present. In a preview to a report to
be released by Cornell University’s Department of Ecology
and Evolutionary Biology, the authors state that, while it is
true that less carbon dioxide is emitted from burning
natural gas than by burning coal per unit of energy
consumed, the combustion emissions are only part of the
story and the comparison is misleading. “We urge caution
in viewing natural gas as a good fuel choice for the future.
Using the best available science, we conclude that natural
gas is no better than coal and may be worse than coal in
terms of its greenhouse gas footprint when evaluated over
the time course of the next several decades. Note that both
the National Academy of Sciences and the Council of
Scientific Society Presidents have urged great caution
before proceeding with the development of diffuse natural
gas from shale formations using unconventional
technology.”
Notwithstanding, in a series of media briefings in March
2011, Shell Oil stated that the company had been
conducting fracking safely for some 60 years. What they
failed to mention, according to a TKAG press release, is that
this refers to vertical fracturing. Jonathan Deal explains:
“Horizontal slickwater fracturing, which is what they plan
to do in the Karoo, involves far greater volumes of water
and toxic chemicals, and has only been done on a
commercial scale since the 1990s. It is this technology that
is causing the massive problems in the US. It has also
never been tried at the depths (4 - 5 km) that are being
envisaged for the Karoo.” Shell further claimed that it
would “leave the Karoo in a better position” than when the
company arrived. Considering the unique plants, birds and
animals that are found in Karoo biomes, together with the
region’s fragile arid ecosystems and the limited surface
and groundwater supplies on which both people and
wildlife depend, this seems a dubious claim. Deal adds,
“The Karoo is too delicate and arid an ecosystem to be
rehabilitated successfully.”
Job creation is always an issue in South Africa and many
Environmental Management Plans and scoping reports
promise to create jobs. In a press release addressing these
and other issues, Jonathan Deal comments: “Fracking has
the potential to cost far more jobs than it creates.” Derek
Light concurs, “This could affect existing sustainable
livelihoods in the Karoo such as farming and tourism.”
Concern has also been expressed in other quarters as to
whether small Karoo towns could support a sudden influx
of migrants and job-seekers should gas exploration
companies set up shop in the region - which will be an
added drain on the Karoo’s stretched water resources, not
to mention the social issues which tend to crop up as a
result of such influxes. The Karoo Development
Foundation also expressed the view that mining is
unsustainable as the resource eventually runs out and
economic damage results. The TKAG notes that tourism in
the Karoo has grown exponentially in the last few years
and the industry, a much more long-term and sustainable
resource than mining, should be protected. The Karoo in
fact has the lowest unemployment rate in South Africa.
At a meeting held in Cape Town in March 2011, a systems
ecologist and policy analyst representing Golder Associates
stated in response to a direct question that the Karoo’s
economy would not survive gas mining (according to a
press release by Jonathan Deal). The TKAG has further
stated that the sheer scale of the applications by mining
companies to frack for shale gas in the Karoo significantly
undermines at least three important government
processes that are still not completed. These include the
spacial planning framework being established by the
National Planning Commission, the updating of the
National Water Resources Strategy (currently under way),
and the Green Paper on Rural Development (scheduled to
be tabled in Parliament in the second half of this year).
The TKAG strongly believes that no decision about onshore
exploration can be made until these The once-peaceful, largely rural state of Wyoming looks quite different since
and other similar important the gas drilling companies came to town. (Picture: Pro Publica)
processes are completed.
In the United States, which has seen a
gas exploration boom since 2008, the
Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) recently launched a study into
the potential impacts of hydraulic
fracturing, including that on
groundwater. They will investigate
the full lifespan of water in hydraulic
fracturing, from acquisition through
to the treatment and disposal of used
and wastewater. Initial research
results and findings are due to be
made public at the end of 2012, with
a final report in 2014. Several US
states have placed a moratorium on
shale gas exploration due to
environmental concerns, particularly
regarding water pollution, and in the
light of the many negative experiences reported by
residents living near gas wells. France also placed a
moratorium on shale gas exploration at the end of
February 2011.
Judging by the American experience, what can ordinary
South Africans expect if hydraulic fracturing becomes the
preferred method of gas extraction in the Karoo and
elsewhere?
