Growing the crops
Viability of seed
Vegetable seeds
Most vegetable crops are grown
from seed; potato, garlic and
sweet potato are the only crops
which are asexually propagated.
The success or failurc of a crop
will be dependent on the gnetic
charnctcristics of the seed and
the environmental conditions in
which the crop is grown. Sced is
therefore vital to the success of a
crop and yet it is only a very
small part of the cost of growing
vcsetables.
Ensure that the variety you
select is suitable for the local it)^
and the timc of ycar. It is best
to buy seed from reputable sup-
pliers rather than save your own,
although often gardeners may
wish to save seed from outstanding
plants.
Sweet corn, cabbage, Brussels
sprouts, onion and tomato are
now available as F, hybrids. These
hybrids are produced by crossing
two inbred parents to obtain
seed. The seed from thc hybrid
will not produce a similar plant
next season; it is necessary to
cross the orignal parents each
time to get similar hybrid seed.
Good seed is true to name, free
from weed seeds and foreign
matter and free of seed-borne dis-
eases. It must he viable in order
to germinate and develop into a
crop, therefore be sure that the
seed you buy is frcsh; always
chcck thc date stamped on the seed
packet. Regulations administered
by the Department of Agriculture
require that all seed meet mini-
mum germination standards at the
time of sale.
The viability of vegetable seeds
is affected by the age of seed ; the
conditions under which it has been
stored and the climatic conditions
at the time of sowing. In order
that seed will germinatc, watcr and
oxygen must be present and the
soil temperature conditions must
be suitable. Other internal factors
snmetimes affect the germination
of newly-harvested seed but this
is not generally a problem for
home gardeners.
The table on page 27 sets out
minimum, optimum and maximum
temperatures for germination of
various vegetable crops. It is best
to wait until soil temperatures are
near the optimum to get the hest
results. While seeds may germin-
ate at lower temperatures the rate
of emegence is slow and the seed
is more exposed to damping off
fungi in the soil. Tomato seed,
for example, will take over 40 days
to emerge at 10°C while at 25°C
When o seed is placed in the roil, watermelon seeds all have a life of
,noistrrre rind warmth trigger the ger-
mination process.
it will be through the ground in
six days. Moreover, seeds sown
near to the optimum soil tempcra-
turc will germinatc niore evenly.
Soil moisture
Seeds require moisture in the soil
in order to germinate, but gener-
ally, provided there is sutlicient
water in the soil for crop growth
(see page 33), they will imbibe
water and germinate satisfactorily.
Bean, beet, endive, lettuce and
peas, however, require fairly moist
soils and celery will only germi-
nate when soil moisture is at, or
very ncar, field capacity. Spinach
on the other hand, geminates best
at the lower end of the soil mois-
ture range ; germination is reduced
as the soil approaches field capa-
city.
Seed longevity
Seeds of different vegetables main-
tain their viability for varying
lengths of time, they can be dividcd
into thrcc broad groups:
1. Short life
The viability of sweet corn, onion,
leek, parsley, radish, parsnip,
rhubarb, and salsify seed drops
markedly after one or two years.
Buy fresh seed of these vegetables
each year in small lots.
2. Moderate lib
Asparagus, Brussels sprouts,
beans, beet, cabbage, carrot, cap-
sicum, cauliflower, celely, lettuce,
peas, radish, spinach, turnip, and
three to five years.
Soil temperatures for seed germination Seed pellets and seed tapes
Some vegetable seeds are coated
Crop Minimum Optimum Maximum with inert material to make a
pellet which contains one seed.
Sometimes fungicides and fertiliser
are also incorporated in the pellet.
Pellets enable small seeds, such as I
aean dwarf 17 29 35 carrot, lettuce and tomato to be
spaced very accurately in the row.
Beetroot 4 29 35
Plastic tapes are also available
Broccoli 4 29 35 with seeds spaced evenly along
Cabbage 4 29 35 them at the required interval ; the
Capsicum 17 29 35 tape is simply stretched along the
row and lightly covered with soil
Carrot 4 27 29 and the bed watered in the normal
Cauliflower 4 27 35 way. Gardeners must decide for I
Celery 4 21 24 themselves if the extra cost of
Cucumber 17 35 41
these " convenience seeds " is
worthwhile.
