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Queuing Theory












Each
of us
has
spent
a
great
deal
of
time
waiti
ng in
lines.
In
this
chapt
er,
we
devel
op
math
e-
matic
al
mode
ls for
waiti
ng
lines,
or
queu
es. In
Secti
on
20.1,
we
begin
by
discu
ssing
some
ter-
minol
ogy
that
is
often
used
to
descr
ibe
queu
es. In
Secti
on
20.2,
we
look
at
some
distri
butio
ns(th
e
expo
nenti
al
and
the
Erlan
g
distri
butio
ns)
that
are
need
ed to
descr
ibe
queui
ng
mode
ls.
InSec
tion
20.3,
we
intro
duce
the
idea
of a
birth–
death
proce
ss,
whic
h is
basic
to
many
queu-
ing
mode
ls
invol
ving
the
expo
nenti
al
distri
butio
n.
The
remai
nder
of
the
chapt
er
exam
ines
sev-
eral
mode
ls of
queui
ng
syste
ms
that
can
be
used
to
answ
er
quest
ions
like
the
follo
wing:
1 Wh
at
fracti
on of
the
time
is
each
serve
r
idle?
2 Wh
at is
the
expe
cted
numb
er of
custo
mers
prese
nt in
the
queu
e?
3 Wh
at is
the
expe
cted
time
that
a
custo
mer
spen
ds in
the
queu
e?
4 Wh
at is
the
prob
abilit
y
distri
butio
n of
the
numb
er of
custo
mers
prese
nt in
the
queu
e?
5 Wh
at is
the
prob
abilit
y
distri
butio
n of a
custo
mer’s
waiti
ng
time?
6 If a
bank
mana
ger
want
s to
ensur
e
that
only
1% of
all
custo
mers
will
have
to
wait
more
than
5
minu
 tes
for a
teller
, how
many
teller
 s
shoul
d be
empl
oyed
?
20.
1S
o
m
e
Qu
eui
ng
Te
rm
ino
log
y
 To
descr
ibe a
queu
ing
syste
 m,
an
input
proc
ess
and
 an
outp
ut
proc
ess
must
 be
speci
fied.
Som
e
exa
mple
s of
input
and
outp
ut
proc
esse
s are
given
in
Table
1.
 The
Inpu
t or
Arri
 val
Proc
ess
The
input
proc
ess is
usual
ly
calle
d
the a
rrival
proce
ss. Ar
rivals
are
calle
dcust
omer
s. Ina
ll
mod
els
that
we
will
discu
ss,
we
assu
me
that
no
more
than
one
arriv
al
can
occur
at
agive
n
insta
nt.
For a
case
like a
resta
urant
, this
is a
very
unre
alisti
c
assu
mpti
on. If
more
than
one
arriv
al
can
occur
at a
given
insta
nt,
we
say
that
bulk
arriv
als ar
e
allow
ed.
Usua
lly,
we
assu
me
that
the
arriv
al
proc
ess is
unaff
ecte
d by
the
num
ber
of
custo
mers
pres
ent
in
the
syste
m. In
the
cont
ext
of a
bank,
this
woul
d
imply
that
whet
her
there
are5
00 or
5
peopl
e at
the
bank,
the
proc
ess
gove
rning
arriv
als
rema
ins
unch
ange
d.
Ther
e are
two
com
mon
situa
tions
in
whic
h the
arriv
al
proc
ess
may
depe
nd
on
the
num-
ber
of
custo
mers
pres
ent.
The
first
occur
s
when
arriv
als
are
draw
n
from
a
small
popu
la-
tion.
Supp
ose
that
there
are
only
four
ships
in a
naval
shipy
ard.
If all
four
ships
are
be-
ing
repai
red,
then
no
ship
can
brea
k
down
in
the
near
futur
e. On
the
other
hand
, if all
fours
hips
are
at
sea,
a
brea
kdow
n has
a
relati
vely
high
prob
abilit
y of
occur
ring
in
the
near
 1052
CHAPTE
R 20 Qu

