A TEST OF FAITH:

THE FRAIL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE ROMANS AND THE CHRISTIANS

The Roman civic heritage was built upon a foundation that consisted of traits which were
embedded within the social, political and economic facets of their society. Though power shifted
continually throughout the history of the empire, religion was one of the few things that remained a
forefront in the minds of the Roman people. The introduction of Christianity to the Roman people
was a difficult and blood filled journey. The very concept of Christianity challenged the foundations
of what Rome was built upon, contesting the roles of the gods, the beliefs that people had and the
people’s faith in the emperor. Christianity’s troubled relationship with Roman civic heritage was
successful in changing the way that Rome operated. Socially, it had a significant impact upon the
everyday people and was one of the biggest changes in Roman history. With a focus upon the origins
of Christianity, its perception and the figure of Augustine, it is evident that the introduction of the
new religion paved the way for a new way of life for the Roman people and one which resonates
through to today’s society.

The introduction of Christianity saw great changes made to the Roman way of life. These
changes, including the differences between the two forms of worship all contributed to the growing
tensions between the early Christian followers and the Romans. In The Decline and Fall of the
Roman Empire by Edward Gibbon, he states that

“A candid but rational enquiry into the progress and establishment of Christianity may be considered as a very
essential part of the history of the Roman Empire…Our curiosity is naturally prompted to inquire by what means the
Christian faith obtained so remarkable a victory over the established religions of the earth.”1

However, during the early part of the Christian movement, there is no proof which shows
that the Roman people ever tried to stop the spread of Christianity. At least not directly from the
beginning. As Gillian Clark states in her text Christianity and Roman Society “The Roman Empire, in
the early centuries ce, made no attempt to establish a universal cult or sacred text or priesthood or
belief-statement: nor did it repress cults, unless they offended against Roman religious feeling (most
obviously by human sacrifice) or against public order.” 2 With the belief that Christianity was not a
threat, the Romans allowed Christianity to be practiced with no hindrance as it did not break any
laws of public order. However, as the cause begins to grow further within the Empire, the Roman
political body comes to the realisation that Christianity poses a threat to the Roman way of life. As
1
Gibbon, Edward; The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire – Chapter 15, page 143; Chatto and Windus Ltd
1960
2
Clark, Gillian; Christianity and Roman Society – Page 5; Cambridge University Press 2004

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such, this realisation gives rise to the growing tension between Rome and the movement of
Christianity.

There are a number of differences which existed between the Christians and the Roman
Pagans. One of these variations was the proposed change from the monotheistic form of worship to
a polytheistic one. Where once people worshiped various deities who represented different aspects
of life, there was now the notion of one, singular god. As Marta Sordi writes in her text Christians
and the Roman Empire “…according to the religion in Rome, the prosperity and fortunes of the state
depended not only upon the industry, worth and wisdom of the citizens and their law-givers, but also
upon the protection of particular deities.”3 Essentially, Sordi reinforces the notion that the Roman
citizens were raised with the idea of religion, fortified within their very up-bringing. Christianity
introduced a different concept -This idea of polytheism which was the traditional form of worship in
Rome was replaced by monotheism as the dominant form of worship. Monotheism brought with it a
sense of unity. Prior to Christianity, it was difficult to ascertain what religion a particular person
belonged to. As Clark writes

“Cities had local traditions about the cults that the gods required them to maintain; modern writes call these ‘civic
cults’….In most cases it would be difficult to tell that someone belonged to such a cult unless he or she was seen at a
place of worship of an unfamiliar god, taking part in a ceremony, revering an image or, sometimes, observing specific
rules of lifestyle.”4

With Polytheism the traditional form of worship in Roman culture, there was no limit to
which Gods were worshiped. There was much choice in regards to which deities could be revered
and the idea of one god was a new concept to the Roman people. As Clark states the “…Belief that
there is one and only one god, was not compatible with traditional religion or with ‘divine honours’
for emperors.”5 This sense of unity was just another reason why the Roman people were hesitant in
considering Christianity as a religion. For so long, they had been brought up with the thought that
various deities ruled different aspects of life and to suddenly replace these figures with a singular
symbolic representation was a foreign idea. This change was just one of the many reasons why
Romans refused to accept Christianity immediately. The growing number of people who began to
worship one “God” caused a build-up in tension between believers of Christianity and the Romans.
However it was not the sole reason.