Egg plant 17 29 35
Lettuce 0 24 24
Marrow and squash 17 35 41
Melons 17 35 41
Onions 0 27 35
Parsley 4 27 35
Parsnip 0 21 29
Pea 4 24 29
Pumpkin 17 35 41
Radish 4 29 35
Silver beet 4 29 35
Spinach 0 21 24
Sweet corn 10 29 41
Tomato 10 29 35
Turnip 4 29 41

3. Long life place. Many seedsmen now " dry

The seed of cucumber, egg-plant,
cantaloup, and tomato will last for
five years or more.
The life of seeds is greatly
affected by storage conditions. All
seed should be kept in a cool, dry
condition " seed to prolong the life
of the seed. The conditioned seed
is packaged in small moisture
proof foil envelopes for garden
use and in hermetically sealed cans
for commercial gardeners.
Sowing seed
The bed should be dug or
ploughed to at least 150 mm some
weeks before sowing. If the bed
- as already been dug in the
ltumn it will be necessary to fork
over again to loosen the soil
..~d remove weeds and any un-
rotted vegetable matter. Manure
can be applied a few weeks before
sowing and fertiliser worked in
immediately before final prepara-
tion.
If the bed has recently been dug
it may be necessary to tramp it .,-
1

down to work ourtair pockets. In

dry weather a presowing watering
may be necessary, and it will also
:ttle the bed. However, do not
:tempt to prepare the seed bed
hile the soil is still wet ; soil
lould not be worked if it sticks
to your shoes. Straight rows are
easier to cultivate and look much
neater. Use a line or straight edge.
Fertiliser can be banded close
to the seed by running it out in a
drill a little bigger than that
required for the seed, and then
pushing 25 mm or so of soil across
with the back of the rake to cover
the fertiliser. A second drill is
then formcd for the seed.
Drills for seed can be formed by
..,
running a stick along a planting A l ~ m ddrill is srrifnble for large garderls or small rnnrltet gardens.

line, with a straight edge or with shallower than normal.

a rake or hoe. If the seed bed is Where small seeds are sown the
loosc tamp down the base of the rows are best covered with fine
bed with the straight edge. Use a sandy soil, or a mulch of compost.
planting board to walk on when Lightly tamp the top of the row
4 sowing. to settle the soil around the seed.
Sow seed thinly along the drill. A light sprinkling with the hose or
A common mistake is to seed too watering can will also settle the
thickly. This is a waste of seed bed.
and means extra time is required In the hot weather it is a good
for thinning. The depth of plant- plan to mulch the bed to retain
ing is important, especially with moisture in the surface soil: until
fine seeds. Follow the recommen- the seed germinates. A board laid
dations on the planting tables on along the row is very effective, but
pages 114 to 119. In sandy soil, or do not leave it in place for too
in the summer when the surface is long. If the soil has been we11
dry, seed must be sown a little moistened at plafiting, little or no
deeper. In heavier soils which watering will be necessary until
shnllo~v drill row ntnrked out with retain moisture, or in ground the seedlings appear. Do not let
straight eclge is suitable for sowing
null seeds. which is cold, sowing can be the surface soil dry out and crust.
Thinning
Many crops are seeded directly
and then thinned out to thc desired
plant spacing. It is important to
thin out the plants as soon as pos-
sible so that they can grow faster
and more evenly. Most seedlings
are thinncd as soon as they rcach
the first true leaf stage ; carrots
are usually thinned a second time
ivhen they are about 100 rnm h i h .
It is bctter to watcr the bed
lightly before thinning to reduce
Thin plants before they become too
big. Water before thinning and then
again afterwards t o settle the soil
around the roots.
damage to the remaining plants,
especially root crops, and then
water again after thinning to
resettle the soil back around the
plant roots.
Thinnings of lettuce and silver
beet can be transplanted, but those
of carrots and parsnips should be
discarded if they are too small for
cooking.
Raising seedlings
Many gardeners find it convenient
to purchase plants from nursery-
men. However it is often more
satisfactory to raise plants in seed
beds in your own garden.
Cool season crops, which in-
clude onions, cabbage, cauliflower,
Brussels sprouts, and broccoli, may
be raised in open beds. Tomatoes,
capsicums and egg plant, which
are warm season crops, are usually
grown in protected beds, especi-
A simple f m n i e f o r raising secdlirzgs. If bottorn heat is reqrrirecl the bed con be
drrg out and tnonrrre Orolrght in. It is often advisable to brrild the soil lip above
ground level especially if clrainage is poor. Seedlitig boxes can also be placed ill
s ~ i c ha bed.
ally if early seedlings are required.