euing
Theor
y
futur
e.
Mode
ls in
whic
h
arriv
als
are
draw
n
from
 a
small
popu
latio
n are
calle
dfinit
e
sourc
e
mode
ls.An
other
situa
tion
in
whic
h the
arriv
al
proc
ess
depe
nds
on
the
num
ber
of
custo
mers
pres
ent
occur
s
when
the
rate
at
whic
h
custo
mers
arriv
e at
the
facilit
y
decr
ease
swhe
n the
facilit
y
beco
mes
too
crow
ded.
For
exa
mple
, if
you
see
that
the
bank
parki
ng
lotis
full,
you
migh
t
pass
by
and
come
anot
her
day.
If a
custo
mer
arriv
es
but
fails
to
enter
the
syste
m,
we
say
that
the
custo
mer
hasb
alked
. The
phen
ome
non
of
balki
ng
was
de-
scrib
ed
by
Yogi
Berra
when
he
said,
“Nob
ody
goes
to
that
resta
urant
any
more
; it’s
toocr
owde
d.”
If the
arriv
al
proc
ess is
unaff
ecte
d by
the
num
ber
of
custo
mers
pres
ent,
we
usual
ly
de-
scrib
e it
by
speci
fying
a
prob
abilit
y
distri
butio
n
that
gove
rns
the
time
betw
een
succ
essiv
earri
vals.
The
Out
put
or
Serv
ice
Proc
ess
To
descr
ibe
the
outp
ut
proc
ess
(ofte
n
calle
d the
servi
ce
proc
ess)
of a
queu
ing
syste
m,
weus
ually
speci
fy a
prob
abilit
y
distri
butio
n—
the s
ervic
e
time
distri
butio
n—
whic
h
gove
rnsa
custo
mer’
s
servi
ce
time.
In
most
case
s, we
assu
me
that
the
servi
ce
time
distri
butio
n
isind
epen
dent
of
the
num
ber
of
custo
mers
pres
ent.
This
impli
es,
for
exa
mple
, that
the
serve
rdoe
s not
work
faste
r
when
more
custo
mers
are
pres
ent.
 In
this
chap
 ter,
we
study
 two
arran
gem
 ents
of
serve
rs: se
rvers
in
parall
el an
 ds e
rve rs
 in
serie
s.Ser
vers
are
in
paral
lel if
all
serve
rs
provi
 de
the
same
type
of
servi
 ce
and
 a
cus-
tome
r
need
only
pass
throu
gh
one
serve
r to
comp
lete
servi
ce.
For
exa
mple
, the
teller
s ina
bank
are
usual
ly
arran
ged
in
paral
lel;
any
custo
mer
need
only
be
servi
ced
by
one
teller
,and
any
teller
can
perfo
rm
the
desir
ed
servi
ce.
Serv
ers
are
in
serie
s if a
custo
mer
must
pass
throu
gh
sever
al
serve
rs
befor
e
comp
letin
g
servi
ce.
An
asse
mbly
line
is an
exa
mple
of a
serie
s
queu
ing
syste
m.
Que
ue
Disc
iplin
 e
To
descr
ibe a
queu
ing
syste
m
comp
letely
, we
must
 also
descr
ibe
 the
queu
e
disci
pline
and
the
man
ner
 in
whic
h
custo
mers
 join
lines.
The
queu
e
discip
line d
escri
bes
the
meth
od
used
to
deter
mine
the
order
in
whic
h
cus-
tome
rs
are
serve
d.
The
most
com
mon
queu
e
disci
pline
is
the F
CFS
discip
line (
first
come
,first
serve
d), in
whic
h
custo
mers
are
serve
d in
the
order
of
their
arriv
al.
Unde
r
theL
CFS
discip
line(l
ast
come
, first
serve
 d),
the
most
rece
nt
arriv
als
are
the
 first
to
enter
servi
ce. If
 we
consi
der
exitin
g
from
 an
eleva
tor to
 be
servi
ce,
then
a
crow
 ded
eleva
tor
illust
rates
an
LCFS
disci
pline.
Som
etim
es
 the
order
in
whic
h
custo
mers
arriv
e has
 no
effec
t on
 the
or-
TABLE
1
Exa
mple
s of
Queu
ing
Syste
ms
Situati
on
 Input
Proces
s
Outpu
t
Proces
s
Bank
Custo
mers
arrive
at
bank
Teller
s
serve
 the
custo
mers
Pizza
parlor
Requ
ests
for
pizza
delive
ry
Pizza
parlor
sends
out
 are
receiv
ed
truck
to
delive
 r
pizzas
Hospi
tal
blood
bank
Pints
of
blood
arrive
Patie
nts
use
 up
pints
of
blood
Naval
shipy
ard
Ships
at sea
break
down
Ships
are
repair
 ed
and
and
are
sent
 to
shipy
ard
retur
n to
sea
 for
repair
s
c
0a
(t)
dt
and
P(A
c) 

