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Introducción al estudio del

comportamiento humano

Módulo 1 Andrea P. Goldin, PhD


CASA ÁRBOL PERRO

MANZANA PEZ ROJO

VERDE AMARILLO
AZUL ROSA

El pensamiento NO es instantáneo

¡Quiero una cerveza!

¡Estoy llegando tarde!

Está para darle...

 Thought feels instantaneous because we don’t (or


can’t) pay attention to what goes into it.
¿Cuánto tarda un pensamiento?

Estímulo Respuesta

Tiempo de respuesta

Usualmente se mide en milisegundos

Es una medida de la velocidad de procesamiento


Suele considerarse una medida de dificultad

Reaction time, how long it takes to respond to presentation of a stimulus.

¿Cuánto tarda un pensamiento?

Al ver luz, apretá el botón Al ver luz, apretá ¿qué botón?

Promedio de 5 sujetos: 0,154 s [0,122-0,184]


Luz roja: mano derecha Como sería hoy el experimento de Donders, F. C. (1868). Die schnelligkeit psychischer processes
Luz blanca: mano izquierda [(1969). On the speed of mental processes. Acta psychologica, 30, 412-431]

 reaction time experiment first well-documented cognitive


experiment. Simple RT - Choice RT: decision took 0.1 second
¿Cuánto tarda un pensamiento?

Al ver luz, apretá el botón Al ver luz, apretá ¿qué botón?

RT elección 500 ms

RT simple 350 ms
-------------
150 ms

Promedio de 5 sujetos: 0,154 s [0,122-0,184]

Cognitive subtraction designs rely on the assumption of “pure insertion” – the notion that a
single cognitive process can be inserted into a task without affecting the remaining processes,
Sustracción cognitiva
or that there are no interactions among the cognitive components of a task.

Asume la existencia de independencia y linealidad


(pure insertion)

=> que un proceso cognitivo no afecta a los otros.

RT elección 500 ms

RT simple 350 ms
-------------
150 ms
Franciscus Cornelis Donders (1818-1889)

Estudiar la mente implica


medir indirectamente, inferir
desde el comportamiento

Donders, F. C. (1868/1969). On the speed of mental processes. Acta psychologica, 30, 412-431.

Oftalmólogo holandés

¿Tendrá el pensamiento la velocidad infinita que se le suele atribuir? ¿Será posible


John Locke (1632-1704)
determinar cuánto tiempo hace falta para dar forma a un concepto o expresar la propia
voluntad?

Locke, J. (1689). An essay concerning human understanding.

an English philosopher and physician, widely regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers and commonly known as the "Father of Liberalism

Filósofo empiricista, el primero que se dedicó a investigar la comprensión humana


John Locke (1632-1704)

John Locke, The Works of John Locke in Nine Volumes, (London: Rivington, 1824 12th ed.)

Si las ideas son innatas, tienen que estar en las mentes de todos los hombres.

John Locke (1632-1704)

John Locke, The Works of John Locke in Nine Volumes, (London: Rivington, 1824 12th ed.)

No hay nada en el intelecto que no haya pasado previamente por los sentidos.
El conocimiento proviene de la experiencia y nuestras ideas se originan en reflexiones y
sensaciones.
El conocimiento proviene de dos fuentes: nuestras observaciones
John Locke (1632-1704)

La mente es una tabula rasa que va llenándose a


través de los sentidos

Al menos, dos implicancias:

- Una vez que algo es “escrito”, no se modifica

- La mente acepta información de manera pasiva

1. It doesn’t enhance, or otherwise alter the incoming


John Locke (1632-1704)
information

John Locke, The Works of John Locke in Nine Volumes, (London: Rivington, 1824 12th ed.)

Si las ideas son innatas, tienen que estar en las mentes de todos los hombres.
Pero quien haya visto a un niño pequeño sabe que no tiene demasiadas ideas…
Que solo va a nutrirse de ellas de a poco.
Y da por ejemplo el desconocimiento de colores (o frutas) si nunca se los vio
William James (1842-1910)

Whilst part of what we perceive comes


through our senses from the object before
us, another part (and it may be the larger
part) always comes out of our own head.