3
Sordi, Marta; Christians and the Roman Empire – Page 5; Routledge Press 1994
4
Clark, Gillian; Christianity and Roman Society – Page 6; Cambridge University Press 2004
5
Clark, Gillian; Christianity and Roman Society – Page 6; Cambridge University Press 2004

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The shift to monotheism was not the only difference that Christianity brought. In fact, from
the start, Christianity and its existence in Rome had been a widely debated issue. At first, perceived
as a small, unimportant cult-like group, Christianity grew to become the dominant religion of the
Roman Empire. The belief of the Roman people was that the Christians were of such lower class that
they would pose no threat to the Empire and paid little attention to the matter. The idea extended
beyond the notion of economic status. It also covered the idea of social status i.e. criminals and
lawbreakers. Roman society held great reverence towards an individual’s social status in conjunction
with their economical one. The idea that Christianity was a poor person’s religion placed Christianity
in an unfavourable view as the Roman’s showered their chosen god of worship in gold, jewels and
animal sacrifices.
However, the Romans at first showed no real resistance towards the Christian faith when it
appeared among the lower classes of Rome. Sordi claims that “The Roman attitude to Christian
preaching in the Jewish diaspora of the eastern Mediterranean was, in other words, generally
neutral and sometimes even benevolent.”6 Given the vast amount of differences that existed
between the two cultures however this attitude soon changed. This led to the formation of obvious
conflict between the two groups.
Christianity differed greatly from the traditional means of worship that Romans were
accustomed to. It was accessible to people from lower levels of social and educational classes. As
Peter Brown writes in his text Power and Persuasion in Late Antiquity “The Bible itself, with its
seemingly endless layers of meaning, was a microcosm of the social and intellectual diversity to be
found in the Christian churches. “Its plain language and simple style make it accessible to
all…””7Brown identifies a key issue here, essentially stating that Christian’s continued surge in
popularity within the lower class of the Roman Empire was due to the accessibility available to them.
Worship was no longer restricted to how much you could give to your god.
Christianity’s accessibility to the criminals and law breakers of the Roman society was
another key factor in the growing tension between the Romans and the Christians. As Gibbon states
“…the Christians allured into their party the most atrocious criminals, who, as soon as they were
touched by a sense of remorse, were easily persuaded to wash away, in the water of baptism, the
guilt of their past conduct, for which the temples of the gods refused to grant them any expiation.” 8
Traditionally, once a Roman citizen had committed a crime, depending upon the severity of the

6
Sordi, Marta; Christians and the Roman Empire – Page 24; Routledge Press 1994
7
Brown, Peter; Power and Persuasion in Late Antiquity –Chapter 3: Poverty and Power; Page 74; University of
Wisconsin Press; 1992
8
Gibbon, Edward; The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire – Chapter 15, page 164; Chatto and Windus Ltd
1960

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charge it was impossible for the implicated party to be forgiven by their god. Christianity introduced
a unique chance for a believer’s sin to be forgiven by God.

These differences between the traditional form of Roman Paganism and Christianity
contributed greatly to the growing tension that existed. The growing conflict, which had built up due
to evident changes between the two forms of religious groups, boils over as Nero changes his
political outlook in the Year 62. The reason that tension turns into open persecution against the
Christians coincides with a change in Nero’s political outlook as Emperor of Rome.
It is after Nero’s “total departure from the Julio-Claudian tradition” 9 that there is real tension
between the two groups. Following a new system of political thought, Nero begins a new era in his
reign of the empire. As Sordi states “Nero’s change of attitude towards the Christians coincides with
his general change of policy and the coincidence is not merely chronological.” There is much
speculation in regards to why Nero chose to change his attitude towards the Christians who had
once been free to practice and preach without prejudice. However, as Lactantius, tutor of the first
Christian Emperor Constantine states, he believes that the main reason behind Nero’s persecution
was the notion of religion. As Elizabeth DePalma Digesar states in her text The Making of the
Christian Empire, Lactantius is quoted as saying within De Mortibus Persecutorum “the defection
from the worship of idols to a new religion”10 is the reason as to why Nero revolted against the
Christians. Nero’s persecution against the Christians and his choice to implicate them for causing the
great fire of Rome returns back to the idea of change which was first seen as Christianity began to
grow in popularity. As Sordi writes “When, in 64 AD , the heavy charge of arson was brought against
them, the Christians were arrested en masse, given a summary trial and executed
immediately.”11Nero saw that Christianity was an attempt to move a mass amount of people against
the norm of Roman lifestyle. Gibbon suggests that “It might therefore be expected that they would
unite with indignation against any sect or people which should separate itself from the
communication of mankind, and, claiming the exclusive possession of divine knowledge, should
disdain every form of worship except its own as impious and idolatrous.”12 Essentially, the troubled
relationship established between the Christians and the Romans existed due to a separation and
removal from the traditional customs of the Roman people. As Christianity grew in popularity among