20.2 M
odeli
ng
Arriva
l and
Servi
 ce
Proce
sses
1053
der
in
whic
h
they
are
serve
d.
This
woul
d be
the
case
if the
next
custo
mer
to
enter
servi
ceis
rand
omly
chos
en
from
those
custo
mers
waiti
ng
for
servi
ce.
Such
a
situa
tion
is
refer
redto
as
the S
IRO
discip
line (
servi
ce in
rand
om
order
).
Whe
n
caller
s to
an
airlin
e are
put
onhol
d,
the
luck
of
the
draw
often
deter
mine
s the
next
caller
servi
ced
by
an
oper
ator.
Finall
y, we
consi
der p
riorit
y
queui
ng
discip
lines.
A
priori
ty
disci
pline
classi
fies
each
arriv
al
into
one
of
sever
al
cate
gorie
s.
Each
cate
gory
is
then
given
a
priori
ty
level,
andw
ithin
each
priori
ty
level,
custo
mers
enter
servi
ce on
an
FCFS
basis
.
Priori
ty
disci
pline
sare
often
used
in
emer
genc
y
room
s to
deter
mine
the
order
in
whic
h
custo
mers
recei
vetre
atme
nt,
and
in
copyi
ng
and
comp
uter
time-
shari
ng
facilit
ies,
wher
e
priori
ty is
usual
lygiv
en to
jobs
with
short
er
proc
essin
g
times
.
Met
hod
Use
d by
Arri
vals
 to
Join
Que
ue
Anot
her
facto
r that
has
an
impo
rtant
effec
t on
the
beha
vior
of a
queu
ing
syste
m is
the
meth
odth
at
custo
mers
use
to
deter
mine
whic
h line
to
join.
For
exa
mple
, in
some
bank
s,
custo
mers
must
join a
singl
e
line,
but
in
other
bank
s,
custo
mers
may
choo
se
the
line
they
want
to
join.
Whe
n
there
are
sever
al
lines,
custo
mers
often
join
the
short
est
line.
Unfor
tunat
ely,
in
man
ysitu
ation
s
(such
as a
supe
rmar
ket),
it is
diffic
ult to
defin
e the
short
est
line.
If
there
are
sev-
eral
lines
at a
queu
ing
facilit
y, it
is
impo
rtant
to
know
whet
her
or
not
custo
mers
are
allow
edto
switc
h, or
jocke
y,
betw
een
lines.
In
most
queu
ing
syste
ms
with
multi
ple
lines,
jocke
yingi
s
perm
itted,
but
jocke
ying
at a
toll
boot
h
plaza
is not
reco
mme
nded
.
20.
2M
od
eli
ng
Arr
iva
l
an
d
Se
rvi
ce
Pr
oc
es
se
s
Mod
elin
 g
the
Arri
val
Proc
ess
As
previ
ously
ment
ioned
, we
assu
me
that
at
most
one
arriv
al
can
occur
at a
given
insta
ntof
time.
We
defin
et to
i
be
the
time
at
whic
h
theit
h
custo
mer
arriv
es.
To
illust
rate
this,c
onsid
er
Figur
e 1.
Fori
 1,
we
defin
 T
e i

t 
i  1
i
t to
be
theit
h
inter
arriv
al
time.
Thus,
in
the
figur
e,T 1
8
3
 5,
andT
2
1
5 8
 7.
In
mod
eling
the
arriv
al
proc
ess,
we
assu
me
that
i
theT ’
s are
inde
pend
ent,
conti
nuou
s
rand
om
varia
bles
descr
ibed
by
thera
ndo
m
varia
bleA.
The
inde
pend
ence
assu
mpti
on
mea
ns,
for
exa
mple
, that
the
value
of
T 2
has
no
effec
 t on
the
value
 T
of ,3
4
T , or
any
later
i
T.
The
assu
mpti
on
 that
each
 i
T is
con-
tinuo
us is
usual
ly a
good
appr
oxim
ation
of
realit
y.
After
all,
an
inter
arriv
al
time
need
notb
e
exact
ly 1
minu
te or
2
minu
tes;
it
could
just
as
easil
y be,
say,
1.55
892
minu
tes.
The
as-
sump
tion
that
each
inter
arriv
al
time
is
gove
rned
by
the
same
rand
om
varia
ble
impli
es
thatt
he
distri
butio
n of
arriv
als is
inde
pend
ent
of
the
time
of
day
or
the
day
of
the
week
.
Thisi
s the
assu
mpti
on of
stati
onar
y
inter
arriv
al
times
.
Beca
use
of
phen
ome
na
such
as
rush
hour
s,
the
assu
mpti
on of
stati
onar
y
inter
arriv
al
times
is
often
unre
alisti
c,
but
we
may
of-
ten
appr
oxim
ate
realit
y by
brea
king
the
time
of
day
into
segm
ents.
For
exa
mple
, if
wew
ere
mod
eling
traffi
c
flow,
we
migh
t
brea
k the
day
up
into
three
segm
ents:
a
morn
ingru
sh
hour
segm
ent,
a
midd
ay
segm
ent,
and
an
after
noon
rush
hour
segm
ent.
Durin
g
each
of
these
segm
ents,
inter
arriv
al
times
may
be
stati
onar
y.
 We
assu
me
thatA
has a
densi
 ty
funct
iona(
 t).
Recal
l
from
Secti
on
12.5
that
 for
small
 t, P
(t A
t
 