William James (1890) The Principles of Psychology, vol.2, p.103

James’ observations were based not on the results of experiments, but


on introspections about the operation of his own mind

¿Qué ven?
Vamos a volver más adelante a James pero, en linea con Locke, planteaba cosas parecidas,
que aun hoy siguen siendo válidas.

Kanisza es evidencia.

Kanizsa

. There are three main types: literal optical illusions that create images that are different from the objects that make them, physiological illusions that are the effects of
excessive stimulation of a specific type (brightness, color, size, position, tilt, movement), andcognitive illusions, the result of unconscious inferences.

Fenómenos como el de Kanizsa son explicados por von


Helmholtz
Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz
(1821-1894)

Inferencia inconsciente
La mente asume qué está pasando y “decide” completar .

No podemos evitarlo...

Depende de la experiencia previa del observador, que convertirá una


sensación en una percepción. Es involuntario.

No podemos evitarlo...

Algunos procesos mentales son el resultado de


procesos automáticos, que exceden nuestro control .
Von Helmholtz

Aun cuando entendemos que pueden ser cualquiera de las dos opciones, lo primero
que vemos es la b, la que nos parece más probable dada nuestra experiencia
previa.
https://www.washingtonpost.com/road-to-recovery/2021/02/16/pandemic-togetherness-never-have-so-many-spent-so-much-time-with-so-few/
https://www.washingtonpost.com/road-to-recovery/2021/02/16/pandemic-togetherness-never-have-so-many-spent-so-much-time-with-so-few/

Silva, Ana, et al. "Gender inequality in latin american neuroscience community".IBRO Neuroscience Reports (2021).
I and IV: lowest and highest grades of
the scientific career, respectively
Silva, Ana, et al. "Gender inequality in latin american neuroscience community".IBRO Neuroscience Reports (2021).

Wikipedia en español
(fuente: Wikimedia)
¿Cuánto tarda un pensamiento?
Depende de dónde esté puesta la atención...

Estímulo
que está por
aparecer

Respuesta
que está por
suceder

El que empezó a hacer mediciones controladas fue otro

Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt (1832-1920)


de los padres de la psicología experimental, un discípulo
de von Helmholtz, que fundó el primer laboratorio…

In 1879, Wilhelm Wu
first laboratory of sc
nstitute for at the University of L
the University of with the goal of stud
  This was the first scientifically. Wundt
hology, and its which dominated p
t of as the late 1800s and earl
hology. Indeed, called structuralism
he father of structuralism, our
is determined by c
elements of experi
se he separated
structuralists calle
hy by analyzing the
more structured Thus, just as chemis
g on objective a periodic table of th
organized elements
their molecular weig
cus for those with a properties, Wundt w
gy, first for German “periodic table of t
y students, then for would include all o
ts as well.  All sensations involve
boratories were experience. Wundt
y years on the Wundt achieve this by usin
introspection, a tec
trained participants
experiences and tho
response to stimuli.
one experiment, Wu
participants to descr
experience of hearin
played on the piano
interested in whethe
five notes as a singl

1879(?): Instituto de Psicología experimental.


were able to hear th
Although Wundt nev
goal of explaining be

Universidad de Leipzig, Alemania


sensations, he had a
psychology by estab
laboratory of scientif
training PhDs who e

=> Foco en mediciones objetivas y controladas. psychology departm


universities, includin
United States.

Fue discípulo de von Helmholtz entre 1858-1864.