In the north of Victoria, where
there is more sunshine during the
winter and spring,
. little or no addi-
-
tional heat is needed and cold
frames are sufficient. Gardeners
in southern Victoria may find the
hot beds an advantage.
A cold frame is constructed in
the same way as a hot bed except
that no artificial heat is provided.
Considerable heating is obtained
from the sun ; the sun's rays shine
through the glass or plastic cover-
ing the frame and heat the soil
and plants. Heat is only lost by
conduction and convection within
the frame, as heat from warm soil
cannot be radiated back through
the glass cover. Some heat is re-
radiated through polythene sheet-
ing but this is normally reduced
by the layer of moisture which
condenses on the underside of the
cover.
Location of beds
Seed beds, hot beds, and cold
frames should be placed where
they will have maximum protec-
tion from cold winds, good natural
drainage and plenty of sunlight.
There should also be a convenient
water supply. Single sash frames
1
should face the north or slightly
to the north-east.
Commercial growers who use
gable frames should run the long
axis north-south so that there is
an even distribution of light on
both sides of the gable. Single
sash skillion frames are easier to
handle in small home gardens.
-
Construction of beds
A bed 2 m x 1 m is adequate for
I
i
most home gardens, but the size :
can be adjusted to suit individual
rcquiremcnts. Wood, brick or
concrete can be used for the side
walls-brick and concrete are !
permanent and \+ill not rot-but
the bed cannot be easily shifted.
Drain holes are essential at the
 base of the side walls. The frame
should have a slope of 100 to 150
n to the north.
[n cold frames, a thin layer of
aw should be placed at the
lottorn of the bed as an insula-
ion against the cold soil and to
elp drainage, and then covered
rith a layer of friable loam or
sandy loam soil. The soil level
in the frame should then be about
200 mm above the soil outside
the frame. A shallow drain should
be dug along each side of the bed.
Hot beds are usually warmed
I
from beneath with the heat from
rotting manure but electricity and
steam can be used. Steam is nor-
mally used in large commercial
plant nurseries. The State Elec-
tricity Commission can provide
more detailed information on the
use of electricity for heating beds
in the home garden.
The heat obtained from rotting
manure is probably best suited to
the needs of the home garden.
Dig a pit from 500 to 600 mm
deep and fill to within 150 mm
of the soil surface with fresh horse
manure and tamp down each
100 mm layer ; dry manure should
be moistened to start decomposi-
tion. Cover the manure with
150 mm of the best garden loam
available and allow the manure
to heat up the bed. At first the
temperature will be high and it can
reduce the germination of the
seed ; wait until the temperature
drops below 30°C. This waiting
period will also allow weed seeds
to germinate and they can be
removed before seeding.
Glass sashes 2 m x 1 m can be
used to cover the bed. Old window
sashes are excellent for this pur-
pose and the frame size can be
adapted to suit the sash. The use
of polythene sheeting has already
been mentioned. The polythene
- k t can be wound on to a piece
wood and rolled back across
e frame to allow access to the
d and to provide ventilation. A
wooden cross-bar (east-west) in
the middle of the frame will bow
the polythene and help to keep
it taut to prevent water ponding
on the top of the cover. It is
important to keep covers clean to
let through all available sunlight.
For small quantities of seedlings
a sheet of glass placed across a
box will be quite satisfactory.
Preparation of beds or boxes
Soils for raising seedlings should
hold moisture yet the surface
should not cake. Sandy loams are
ideal. Clay soils can be modified
by adding sand and peat ; very
sandy soils should have additional
peat only. Vermiculite can also
be used to improve the structure
of soils for seedlings. Where soil
is being re-used it is better to ster-
ilise it with formalin to kill the
organisms which cause damping-
off of seedlings. If possible use
soil which has not grown seedlings
previously. If this is not available
the soil should be sterilised to
avoid damping-off and other soil-
borne diseases. This is also a
wise precaution with new soil.
(See page 52.)
Some gardeners prefer to grow
seedlings in small boxes or flats.
Any size which is convenient to
handle will do. They should have
at least 75 mm of soil in them.
Flats have the advantage that the
plants can be easily transported to
the garden bed.
Compressed peat and paper
pots have been developed for pro-
ducing seedlings. The whole pot
and plant is lifted from the frame
and planted in the garden. Paper
dividers can be placed in flats to
separate seedlings ; and the seed-
ling, along with a block of soil is
lifted from the flat and planted.