t) is
appr
oxim
ately
ta(t
 ). Of
cours
e, a
nega
tive
inter
arriv
al
time
is
impo
ssibl
e.
This
allow
s us
 to
write
P(A
c) 


∞
c
a(t)d
t
(1)
∞
0ta
(t)
dt
(2)
 We
defin
el to
 be
the a
rrival
rate,
whic
h will
have
units
of
arriv
als
 per
hour.
 In
most
appli
catio
ns of
queu
 ing,
an
impo
rtant
ques
tion
 is
how
to
choo
seA t
o
refle
ct
realit
y
and
 still
be
comp
utati
onall
y
tract
able.
The
most
com
mon
choic
e
forA i
 s
thee
xpo-
nenti
al
distri
butio
n.An
expo
nenti
al
distri
butio
n
with
 para
mete
rl has
 a
densi
tya(t)

 lt
le .
Figur
e2
show
s the
densi
 ty
funct
ion
 for
an
expo
nenti
al
distri
butio
n.
We
see
that
a(t)
decr
ease
 s
very
rapid
 ly
for ts
mall.
 This
indic
ates
that
very
long
inter
arriv
al
time
s are
unlik
ely.
Usin
 g
Equa
tion
 (2)
and
integ
ratio
n by
parts
, we
can
show
that
the
aver
age
or
mea
n
inter
arriv
al
time
 (call
itE(A)
) is
given
by
E(A)
 l1


(3)
Usin
g the
fact
that
varA
 E(
 2
A )
E(A) 2

, we
 can
show
that
varA
 l1


2

(4)
No-
Mem
 ory
Prop
erty
 of
the
Expo
nenti
al
Distri
butio
n
 The
reaso
n the
expo
nenti
al
distri
butio
n is
often
used
to
mod
el
inter
 arriv
al
times
 is
em-
bodie
d in
the
follo
wing
lem
ma.
IfA h
as an
expo
nenti
al
distri
butio
n,
then
 for
all
nonn
egati
ve
value
 s
oft a
ndh,
P(A
t h |
A  t)
 P(
A h
)
 (5)
Proof
First
note
that
from
Equa
tion
(1),
 we
have
P(A
h) 


1054
CHAPTE
R 20 Qu

euing
Theor
y
LEMMA
1
We
defin
l
e t1
 
o be
the
mea
n or
aver
age
inter
arriv
al
time.
With
out
loss
of
gene
rality
,
weas
sume
that
time
is
meas
ured
in
units
of
hour
s.
Then

l1 wil


l
have
units
of
hour
s per
ar-
rival.
From
Secti
on
12.5,
we
may
comp
ute l 1


fro

m a ( t)
by
using
the
follo
wing
equa
tion:
 l1
 

 

∞
hl lt
e
[
lt h
e ]
∞
 l
e
h
(6)
Then
P(A
t h |
A  t)

From
(6),
P(A
t h
A
t) 
l(th
e
)
and
P(A
t) 
lt
e
Thus,
P(A
t h |
A  t)


 l (
e e
 

tl t

h)
 e
 

lh
P
(A 
h)
P(A
t h
A
t)

P(A
t)
t =3
1
T =8–
1 3=
5
T 2= 15– 8
=7
t =8
2
t = 15
3

FIGURE
1
Defin
ition
of
Inter
arriv
al
Time
s
20.2 M
odeli
ng
Arriva
l and
Servi
 ce
Proce
sses
1055
THEORE
1
M