9
Sordi, Marta; Christians and the Roman Empire – Page 28; Routledge Press 1994
10
Digesar, DePalma, Elizabeth; The Making of a Christian Empire: Lactantius & Rome – Page 115; Cornell
University Press 2000
11
Sordi, Marta; Christians and the Roman Empire – Page 34; Routledge Press 1994
12
Gibbon, Edward; The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire – Chapter 15, page 193; Chatto and Windus Ltd
1960

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the lower classes of Rome, there was also a removal from the religious foundations of Roman
society.
Christianity’s attempt at converting a large number of Roman citizens is the cause of their
persecution. This, in conjunction with the evident differences between the two forms of Religion all
contributed to the troubled relationship between Christians and Romans. Gibbon reiterates this
point several times within his text, closing his chapter on the Roman and Christian relationship by
suggesting that ““They (Christians) dissolved the sacred ties of custom and education, violated the
religious institutions of their country, and presumptuously despised whatever their fathers had
believed as true or had reverenced as sacred.” Similarly, Clark reinforces this fact within her own text
as she writes “Christians did not share in Roman religious practice, because they thought that the
Romans worshipped idols, images of false or even demonic gods….Christians also borrowed from
philosophy to interpret their sacred texts, that is, the Jewish scriptures, together with a range of first-
century Christian texts that came to be regarded as authoritative.” 13It is these differences between
the traditional Roman Pagan forms of worship and the idea of Christianity which caused great
tension between the Roman’s and the Christians. The Christian lifestyle challenged the pre-existing
ideals that had been fortified within the Roman society and thus, caused great protest and inevitable
discrimination against their movement.
However, prior to Nero’s persecution of the Christians in the year 64, Christianity, according
to Sordi has spread to the Aristocracy. She writes “…we know from reliable sources that there were
Christians among the aristocracy in the second half of the first century (Acilius Glabrio and the
Christian Flavians) and that it seems probable that the same can be said for the first half of the same
century, before Paul’s arrival in Rome.”14

The introduction of Christianity to the Roman Empire was at first, disregarded due to the
religions association with the lower, poverty stricken class of Rome. However, the year 64 brought
with it several changes, the most notable being the persecution and execution of Christians
throughout the Roman Empire under the orders of the Emperor Nero. This persecution is pivotal in
the understanding of how a religion that was once mocked and ridiculed, became the dominant
system of belief to this day. The conflict that existed between the Romans and the Christian’s was in
turn, due to several key changes to religious ideology. Systems of belief which had been reinforced
throughout the majority of Roman citizens whole life was being changed and altered and thus placed
a strain upon the Roman-Christian society.

13
Clark, Gillian; Christianity and Roman Society – Page 8-9; Cambridge University Press 2004
14
Sordi, Marta; Christians and the Roman Empire – Page 28; Routledge Press 1994

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The troubled relationship that existed between the Christians and the Romans however
eventually wanned and paved way to a new Christian movement. As Gibbon writes “While that
great body was invaded by open violence, or undermined by slow decay, a pure and humble religion
gently insinuated itself into the minds of men, grew up in silence and obscurity, derived new vigour
from the opposition and finally erected the triumphant banner of the Cross on the ruins of the
Capitol.” 15

While there was open persecution against the Christian movement, the religion itself
gathered followers deep within the Roman Empire. Outside of Rome, the various provinces also
experienced Christian movement and in line with the events that occurred within the walls of Rome,
united against the religious movement. However, while the movement was met with much
resistance, there were a number of prominent figures who pushed for the inclusion of the religion as
the dominant faith of the Roman Empire. One of these father figures is Augustine who contested the
role of the Roman civic elites and the Roman political heritage; insisting that Christianity was the
correct course to follow.