Llegó a Leipzig en 1875 y fundó el primer laboratorio de psicología experimental, donde desde el
principio hizo experimentos. No se sabe de dónde sale esta fecha pero es posible que sea el primer
curso que dictó. ¡Dio clases a más de 24k alumnos!
Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt (1832-1920)
“The thought meter” (Das Gedankenmesser, el pensámetro)
This is like the original a
required for Wundt's co
experiment. The "comp
experiment required a s
visually track the pointe
across a large dial. The
had to take either a visu
auditory set and respon
auditory signal. When th
had a visual set, the rea
was longer, and Wundt
that the task required a
"voluntary" switching of

El “péndulo” se movía
algún momento, sona
campanita. Las perso
debían reportar cuand
esto. Lo hacía en dos
situaciones que luego
comparaba: personas
prestando atención a
visual o a la vía auditi
Encontró diferencias
Visual tarda 0.125 s más que auditivo (según “un gran número de observaciones”). entre ambas.

Si, además, n
vendría el es
Los eventos mentales pueden medirse. responder, en
mucho más =
juega un rol f
RT
“Complication pendulum” Die Geschwindigkeit des Gedankens (The Velocity of Thought), 1862, Vol 17

If we are able to represent two things simultaneously, we would be able to see the pendulum at the
same moment that we hear its sound” (DGG, p. 265). Unfortunately, Wundt did not provide
Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt (1832-1920)
information on how exactly he conducted these experiments, how many subjects participated, who
they were, and so on. He only reported the general result of one eighth of a second (0.125 s) as the
average time extracted from “a great number of observations”
Chapter 2. The Logical Mind: Wundt’s Early Psychological Project
Introspection. 2Ways:
Psicología como disciplina:
1. Self observation. Reflection on our thoughts (subjetivo)
- Más empírica que la filosofía
2. Internal perception. Trataba de minimizar el tiempo entre la percepción y el report
sujeto.
- Más focalizada en la mente que la fisiología

Wundt, W. M. (1874) Grundzüge der physiologischen Psychologie. ["Principles of physiological psychology” (1904)]

was a German physician, physiologist, philosopher, and professor, known today as one of the founding figures of modern psychology

Wundt wanted to study the structure of the human mind (using introspection). Wundt believed inreductionism. That is, he Wundt's aim was to record thoughts and sensations,
believed consciousness could be broken down (or reduced) to its basic elements without sacrificing any of the properties of and to analyze them into their constituent elements, in
the whole. much the same way as a chemist analyses chemical
compounds, in order to get at the underlying structure.
Wundt argued that conscious mental states could be scientifically studied using introspection. Wundt’s introspection was not a
causal affair, but a highly practiced form of self-examination. He trained psychology students to make observations that were
biased by personal interpretation or previous experience, and used the results to develop a theory of conscious thought.
The idea tha
“Psicología cognitiva” es moderno studied scien
one. In the 1
mind were d
that it is not
mind.
Donders (~1868) y Wundt (~1879): One reason
possible for
but there we
including the
of the mind s
La mente puede ser estudiada de manera científica measured. N
researchers
wisdom and
1967 mind anywa
was the Dutc
Franciscus D
eleven years
the first labo
psychology,
experiments
called a cog
experiment.
that the term
was not coin
early experim
describe qua
psychology e
(

Donders y Wundt, entre otros, eran bichos un poco raros. La disciplina fue tomando forma y recién
hace pocos años se nombró como tal.
Ulric, Neisser (1928-2012) Ulric Neisser put the te
psychology" into comm
his book Cognitive Psy
published in 1967. Nei
of "cognition" illustrates
progressive concept of
processes:

German-born American

Neisser postulated th
reconstructed and no
moment.[1] Neisser il
one of his highly publ
people's memories of
Challenger explosion
summed up current r
human intelligence an
scholarly monograph

) Neisser, U. (1967). Cognitive Psychology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.


John Broadus Watson (1878-1958)
Rosalie Alberta Rayner (1898-1935)

Johns Hopkins University

American psychologist

La introspección analítica tiene dos problemas: (de Wu


- Variabilidad interindividual
- Es subjetivo (procesos mentales “invisibles”)

=> Watson plantea el uso de condicionamiento


clásico para probar que no hace falta entender la
mente para afectar el comportamiento.
Condicionamiento clásico

Reflejo condicionado (1901)

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849-1936)

By Rklawton - English Wikipedia,CC BY-SA 3.0

Médico ruso interesado particularmente en “instintos”.