It
can
 be
show
n
 that
no
other
densi
ty
funct
 ion
can
satisf
y (5)
(see
Feller
(195
7)).
For
reaso
ns
that
beco
me
appa
rent,
a
densi
 ty
that
satis
 fies
(5) is
said
 to
have
then
 o-
mem
ory
prope
rty.S
uppo
se
we
are
 told
that
there
 has
been
no
arriv
al for
the
lastt
hour
s
(this
is
equiv
alent
to
bein
g
told
thatA
 t)
and
are
aske
d
what
the
prob
abilit
y is
that
there
willb
e no
arriv
al
durin
g the
next
h ho
urs
(that
is,A
t
h).
Then
(5)
impli
es
that
this
prob-
abilit
y doe
s not
depe
nd on
the
value
of t,
and
for
all
value
s oft,
this
prob
abilit
y
equal
s
P(A
h). In
short
 , if
we
know
 that
at
least
ttime
units
have
elaps
ed
since
the
last
arriv
al
occur
red,
then
 the
distri
butio
 n of
the
rema
ining
time
until
 the
next
arriv
al (h)
does
not
de-
pend
ont.
For
exa
mple
,
ifh
4,
then
 (5)
yield
s,
 fort
 5,
t 3
,t 
2,
andt
 0,
P(A
9|A
5)
P(A
7|A
3)
P(A
6|A
2)
 P(
A 4
|A
0)
4
e
l
The
no-
mem
 ory
prop
erty
 of
the
expo
nenti
al
distri
butio
n is
impo
rtant,
beca
use it
impli
es
 that
if we
want
 to
know
the
prob
abilit
y
distri
butio
n of
 the
time
until
 the
next
arriv
 al,
theni
t
does
not
matt
 er
how
long
it has
been
since
 the
last
arriv
al.To
put it
in
concr
ete
term
 s,
sup-
pose
inter
arriv
al
times
are
expo
nenti
ally
distri
bute
d
withl
 6.
Then
the
no-
mem
ory
prop-
erty
impli
es
that
no
matt
er
how
long
it has
been
since
the
last
arriv
al,
the
prob
abilit
y dis-
tribut
ion
gove
rning
the
time
until
the
next
arriv
al
has
the
densi
ty
funct
ion
 6t
6e .
This
mea
nsth
at to
predi
ct
futur
e
arriv
al
patte
rns,
we
need
not
keep
track
of
how
long
it has
been
since
the
last
arriv
al.
This
obse
rvati
on
can
appr
eciab
ly
simpl
ify
analy
sis of
a
queu
ing
syste
m.
 To
see
that
know
ledge
of
 the
time
since
 the
last
arriv
 al
does
affec
t the
distri
butio
n of
time
until
the
next
arriv
al in
most
situa
tions,
supp
ose
thatA
 is
discr
ete
withP
(A 
5)
 P(A
 10
0)

12
. If


we
are
 told
that
there
 has
been
no
arriv
al
durin
g the
last 6
time
units,
we k
now
with
certai
nty t
hat it
will
be
100
6
 94
time
units
until
the
next
arriv
al.
Onth
e
other
hand
, if
we
are
told
that
no
arriv
al
has
occur
red
durin
g the
last
time
unit,
thent
here
is
some
chan
ce
that
the
time
until
the
next
arriv
al
will
be
5 1
4
time
units
ands
ome
chan
ce
that
it will
be
100
1
 99
time
units.
Henc
e, in
this
situa
tion,
the
distri
-
butio
n of
the
next
inter
arriv
al
time
cann
ot
easil
y be
predi
cted
with
know
ledge
of
the
timet
hat
has
elaps
ed
since
the
last
arriv
al.
Relat
ion
Betw
 een
Poiss
on
Distri
butio
n
 and
Expo
nenti
 al
Distri
butio
n
 If
inter
arriv
 al
times
are
expo
nenti
al,
 the
prob
abilit
 y
distri
butio
n of
the
num
ber
of
arriv
als
occur
ring
in
 any
time
inter
val of
lengt
ht is
given
by
the
 follo
wing
impo
rtant
theor
em.
Inter
arriv
al
times
are
expo
nenti
al
with
para
mete
rl if
and
only
if the
num
ber
of ar-
rivals
to
occur
in an
inter
val of
lengt
ht fol
lows
a
Poiss
on
distri
butio
n
with
para-
mete
r l t.
a(t)= e
t
 t
e t
FIGURE
2
Dens
ity
Func
tion
for
Expo
nenti
al
Distri
butio
n
 1056
CHAPTE
R 20 Qu

euing
Theor
y
 A
discr
ete
rand
om
varia
bleN
has a
Poiss
 on
distri
butio
 n
with
para
mete
rl if,
forn