Seed beds should not be too
rich. Seedlings grown in soil mix-
tures containing excessive nitrogen
from organic or artificial sources
are often extremely " leggy " and
soft and do not withstand the
shock of transplanting. Apply
about 30 g of superphosphate per
square metre before planting.
Then, if additional nitrogen fer-
tiliser is required, it may be added
in liquid form while the plants are
growing. It is easier to add a
little extra fertiliser if required
than to hold back plants which
are growing too vigorously in a
rich bed.
Growing plants
Sow seed into a firm bed which
has preferably been watered the
previous day. The best results
are obtained by sowing seeds in
rows rather than broadcasting.
This makes thinning, weeding and
dusting operations easier, and
seedlings can be conveniently
lifted from the bed. Sow seed at
10 mm spacing thinning later to
20 to 25 mm, discarding the
weaker seedlings. Cover the seed
lightly with a non-crusting soil and
water lightly with a fine seed-bed
hose.
On tomato seed beds a mulch of
clear polythene placed directly on
to the soil in the cold frame will
hasten seedling emergence by a
week in August. The mulch traps
the heat in the soil and increases
the heating effect of the sun in
the cold frame. I t also retains
the moisture in the bed. Care
must be taken to prevent the bed
overheating. During longer hours
of sunshine later in the spring, soil
temperatures below the mulch
can rise to well over 38OC and
impair seed germination. Remove
the polythene as soon as the seed-
lings appear.
In July and August help retain
heat during the night by covering
the frame with hessian covers.
They should be in place an hour
beforc sunset and removed about
an hour after sunrise. Covers will
help prevent frost damage through
the glass or polythene covers on
very cold nights.
Warm season crops grow best
with a day temperature of 21°C
to 24OC and a night temperature
of 13OC to lS°C, while cool
season crops develop best with a
day temperature of lS°C to
18OC, and a night temperature
of 10 ° C to 13OC.
 Almost as important as prevent-
ing a drop in temperature during
the night is avoiding high tem-
perature during the day-time and
the temperature should not exceed
26OC. Under high temperature
conditions plants become weak
and " leggy " and the high humi-
dity close to the soil creates a
micro-climate just right for the
development of disease. Ventila-
tion is essential on warm sunny
days once the seedlings have
cmerged. The sashes can be
propped up on the lee side or the
polythene rolled back a 100 to
200 mm.
Water the plants when neces-
sary. Early in the growth period
restrict watering to bright morn-
ings and do not cool the beds by
watering late in the afternoon. It
should be remembered that the
very conditions you are creating
to enhance plant growth are also
ideal for the development of pests
and diseases.
Hardening off
Hardening off makes plants less
susceptible to injuries caused by
frost, cold drying winds or hot
sun. Before lifting from the frame
for transplanting, plants are
gradually exposed to a lower tem-
perature and water is withheld for
a week or more. The temperature
is lowered by removing the glass
or polythene covers from the hot
bed or cold frame during the day
and during mild nights. If it is
not possible to transplant tomato
seedlings when planned their
growth can be further retarded by
cutting the taproots with a knife.
Crucifer seedlings should be
hardened off by withholding water
from the bed. Before lifting the
plants water the bed thoroughly
and dust with zineb and maldison.
Transplanting
When transplanting seedlings it is
important to keep root damage to
a minimum and to prevent roots
drying out. The seedlings should
be transplanted so that the soil is
in close contact with the roots.
The bed into which the seedlings
are to be transplanted should be
Open n holr n~iilz n trolvel or. dihher ;
insert the seerllir~g ant1 fherz prtsll soil
firn~ly nrorrnd the seedling leaving n
hole for loatering.
Waro. seelllrrlgs in irnr~ietiinlely trflcr
tmnrplnntirlg even if the soil is ~noist.
well prepared beforehand ; if the
bed is loose, friable and moist, it
will not be difficult to firm soil
around the roots.
Keep a fair amount of soil on
the roots of the seedlings which
arc to be transplanted. Water the
plants the night before they are
to be pulled. The soil in the bed
will then not be too sticky when
you come to pull the seedlings.
Lift the plants with a spade rather
than pulling them out by the tops.
This reduces root damage and en-
ables more soil to be retained
around the roots. Lift only enough
seedlings for the area to be planted
immediately. Keep the roots moist
if the day is hot or windy. Plant
seedlings in the evening if the
temperature during the daytime is
too hot.