A request for information from American friends elicited a
heated response. Christine Wenner of Halifax,
Pennsylvania wrote furiously, “Pennsylvania is being
fracked to hell and back and our new Republican governor
is going to pave their way by not encouraging the promised
severance tax we Pennsylvanians deserve and need to
protect our drinking water, to say the least.” (The new
governor’s campaign was largely funded by gas
exploration companies and he has promised to open public
land for drilling, which could result in an additional 10 000
new gas wells in Pennsylvania.) Nina Wormuth, who lives
in the same state, said, “Pennsylvania is going to be raped.
There will be no beauty left.”
Internet searches reveal numerous tragic stories. In the
US, unlike South Africa, the government does not own the
rights to minerals; the right vests in the landowner. Oil
and gas exploration companies visit landowners in a
region where suitable shale gas deposits have been
identified and offer the landowners money in exchange for
the right to sink wells on their property. Once the lease
has been negotiated, the gas companies move in - and the
trouble starts within weeks. In one oft-quoted scenario in
a Pennsylvanian rural enclave, one family suddenly found
themselves faced with stained crockery and laundry.
When they complained, the gas company said they would
change the chemical mix they were using. Soon, residents
were horrified to find that they could set their tap water
alight! (By then, most of them had switched to bottled
water.) Water wells exploded and people reported dizzy
spells and having to lie down after bathing and showering.
Toxic wastewater was found seeping into streams and
rivers, and domestic livestock began showing up with
growths and cancers. Worse still, the value of the
beleaguered homeowners’ properties plummeted, so they
could not sell up and go elsewhere. In Texas, 7% of
children living in homes near wells are reported to have
asthma. In a small Wyoming town with intensive gas
development, the federal government urged residents not
to drink their water and to use fans and ventilation when
showering or washing clothes to avoid the risk of
explosion. This was after researchers found benzene,
metals, phenols and methane in wells and groundwater,
together with other compounds that were tentatively
linked to drilling activities. Nina’s comment: “The TV ads
for the drilling companies are vile. I particularly abhor the
one that shows an elderly parent, and the adult children
state how grateful they are for the revenue from the
company because they can now keep mom at home and
care for her. It’s disgusting!”
Despite all this, the industry continues to boom in the USA.
The New York Times reports that there were more than
493 000 active natural gas wells in the US in 2009 and
nearly 90% were using hydro fracking to get more gas
flowing. Pennsylvania is one of the states hardest hit by
the shale gas industry with all its attendant ills. It has the
misfortune to be situated on top of an enormous reserve
known as the Marcellus Shale. The rock formation, almost
the size of Greece, extends from Virginia to the southern
half of New York State and is believed to hold sufficient gas
to supply the entire United States’ heat and electricity
needs for the next 15 years. Some 3 300 Marcellus gas well
permits were issued in Pennsylvania in 2010, compared to
just 117 three years previously.
While this has created thousands of jobs, five-figure
windfalls for residents who lease their land to drillers and
revenue for a state that has struggled with budget deficits,
it has also transformed the landscape. Derricks tower over
barns, drilling sites bustle 24/7 and 18-wheelers
continuously haul equipment, water and waste along back
roads never intended for the purpose. Many drilling sites
are extremely close to homes and households are subject
to booming underground explosions and noxious smells
from huge waste pits. Is this the Karoo’s future?
Shell has offered to compensate any farmer who can prove
financial loss as a result of the company’s activities. In
response, Deal states: “There are many cases where
individual landowners in the US who have claimed
compensation for real damage from oil giants have been
forced to fend for themselves - a very expensive burden
that is opposed in high court until private persons run out
of money. There is no reason to believe it will be any
different here.” He adds, “Does Shell have any suggestions
for a farmer, whose land value plummets or whose water is
poisoned as a result of gas mining, in terms of how he will
be able to support his family and workforce? And will farm
workers be compensated for livelihoods and homes lost?”
Several South African scientists have recommended using
the precautionary principle when considering fracking the
countryside for shale gas. A far greater understanding of
the groundwater resources of the Karoo is required, as
well as how fracking would affect these. Investigations
need to be done on the potential effects on soil and water
salinity. Massive drilling operations with convoys of trucks
crossing the Karoo is likely have a negative effect on veld
and grazing, which does not readily regenerate due to the
lack of rain. In some quarters, it is believed that shale gas
in South Africa is a marginal resource at best with costs
likely to exceed the benefits if one takes potential
environmental damage into account. It is therefore
unlikely that there would be enough funds to pay for
environmental remediation if things go wrong. Derek
Light confirms, “This is a very new technology in South
Africa and a multitude of things can go wrong; we are very
concerned about the impact of things going wrong. “
As a matter of interest, Shell has not got a squeaky-clean
environmental track record, as is evidenced by several
claims in the USA covering violations including air
pollution, contamination of groundwater from leaking fuel
and other storage tanks, violation of emission standards,
the unauthorized venting and flaring of gas, illegal
dumping, oil spills and toxic river pollution. Pesticide
contamination of groundwater occurred in Brazil. The
alleged “dismal pollution record which has claimed the
lives of many residents” of the Shell/BP refinery in Durban
triggered angry protests, although Shell stated its intention
was to be good neighbours with locals.