The concept for which Pavlov is famous is the "conditioned reflex" (or in his own words the conditional reflex) he developed jointly with his assistantIvan Filippovitch Tolochinov
in 1901.
Condicionamiento clásico

Aprendizaje asociativo: la respuesta a un estímulo


(“condicionado”) es condicionada por la respuesta a
otro estímulo (“no condicionado”).

Permite a un organismo predecir el futuro

Evolutivamente es súper importante: nos ahorra tiempo y energía. (De preparación


fisiológica, de estrés y ansiedad.)
Condicionamiento clásico (cuec)
Conductismo

La introspección analítica tiene dos problemas: (de Wu


- Variabilidad interindividual
- Es subjetivo (procesos mentales “invisibles”)

Reemplazar el estudio de la mente por el del


comportamiendo observable

=> Watson plantea el uso de condicionamiento


clásico para probar que no hace falta entender la
mente para afectar el comportamiento.

“Little Albert”

Watson, J. B., & Rayner, R. (1920). Journal of Experimental Psychology (3), 1–14

Pavlovian fear conditioning is a ubiquitous form of learning that involves the association of stimuli and their aversive consequences. Perhaps the quintessential example of
Pavlovian fear conditioning is Watson and Rayner's 1920 experiment with “Little Albert.” In this experiment, Albert, a normal and healthy child attending day care, was shown a
white rat by Rayner. Not surprisingly, Albert's first reaction to the white rat was curiosity, and when presented with the rat he reached out to touch it. In response to Albert's attempt
to touch the rat, Watson, who had been closely observing Albert's interaction with the rat, sounded a loud and frightening noise by hammering an iron rail. Albert, startled and
scared by the noise, quickly withdrew from the rat and began crying. Watson and Rayner continued the procedure, and after a few more presentations of the white rat followed by
noise, Albert began to show an intense fear of the rat. Evidently, Albert had associated the frightening noise with the white rat. Indeed, Little Albert had been conditioned
to fear white rats!
The American Psycholog-ical Association did not adopt a formal ethics code until1953
John Broadus Watson (1878-1958)
Rosalie Alberta Rayner (1898-1935)

Johns Hopkins University

American psychologist

Little Albert en contexto

Estudio controlado que demostró el condicionamiento


clásico en humanos. (Lo que pasaba en la cabeza de
Albert era totalmente irrelevante para Watson.)

Hoy: caso único y antiético.

The American Psychological Association did not adopt a formal ethics code until1953
Little Albert en contexto

Estudio controlado que demostró el condicionamiento


clásico en humanos. (Lo que pasaba en la cabeza de
Albert era totalmente irrelevante para Watson.)

Hoy: caso único y antiético.

Nature vs Nurture

Watson quería probar que nurture es mucho más potente que nature.
Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904-1990)
La idea de que la conducta puede comprenderse
analizando las relaciones estímulo-respuesta dominó
el campo de la psicología entre 1940 y 1960.

Harvard University

The idea that behavior can be understood by studying stimulus-response relationships influenced
an entire generation of psychologists and dominated psychology in the United States from the
1940s through the 1960s. Psychologists applied the techniques of classical and operant
conditioning to things like classroom teaching, treating psychological disorders, and testing the
effects of drugs on animals.
Tipos de aprendizaje
Condicionamiento clásico: Si el perro no responde (no
babea), igual recibe el estímulo no condicionado (la
comida) después del condicionado (la campanita).

Condicionamiento operante o instrumental. El estímulo


no condicionado (la recompensa) depende de la
respuesta del animal. De que el animal haya
aprendido.

which has a subtle but important difference to classical conditioning. In classical conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus is delivered to the animal irrespective of what the
animal does. Thus, it didn’t matter whether Pavlov’s dogs drooled or not, food was delivered to the dogs by the experimenter after the conditioned stimulus. A rather different
procedure for studying conditioning, however, makes the delivery of food (for example) dependent on the behaviour of the animal. This type of learning is referred to as
instrumental conditioning.