Tomato growers; sometimes
" puddle " the plants in. A hole '
is made for the plant and filled
with water and the seedling is
planted into the mud after the
water has soaked away. Hold the
seedling in your hand with the
roots against the index finger and
push it down into the mud. Mulch
the plant with dry soil so that the
wet mud does not dry out quickly
on the surface and cake hard.
This is most important in soils
with a high clay content and very
little organic matter! Plant well
into the soil but do not bury the
plant. Most seedlings can be
planted so that the lower leaves
are at ground level.
Onions are easily transplanted
with the fingers. The leaves and
roots can be trimmed to make the
plants easier to handle.

Watering
Vegetable crops must receive ade-
quate water throughout their
growing period. Without water,
growth is stunted and yield and
quality decline. Leaf and stem
vegetables become coarse and
tough and fruit do not reach full
size and are of poor quality. In
most areas irrigation water must
supplcment rain to grow quality
vegetables. The amount of water
required will depend on the crop
itself, its stage of growth, the soil
and the weather.
Penetration of equal amounts of water in f~lrrowson three soil types. Clay hords 70 mm is required to wet the same
the most available water and sand the least.
3 2 1 0
DISTANCE FROM SPRINKLER- METRES
Sprinkler patterns shor4lcl overlrrp to get even watering at the edge of the sprinkler
throw.
Root depth
Root depth is important. As a
general rule if shallow rooted
crops are correctly irrigated,
medium and deep rooted crops
will receive sufficient water.
Shallow: The main root system
is in the top 300 mm of soil. Cab-
bage and other brassica crops,
lettuce, celery, sweet corn, onion,
potato, and radish.
Medium : The main root system
is in the top 600 to 900 mm.
Beans, beetroot, carrots, canta-
loup, capsicums, peas, and squash.
Deep : The main root system will
1 2 3 lower down is only removed by
extend to two metres in deep soils.
Artichoke, asparagus, tomato,
pumpkin, parsnip, and watermelon.
I
Soil water
When water is applied to a free-
draining soil the pore space be-
tween the soil particles begin to
fill with water which then moves
downward under gravity wetting 1
the soil below. When all this
" free " water has drained away
a film of water is left around each ,
soil particle and the soil is said I
to be at " field capacity ". Field
capacity is the maximun~dmouct ,
of watcr in the soil which can
be used by plants. Thc fine root
hairs can remove water in this
film until the film is so fine and
the water in it is so tightly held
by the soil particles that the root
hairs can extract no more. At this
point the plant will wilt and unless
water is added to the soil it will I
die.
Clay soils have much finer par-
ticles than sandy soils and so the
total surface area of clay soil par-
ticles is greater and consequently
they will hold more water. While
20 mm of rainfall or irrigation
will wet a sandy soil to field capa-
city to a depth of 300 mm, up to
depth of clay to field capacity.
Hence sandy soils must be watered
more frequently.
If the pore spaces between soil
particles are full of water, the soil
is waterlogged and roots and
plants die due to lack of soil
aeration.
When to water
On Ioam and clay loams watering
about once a week will be suffi-
cient for all plants except those
with shallow roots. Only the top
100 mm or so of soil will dry out
by direct evaporation. Water from
passing up through the roots and
leaves of the plant. Wet the soil
to at least 600 mm at each
watering.
33
 Frequently gardeners lightly
sprinkle the surface each evening,
but this quickly evaporates and
little reaches the roots. This kind
of watering is only suitable for
germinating seeds and seedlings.
On the other hand, heavy water-
ing is a waste because once the
water gets below the roots it is
lost to the plant. The depth of
moisture penetration can be
checked by using a probe made
from heavy fencing wire. Tt will
easily penetrate moist soil but will
stop when it reaches dry soil.
D o not wait until plants wilt to
commence watering. Dig or probe
the soil to check soil moisture. If
soil retains the shape of your
hand when squeezed then it con-
tains sufficient moisture. Some
vegetables, especially those with
large leaves, will wilt on hot days,
but if there is sufficient soil
moisture they will recover in the
evening.
How to water
Sprinklers
Sprinklers are the most convenient
way of watering thc home garden ;
they use less water, require less
attention and are more suitable
for hilly areas.
It is important to know how
much water your sprinkler applies
and this can be easily checked.
Place some empty cans o r jars
under the sprinkler at various posi-
tions and measure the depth of
water applied over say half an
hour. This will also indicate the
spray pattern and how the sprink-
ler should be shifted to get an even
watering. Carefully regulate the
rate of application so that water
does not run off before it wets
the root zone. Tf necessary use
a finer sprinkler.