0, 1,
2, . .
.,
P(N
 n)


 l
e n!


l n

(n 
0, 1,
2, . .
.)
(7)
IfN is
a
Poiss
 on
rand
om
 varia
ble,
it can
 be
show
n
thatE
(N)
varN
l. If
we
defin
e
Nt
to
be
the
num
ber
of
arriv
als to
occur
durin
g any
time
inter
val of
lengt
 ht,
Theo
rem
1
state
s
that
P(N t

 n)


 l t
e n(
n
! l t)

(n 
0, 1,
2, . .
.)
Sinc
t
eN is
Poiss
on
with
para
mete
r l t, E (
N )t
var Nt

 l t.
An
aver
age
oflt a
rrival
socc
ur
durin
g a
time
inter
val of
lengt
h t,
sol m
ay be
thou
ght
of as
the
aver
age
num
ber
ofarri
vals
per
unit
time,
or
the
arriv
al
rate.
What
assu
mpti
 ons
are
requi
 red
for
inter
 arriv
al
times
to be
expo
nenti
 al?
Theo
rem
 2
pro-
vides
a
parti
 al
answ
er.
Consi
der
the
follo
wing
two
assu
mpti
ons:
1 Arri
vals
defin
 ed
on
nono
verla
ppin
g
time
inter
vals
 are
inde
pend
ent
(for
exa
mple
, the
num
ber
of
arriv
als
occur
ring
betw
een
times
1
and
 10
does
not
give
us
any
infor
mati
on
abou
t the
num
 ber
of
arriv
 als
occur
ring
betw
een
times
 30
and
50).
2 For
small
t (a
 nd
any
value
oft),
the
prob
abilit
y of
one
arriv
al
occur
ring
betw
een
times
t and
tt
islt
o(
t),
wher
e o ( t
)
refer
s to
any
quan
tity
satisf
ying
lim
 →
t 0


o(
t t)
 0


Also,
the
prob
abilit
y of
 no
arriv
al
durin
g the
inter
 val
betw
eent
and t
t
is
1 l
t 
o (  t)
, and
the
prob
abilit
y of
more
than
one
arriv
al
occur
ring
betw
een t
and t
 ti
s
o (  t)
.
THEORE
M
2
 If
assu
mpti
ons 1
and
2
hold,
then
N fol
t
lows
a
Poiss
 on
distri
butio
 n
with
para
mete
r
 l t,
and
inter
arriv
al
time
s are
expo
nenti
 al
with
para
mete
r l;
that
is,a(t
) l e
lt
.
In
esse
nce,
Theo
rem
2
state
s
that
if the
arriv
al
rate
is
stati
onar
y, if
bulk
arriv
als
can-
not
occur
, and
if
past
arriv
als
do
not
affec
t
futur
e
arriv
als,
then
inter
arriv
al
times
will
fol-
low
an
expo
nenti
al
distri
butio
n
with
para
mete
rl,
and
the
num
ber
of
arriv
als in
any
in-
terva
l of
lengt
ht is
Poiss
on
with
para
mete
r l t.
The
assu
mpti
ons
of
Theo
rem
2
may
appe
arto
be
very
restri
ctive,
but
inter
arriv
al
times
are
often
expo
nenti
al
even
if the
assu
mpti
onsof
Theo
rem
2 are
not
satis
fied
(see
Dena
rdo
(198
2)).
In
Secti
on
20.1
2, we
discu
ss
how
touse
data
to
test
whet
her
the
hypo
thesi
s of
expo
nenti
al
inter
arriv
al
times
is
reaso
nable
.
Inma
ny
appli
catio
ns,
the
assu
mpti
on of
expo
nenti
al
inter
arriv
al
times
turns
out
to be
a
fairly
good
appr
oxim
ation
of
realit
y.
Usin
g
Excel
 to
Com
pute
Poiss
on
and
Expo
nenti
al
Prob
abiliti
es
Excel
cont
ains
funct
ions
that
facilit
ate
the
comp
utati
on of
prob
abiliti
es
conc
ernin
g the
Poiss
on
and
expo
nenti
al
rand
om
varia
bles.
 The
synta
x of
 the
Excel
POIS
 SON
funct
ion is
 as
follo
ws:
s
P
OISS
ON(x
,MEA
N,TR
UE)
gives
the
prob
abilit
y
that
 a
Poiss
on
rand
om
varia
ble
with
mea
n
Mean
is
less
than
or
equal
tox.
Chapter 20 (Queuing Theory)
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