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Kaleidoscopes operate on the principle of multiple reflection, where several mirrors are attached
together. Typically there are three rectangular lengthwise mirrors. Setting the mirrors at a 45-
degree angle creates eight duplicate images of the objects, six at 60°, and four at 90°. As the tube
is rotated, the tumbling of the coloured objects presents the viewer with varying colours and
patterns. Any arbitrary pattern of objects shows up as a beautiful symmetrical pattern created by
the reflections in the mirrors. A two-mirror model yields a pattern or patterns isolated against a
solid black background, while a three-mirror (closed triangle) model yields a pattern that fills the
entire field.

For a 2D-symmetry group, a Ê
 

 is a point of intersection of two or more lines
of reflection symmetry. In a discrete group, the angle between consecutive lines is 180°/ for an
integer •2. At this point there are  lines of reflection symmetry, and the point is a center of -
fold rotational symmetry. See also symmetry combinations.

Modern kaleidoscopes are made of brass tubes, stained glass, wood, steel, gourds and almost any
other material an artist can sculpt or manipulate. The part of the kaleidoscope containing objects
to be viewed is the 'object chamber' or 'object cell'. Object cells may contain almost any material.
Sometimes the object cell is filled with liquid so the items float and move through the object cell
with slight movement from the person viewing.

The kaleidoscope was invented in 1814 by Sir David Brewster when he was conducting
experiments on light polarization[1] and was not patented until 2 years later. His initial design
was a tube with pairs of mirrors at one end, pairs of translucent disks at the other, and beads
between the two. Initially intended as a science tool, the kaleidoscope was later copied as a toy.
Brewster later believed he would make money from this popular invention; however, a fault in
the wording of his patent allowed others to copy his invention.[

]

Cozy Baker²founder of The Brewster Kaleidoscope Society²collected kaleidoscopes and

wrote books about a few of the artists making them in the 1970s through 2000. Baker is credited
with energizing a renaissance in kaleidoscope-making in America. In 1999 a short-lived
magazine dedicated to kaleidoscopes²one called  


²was published,
covering artists, collectors, dealers, events, and including how-to articles. This magazine was
created and edited by Brett Bensley, at that time a well-known kaleidoscope artist and resource
on kaleidoscope information.

Craft galleries often carry a few kaleidoscopes, while other enterprises specialize in them,
carrying dozens of different types from different artists and craftspeople.
)c*+,c- .c$)/*

Uatural magnets are different from other magnets, because they do not need to have their
properties altered in order to become magnetized. Some materials may become temporarily or
permanently magnetized when rubbed by magnets, or when they are subjected to electric fields.
Uatural magnets are already magnetic and are found in the Earth.

‘

V‘ One example of a natural magnet is the mineral magnetite, composed of an iron
oxide. A lodestone is a type of magnetite that was one of the earliest natural
 magnets discovered. Basalt, which forms when lava hardens, also contains
magnetite, although its magnetic field is weak.

Another natural magnet is pyrrhotite, which is formed of iron sulfide. It is only

weakly magnetic, with the strength of its field varying according to the amount of
iron contained.

The Earth itself behaves as a natural magnet. It has a magnetic south pole which is
actually located geographically north, in Canada. Likewise, its magnetic north
pole is actually geographically south, in the Antarctic.

ü ‘† 

 
V‘ Magnetism is created from moving charges, or electric current. The moving
charges both create and respond to magnetic fields. An atom has electrons that
revolve around the nucleus and also rotate on their axes in a manner called spin.
These movements give rise to magnetic fields.

 
V‘ Like all magnets, natural ones attract or repel other magnets, as well as other
materials such as iron and steel. The places on the magnet that produce opposite
magnetic forces are called north and south poles. Uorth poles always attract south
poles, and vice-versa. However, north poles brought near other north poles (and
south poles brought near other south poles) repel each other.

å 
 å  

V‘ Uatural magnets are known as permanent magnets. The continual magnetism of
permanent magnets is due to the presence of magnetic dipoles in magnetic
domains. A dipole is positive charge and a negative charge that have the same
size and are a certain distance from each other. A magnetic dipole has two poles,
north and south, that are spaced apart. A bar magnet is therefore considered to be
a magnetic dipole, and so is the Earth. A solitary atom can also be a dipole.
Magnetic domains are formed from dipoles that are mainly aligned in the same
direction.

Permanent magnets may be ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic. Ferromagnets are

permanent because they have many magnetic domains, where each one behaves
like a tiny magnet. Ferrimagnets are similar to ferromagnets, except their domains
are aligned differently. Magnetite and certain forms of pyrrhotite are
ferrimagnetic.

˜


V‘ Bar, horseshoe, disk and some refrigerator magnets may be made from natural
magnets. The black sand on beaches is usually formed from magnetite. The
Chinese invented the compass, which was made using lodestone. Chinese
fortunetellers first used compasses for divination; sailors eventually used them for
navigation.
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