After a hot or windy day
sprinkle the whole garden in the
evening to revive wilted foliage.
Choose a sprinkler with a fine
spray, especially for watering
seedbeds and young seedlings.
Sprinklers which disperse large
droplets will pack many soils.
SO that the ~ v o ! c rpenetrates the root zone.
W e t rlzc gnrdetz t1zo~o1igt~ly
Furrows
Furrow watering is particularly
useful where crops are susceptible
to leaf diseases and it is best to
keep the foliage dry. Furrow
watering does require more water
than sprinkler irrigation and it is
more difficult on slopes.
It is necessary to seed or trans-
plant on beds o r broad ridges.
Sow seeds in two rows near the
edges of the bed and run water
in the furrow until ,the bed is wet.
Avoid flooding the top of the bed
as it causes the soil to cake, and
unless kept moist, the seedlings
cannot emerge. Set transplants in
the side of the furrow and water
in the same way, immediately
aEter planning. As the crop grows
the soil can be worked across so
that the plants are left in the centre
of the bed.
Trickle irrigation
Trickle irripation systems deliver
small quantities of water to plants
over an extended period through
fine outlets. The main advantage
of the system in the home garden
is a saving of water compared with
sprinkler o r furrow irrigation. 1st
is a cheaper system than fixed
sprinklers and needs little atten-
tion provided that blockages d o
not occur in the outlets.
Water is conveyed to plants
through polythene laterals and
metered through fine microtubes
o r special outlet valves at 1 to 2
litres an hour. The system works
under a low pressure (103 kilo-
pascals or 15 psi) and this is
achieved by using a pressure re-
ducing valve or a head tank.
The system is ideal for trees
and shrubs and is quite suitable
for a number of vegetables includ-
ing tomatoes, capsicums, egg plant,
rhubarb, asparagus, globe arti-
choke and members of the cucurbit
family. Simple trickle irrigation
outfits are available from some
garden suppliers o r they can be
constructed by the handyman.
Mulching
During the summer mulches can
be used to help conserve moisture
and suppress weed growth. They
also prevent fruit from touching
the ground and spoiling. A num-
ber of materials may be used, in-
cluding straw, compost, dried
lawn clippings, leaves, sawdust
and animal manure. Polythene
and treated paper are also very
effeotive mulching materials.
A mulch should be put around
the plants before the surface soil
has dried out. Do not spread
mulching material such as sawdust
or compost too thickly as it will
soak up any light rainfall before
it reaches the soil. When straw
or sawdust mulches are worked
Black polythene film mlrlch retains soil moistrrre and suppresses weeds; it will
into the surface soil add extra nit- also keep fruit clean.
rogen fertiliser to ensure rapid
breakdown.
Black polythene mulches not
only conserve moisture and sup-
press weeds, they also warm the
soil. Black polythene or paper
mulches are purchased in rolls
about 750 to 900 mm wide and
. can be either placed in position
before planting or sowing, or
placed over the plant by pulling
it through a slit in the sheet. Beds
should dip to the centre so water
will run in around the plant stem.
Extra holes can be cut if neces-
sary. Where a crop is watered
by the furrow method lateral
water penetration is usually ade- T o get better water penetration through polythene mulch, shape the bed t o
quate. form shallow basins on each side of the plant with X-shaped slits in the bottom.
Polythene mulches also warm
up the soil in the spring. Clear
polythene is much more effective
than black for this purpose as it
creates a " glasshouse " effect
right at ground level. However
clear plastic will not stop weed
growth, it encourages it. A disad-
vantage of these plastic mulches is
that the " sandwich " of air trap-
ped under the polythene sheet
effectively reduces heat losses by
conduction to the air above. Thus
the air near the ground over
mulched crops is colder at night
and frosting can occur.

Weeding
Weeds are one of the worst ene-
mies of the home gardener and
the commercial grower alike. They
compete with vegetables for soil
moisture and plant nutrients,
shade small plants and harbor
pests and diseases.
Hand cultivation is the most
successful method of tackling
weeds in the home garden ; selec-
tive chemical weedicides have
little application in small areas.
However power kerosene or para-
quat or diquat can be used to kill
weeds before seedlings emerge
and h2vc n o residual effect.
If weeds are removed when they
are small, not much effort is
needed and less damage is done
to the crop by disturbing the soil.
An old table knife is a useful tool
to scrape small weeds. Larger
weeds may be removed by hoeing,
but not too deeply, or too close
to plants as this may damage
the surface roots. Wced closer
to the plants by hand. A wheel
hoe is very useful in larger
.gardens.