Condicionamiento operante

Los humanos también adquirimos comportamientos si


son acompañados por una recompensa (cualquiera
que reciba dinero por su trabajo, lo sabe).
B. F. Skinner (circa 1935)

A hungry rat will be placed into a conditioning chamber (also sometimes called ‘a Skinner box’, after the psychologist B. F. Skinner who used this sort of apparatus to study
learning), and be allowed to investigate the area.
Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904-1990)
Los niños aprenden lenguaje por condicionamiento operante

=> Imitan lo que escuchan y esto es recompensado

Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal behavior. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.

in which he inspects human behavior, describing what is traditionally called linguistics.[1][2] The book Verbal Behavior is almost entirely theoretical, involving little
experimental research in the work itself.

Skinner venía bien y empezó a cebarse con su idea. Y se metió en un terreno que no conocía: la
lingüistica. Avram Noam Chomsky (1928-)
But in 1959 Noam Ch
from the Massachuse
Technology, publishe
of Skinner’s book, in
that children say ma
have never been rew
(“I hate you, Momm
and that during the n
language developm
through a stage in w
incorrect grammar,
hitted the ball,” eve
incorrect grammar m
been reinforced.
Chomsky saw langua
being determined not
reinforcement, but by
program that holds a
Chomsky’s idea that
product of the way th
constructed, as oppo
by reinforcement, led
reconsider the idea th
other complex behav
problem solving and
explained by operant
Instead, they began t
understand complex
it is necessary not on
observable behavior,
what this behavior te
mind works

Chomsky, N. (1959). Review of BF Skinner, Verbal Behavior. Language, 35(1), 26-58.

American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, historian, social critic, and political activist.
Avram Noam Chomsky (1928-)
But in 1959 Noam Ch
from the Massachuse
Technology, publishe
of Skinner’s book, in
that children say ma
have never been rew
(“I hate you, Momm
and that during the n
language developm
through a stage in w
La tesis de Skinner es teórica incorrect grammar,
hitted the ball,” eve
incorrect grammar m
been reinforced.
Chomsky saw langua
being determined not
reinforcement, but by
program that holds a
Chomsky’s idea that
product of the way th
constructed, as oppo
El lenguaje es un comportamiento by reinforcement, led
complejo y no puede explicarse por reconsider the idea th
other complex behav
leyes sencillas problem solving and
explained by operant
Instead, they began t
understand complex
it is necessary not on
La recompensa no alcanza para observable behavior,
what this behavior te
explicar el lenguaje de los niños. mind works
Además, cometen errores.
Chomsky, N. (1959). Review of BF Skinner, Verbal Behavior. Language, 35(1), 26-58.

American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, historian, social critic, and political activist.

Avram Noam Chomsky (1928-)


- Existe una gramática universal, una base estructural
But in 1959 Noam Ch
común del lenguaje, que trasciende culturas. from the Massachuse
Technology, publishe
of Skinner’s book, in
that children say man

- El desarrollo del lenguaje es, en parte, innato. have never been rew
hate you, Mommy,” fo
during the normal cou
development, they go
which they use incorr
- El lenguaje es producto de cómo se construye la as “the boy hitted the
this incorrect gramma

mente a lo largo del desarrollo.


been reinforced.
Chomsky saw langu
as being determined
or reinforcement, bu
biological program
cultures. Chomsky’s
is a product of the w
constructed, as opp
caused by reinforcem
psychologists to reco
language and other c
such as problem solv
can be explained by
1 Instead, they began t
understand complex
it is necessary not on
observable behavior,
what this behavior te
mind works
La revolución cognitiva (bueh...)

Para comprender conductas cognitivas


complejas no alcanza con observarlas y
medirlas. También hay que considerar qué es
lo que cada conducta nos informa sobre
cómo funciona la mente.

La década de 1950 se considera el principio del cambio en psicología. La crítica de Chomsky es


solo una parte de los hechos que reintrodujeron la mente en la psicología.

La revolución cognitiva (bueh...)

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