As Richard Hooker writes in his text Early Christianity “Augustine is vital in the remoulding of
Christianity of the fourth and fifth centuries that it's hard not to think of him as a founder of
Christianity on a par with the original founders of the religion… using early Christianity as a base,
fundamentally remade the religion by emphasizing and explaining some aspects and by introducing
others.”16 Augustine’s own history, which saw him convert from Roman Paganism to Christianity,
marked a pivotal stance in his inevitable push against the traditional Roman political heritage that
existed within the provinces of the Empire.
Augustine’s protest against the roles of the Roman political leaders was an important topic
as it had been one which had existed prior to his conversion. Hooker writes

“One of the central controversies that Augustine faced was the relationship of government and
authority to Christianity; this problem had been worked on less successfully for over a century…Augustine
wrote a long treatise on human history and human authority titled The City of God.”17

15
Gibbon, Edward; The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire – Chapter 15, page 143; Chatto and Windus Ltd
1960
16
Hooker, David; Early Christianity; ; http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/COPY.HTM; Washington State University;
2000
17
Hooker, David; Early Christianity; ; http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/COPY.HTM; Washington State University;
2000

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It is this work, one of Augustine’s most famous, which highlighted his reasoning as to why
the roles of the Roman civic elites and the Roman political leaders should be contested. Augustine’s
early work targeted many traditional aspects of Greek and Roman culture and challenged various
ideals of both societies. Augustine’s determination to challenge the roles of the Roman civic elite
and the Roman political heritage were solely based of the ideas that he wrote within his text The City
of God where he identifies the existence of two separate historic trajectories. The first is the human
history of war, government and law while the second relates to the history of human salvation. 18 The
two trajectories remain independent of each other and Hooker states that

“As one might expect, it is sacred history that is the more important of the two terms. All human life can be
understood in these terms; one's actions in the world ally you with either the one trajectory of history or the other.
Some human beings primarily participate in the worldly history of humankind and some human beings primarily
participate in sacred history; humanity, then, can be divided into the Two Cities.”19

These “Two Cities” that Augustine writes are separated into the City of Man and the City of
God. Although each is separate, the city of man exists only for the City of God. It is here that
Augustine’s point is clear; the city of Man must continually work for the progress of the City of God.
The roles of the Roman civic elites and the Roman political heritage should exist for the purpose of
spreading Christianity, not just throughout the Empire and its provinces, but also out into the rest of
the world. Hooker writes

“In his earliest works, Augustine takes pains to argue against the Greek and Roman sceptical tradition which asserts
that humans can know nothing for certain…Augustine and other early Christian writers imagined human beings and
the phenomenal world as somehow reflecting God or being like God. Any activity that is different from God, including
reason, takes you away from your essential nature, which is your similarity to God.” 20

By contesting and questioning the roles of the Greek and Roman political movements as well
as the civic heritage, Augustine insinuates that the introduction of Christianity into the empire is the
will of God. As Sordi states “even though the emperors of Rome were pagan during the life of Christ,
their actions in uniting the Mediterranean world under a single state allowed for Christianity to
spread all throughout the empire.”21 Augustine reinforces this idea that the goal of the Roman
Empire should be to reiterate the teachings of Christianity. As Brown states “The Roman Empire, in

18
Augustine; City of God; Page 180; Modern Library Publishing; 1950
19
Hooker, David; Early Christianity; http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/COPY.HTM; Washington State University; 2000
20
Hooker, David; Early Christianity; http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/COPY.HTM; Washington State University; 2000
21
Sordi, Marta; Christians and the Roman Empire – Page 116; Routledge Press 1994