A c~oclz 1?1odc7 jrot~z polytllc,~!cf11111 over l z ~ ~ 0
Lift the edge of the clocl~to provide verztilntiol1.
Growing early
crops
The minimum average monthly
temperature for the growth of
vegetables is about 13OC. Most
require an average temperature of
at least lS°C, while the minimum
for tomatoes, peppers and water-
melon is 21°C. Cold moist soil,
frosts, cold winds, and limited sun-
shine will restrict plant growth
during the winter and early spring
months. For early crops, and
especially warm season crops,
steps must be taken to protect
them and to make the best use of
available sunshine.
Climates in the garden
The climate over an area as small
as a suburban block can be quite
variable and within any garden
there are pockets with differences
in air temperature and soil
moisture. These pockets are
refcrred to as " micro-climates ",
ar?d gardeners use them for grow-
ing different plants at different
times of the year. Micro-climates
can vary considerably from the
climatic conditions recorded by
thc weather bureau for the par-
ticular locality. Besides fitting
plants to existing micro-climates in
1
~ ~ O I I;\ I Clig111
0 1 1 , ~111ild ~ ~ r ~ ~ b
the garden, it is possible to change
and improve micro-climates to suit
particular crops.
Aspect
The aspect of any garden plays an
important part in determining the
" local " climate. North or north-
easterly slopes are very suit-
able for early cropping-the
sun's rays strike the soil at
a greater angle and this increases
their heating effect. This prin-
ciple is applied in Northern Vic-
toria to grow early tomato crops.
Instead of using flat beds they are
sloped to the north to catch the
sun at an angle approaching 90°.
The plants are placed half way
down-the bed and the ridge behind
the plant provides some protection
from cold south winds.
Heavy, cold air drains down-
hill. The coldest air moves very
close to the ground and even
though frost damage might not
occur these low spots can be con-
siderably colder. Early crops
should be kept to the higher side
of a sloping area and the planting
of crops near any structure or
hedge which will trap pockets of
cold air movinq downhill should
bz avoided. The uphill side of a
building, fence or dense hedge can

Food cans with tile fops and botron7s
removed are good protectors for young
trnnsplnrlts againsl tvinrl nnd light
frosr.
be a cold spot, therefore an
attempt should be made to arrange
the garden so that the cold air
will continue 2 0 move downhill.
Protection from prevailing
winds is important but eddies and
air currents created by buildings,
fences and trees will also cause
chilling. Slatted fences are good
windbreaks and they will not block
the escape of cold air.
Soil conditions
Soil moisture, soil texture and soil
.color, all affect the temperature of
the soil and the air just above it.
The temperature of the soil around
the plant roots can be as important
as the temperalture of the air
around the leaves.
The importance of adequate
drainage cannot be over-empha-
sised. When necessary, gardeners
should install both underground
drains and gutters to carry surface
run-off. The bed system of crop-
ping provides excellent drainage.
The color of the soil surface
affects its heating ability. Dark
soils " soak up " more heat from
the sun than light-colored sandy
soils which reflect the sun's heat.
Bituminous mulches are used by
commercial growers to warm up
the soil to germinate early melon
crops in northern Victoria. The
bitumen is sprayed in a band
behind the seeder. This is a
modem variation of the old gar-
dener's trick of spreading soot over
a seed bed.
Early crops can be grown under polytkerre protectors, eilher erzclosed trtrznels
( l e f t ) or a ~v?nfedcover (right). The open topped cover con be rtsed to grow
crops through to near maturity as it provides good ventilatiort.
Trapping the sun's heat
There are several ways of increas-
ing the sun's heating effect on the
soil, but perhaps just as important
is the prevention of heat loss from
the soil. As the surface soil warms
up heat is transferred to the soil
layers below and the air above by
conduction, and to the sky by
radiation. Little can be done to
prevent the downward movement
of heat, but the losses caused by
conduction to the air can be
reduced by slowing the movement
of wind across the garden.
Losses by radiation are reduced
by low cloud layers, overhanging
trees, and buildings. Simple
reflecting devices placed over
crops also reduce heat losses by
directing radiant heat back to the
ground. In northern Victoria wood
planks are propped along the
south side of (tomato plants to re-
flect heat and reduce the cooling
effect of cold south winds.