In Quebec, a scientific study conducted by a geological
engineering professor specializing in rock mechanics and
hydrology has established that hydraulic fracturing is
likely to cause irreversible harm lasting thousands of
years. According to a report published in the Montreal
Gazette in early March 2011, the average life of a gas well is
between 10 - 30 years. However, rock formations
shattered by fracking become thousands of times more
permeable, allowing the remaining 80% of shale gas left,
together with underground water ten times saltier than
seawater, to continue circulating and rising to the surface
through disused gas wells. Over time, methane could leak
into groundwater and gas leaks could gush into the air.
Although abandoned wells may be capped with concrete,
these could collapse. The professor concludes that
hydraulic fracturing to release shale gas is not sustainable
and not as safe as conventional gas production.
More recently, Petroleum Agency of South Africa (PASA)
geology manager came out strongly in support of fracking,
saying that was “unlikely” to contaminate groundwater. In
response, Deal stated: “One wonders why, at a time when
first world countries are imposing bans and moratoriums
on hydraulic fracturing, the South African government is
even considering this technology.” Cash-strapped PASA
also stands to gain a 10% stake in gas exploration with a
further 10% being awarded to empowerment partners of
companies given the right to exploit the gas. A revised
draft Environmental Management Plan has been submitted
but the documentation is voluminous and the time for
comment (20 days) is felt to be insufficient.
All things considered, we cannot allow this to happen in
South Africa - in the Karoo or anywhere else. Our unspoilt
landscapes are precious; they are the places where we go
to rejuvenate ourselves from the cares of everyday life.
They are home to the wild animals, birds and plants that
share the land with us. They provide revenue from
tourism and farming. As acid mine water threatens
Johannesburg, one realizes that it is imperative that we do
not allow another invasive form of mining to threaten our
environment and our precious water supply. As a species,
we may be cleverer than all other life-forms on earth but
we, too, cannot live without clean water, fresh air and
fertile soil. It brings to mind the ancient North American
Indian prophecy: Only after the last tree has been cut down,
only after the last river has been poisoned, only after the last
fish has been eaten – only then will you find that you cannot
eat money. Ever more these days, this seems like an idea
whose time may have come.
Sources:
Wikkipedia: Hydraulic Fracturing
Executive Summary: Exploration Right Environmental
Management Programme Report - Falcon Oil & Gas Ltd
Energy in Depth: www.energyindepth.org
Karoo Birds and Climate Change: Percy Fitzpatrick Institute
of Ornithology, UCT
Conservation International: Biodiversity Hotspots
World Wildlife Fund - Wild World Report: Nama Karoo
Water Resources in the Klein Karoo - The challenge of
sustainable development in a water-scarce area:
D le Maitre, C Colvin and A Maherry, CSIR
Feds warn residents near Wyoming gas drilling sites not to
drink their water: ProPublica, 1/09/2010
DA wants moratorium on Karoo gas exploration: Mail &
Guardian Online, 1/2/2011
EPA News Release: EPA submits draft hydraulic fracturing
study plan to independent scientists for review: 8/2/2011
Karoo unites against Shell: Farmers Weekly, 11/2/2011
Government to look at fracking environmental impact:
SAPA, 24/2/2011
Regulation Lax as Gas Wells Tainted Water Hits Rivers: New
York Times, 26/2/2011
Press Releases: Treasure the Karoo Action Group (various)
Shell will pay up for Karoo damage: News 24, 3/3/2011
Fracking will cause “irreversible harm”: Montreal Gazette,
4/3/2011
Karoo fracking likely to be “water friendly”: Business
Report, 17/3/11
This article appeared in the April 2011 issue of The
Birder, an online magazine available on
subscription. Web site: www.thebirderonline.com