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Augustine’s opinion, had never been so fortunate as when Christian teaching spread throughout its
populations.”22
Augustine’s The City of Gods was essentially a piece written to influence the Roman political
bodies to move away from their traditional ideals of conquering and exploring. Rather, he suggested
that the Roman’s use their power to spread the word of God and the teachings of Christianity
throughout the land in a means of converting the world. The Christian’s campaign to turn
Christianity into the dominant faith within the Roman Empire was successful, with Emperor
Constantine ending the discrimination against the Christians. The change from Roman Paganism to
Christianity, which spread not just within Rome but to the provinces outside the city walls, was an
interesting turn in events. Gibbon emphasises this point as he writes “The public establishment of
Christianity may be considered as one of those important and domestic revolutions which excite the
23
most lively curiosity, and afford the most valuable instruction.” The successful conversion of the
Roman Empire fortified Augustine’s ideas in regards to the Roman political body. As Gibbon claims
“During the whole course of his reign, the stream of Christianity flowed with a gentle, though
accelerated motion…The enthusiasm which inspired the troops, and perhaps the Emperor himself,
had sharpened their swords while it satisfied their conscience.” 24 With Constantine as the first
Christian Emperor of the Roman Empire, the Christian word was helped to be spread throughout the
world.
Augustine’s determination to contest the traditional roles of the Roman political figures and
the Roman civic heritage was successful. This idea is fortified within the mass conversion of the
Roman Empire, which followed the induction of the first ever Christian Emperor. These moments of
Roman history were pivotal in the successful integration of the Christian faith as not just a religion of
the Roman empire, but one that still exists within today’s century.

Through a mass movement which extended over a number of centuries, Christianity rose to
become the dominant religion of the Roman Empire. Initially, Christianity was a difficult concept for
the Roman people to fully comprehend, with so many changes from the traditional Pagan society; it
is easy to understand the discrimination and mass execution that followed over the years. Following
years of bloodshed, it is evident that the Roman Empire had a strong religious bond that was
imbedded within the very fibre of its being. With religion being a core factor in the Roman Empire,
22
Brown, Peter; Power and Persuasion in Late Antiquity –Chapter 3: Poverty and Power; Page 74; University of
Wisconsin Press; 1992
23
Gibbon, Edward; The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire – Chapter 15, page 195; Chatto and Windus Ltd
1960
24
Gibbon, Edward; The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire – Chapter 15, page 285, 291; Chatto and Windus
Ltd 1960

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the introduction of Christianity and the integration and mass conversion of the whole empire
demonstrates the incredibly difficult struggle that Augustine and many of the other church leaders
had to battle in order for their voices, and essentially, their beliefs to be heard. The actions of
Constantine highlight just how successful they were in accomplishing this.

Bibliography:

Citied Texts:

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 Augustine; City of God; Modern Library Publishing; 1950

Call Number: 231. 7 A1

 Brown, Peter; Power and Persuasion in Late Antiquity; University of Wisconsin Press in Citizenship
Ancient and Modern Unit Reader; School of Humanities and Languages; Penrith (Kingswood) Campus
Unit Code 100991

 Clark, Gillian; Christianity and Roman Society; Cambridge University Press 2004 (E-Book)
Link:
http://lib.myilibrary.com.ezproxy.uws.edu.au/Open.aspx?id=74990&loc=&srch=undefined&src=0

 Digesar, DePalma, Elizabeth; The Making of a Christian Empire: Lactantius & Rome; Cornell University
Press 2000
Link:
http://muse.jhu.edu.ezproxy.uws.edu.au/journals/catholic_historical_review/v087/87.3odahl.pdf

 Gibbon, Edward; The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire; Chatto and Windus Ltd 1960
Call Number: 937.06 G1

 Hooker, David; Early Christianity; http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/COPY.HTM; Washington State

University; 2000

 Sordi, Marta; Christians and the Roman Empire; Routledge Press 1994
Call Number: 322. 10937 S1

Referred Texts:

 Bowes, Kimberly Diane; “Christinization” and the Rural Home; Journal of Early Christian Studies,
Volume 15, Number 2; 2007
Link:
http://muse.jhu.edu.ezproxy.uws.edu.au/journals/journal_of_early_christian_studies/v015/15.2bow
es.pdf

 Schneider, Herbert Wallace; Augustine of Hippo, A Biography; Journal of the History of Philosophy,
Volume 6, Number 4;
Link:
http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/hph/summary/v006/6.4schneider.html

 Seesa, Kristina; Christianity and the cubiculum: Spiritual Politics and Domestic Space in Late Antique
Rome; Journal of Early Christian Studies, Volume 15, Number 2; 2007
Link:
http://muse.jhu.edu.ezproxy.uws.edu.au/journals/journal_of_early_christian_studies/v015/15.2sessa
02.pdf

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