Glass cloches and polythene
tunnels
Jn the section on raising seedlings
the use of glass and plastic covers
on seed beds is discussed. These
prevent or reduce the loss of
radiant heat from the soil and
plants beneath the covers. In the
same way crops can be grown or
started in glasshouses and under
cloches, plastic tunnels and hot
caps. Polythene tunnels have
largely replaced glass cloches be-
clothes
-;.+ '
cause they are cheaper, more
adaptable and less likely to be
damaged. Tunnels are made
from clear polythene supported on
wire loops. However, strong
winds can rip plastic covers if they
are not carefully held down.
Glass cloches are available in
two main types. The tent-type
made of two panes of glass
400 mm by 350 mm fitted to a
/\-shaped wire framework, and
the large barn-type cloche which
has glass sides and the tent roof.
Cloches fitted end to end to cover
a row of vegetables are called con-
tinuous cloches. The end of the
row is filled in with a sheet of
glass. The glass panes can be
parted at the top for ventilation.
Soil temperatures are higher and
night temperatures are warmer
under cloches or tunnels. There-
fore germination of seeds and root
growth are assisted in the cooler
months, and the more even day
and night temperatures enable
crops t o mature up to a month
earlier.
Cloches and tunnels also pro-
tect from the wind and heavy
showers of rain, and prevent the
soil from becoming too dry or too
moist. Protective sprays against
pests and diseases last longer as
they do not wash off.
Cultivation is restricted by
cloches and tunnels so that more
manual work is required and also
more thorough preparation of the
soil. Cloches and tunnels are not
tall enough t o hold all crops
during their full life, and tall crops
often receive a severe check when
the cover is removed. Watering
has to be done more carefully,
particularly in soils which dry out
quickly.
Cloches or tunnels should be
placed in position 10 to 14 days
before the seed is sown and after
the soil has been given a thorough
preparation. This will allow the
soil sufficient time to warm up.
Lettuce and low-growing crops
can be grown under the cover for
their full life if necessary. Warm-
season crops such as cucumbers
and tomatoes may be transplanted
a month to six weeks earlier than
usual.
Gardening
in pots
Among the increasing number of
people living in flats and units
there are many who have an
irresistable urge to get their fingers
in the soil and grow something.
There is now quite a trend to ex-
pand from the familiar window
box of flowers to the use of pots
on suitable balconies and sun-
decks to produce vegetable crops
as well as flowers.
Well diained pots of a suitable
size and a suitable growing
medium are needed to ensure that
the vegetable chosen has the
ability to produce usefully.
There is a wide Tange of pots
of various sizes and materials avail-
able from nursery suppliers which
are suitable. Secondhand cans or
buckets, metal o r plastic, may be
adapted by the economy-minded
" do-it-yourself " grower. If pots
are made from secondhand con-
tainers, provide drainage by drill-
ing 4 to 6 mm holes at 50 mm
intervals in the side of the
containers as near to the bottom
as possible. This will give adequate
drainage. Do not make large
holes in the bottom of the con-
tainer. They will result in the
container draining too freely, and
will require watering more often,
causing excessive leaching of
nutrients. Place a drip saucer
under the container to collect ex-
cess water.
It is most importa~tthat home-
made metal containers have drip
trays because after a short time
they will rust and leave brown
stains on concrete.
Soil mixes
Soils or growing mediums suitable
for pot culture must drain
adequately yet retain sufficient
moisture to support the plant for
a reasonable time as well as re-
taining plant nutrients.
Suitable growing mediums can
be purchased from nursery
supplies. The enthusiast who
desires to make his own mixture
may use any soil as the basis for
a mix. If the soil is heavy and
poorly struotured, mix one volume
of this soil with an equal volume
of washed river sand and a similar
amount of well-matured compost
which has been sieved to remove
coarse and unrotted plant material.
Incorporate thoroughly 20 grams
of NPK 6 : 6 : 6 complete
fertiliser to an 18-litre bucket of
the mixture. The soil with the
base-dressing is ready for use.
Plants which demand a soil
reaction of pH 6 or more will
require the addition of lime if the
soils and compost used are acidic.
Vegetables which are sensitive to
acid conditions are rainbow chard,
spring onions and spinach. When
the addition of lime is indicated
make up the soil mixture but do
not add the fertiliser. Moisten
the soil thoroughly but do not
saturate it. Add 30 grams of
ground agricultural limc and
incorporate thoroughly ; allow
to stand a couple of weeks before
adding the fertiliser. The mixture
is now ready for use. If the local
soil is a well structured loam or a
sandy loam use two volumes of
this soil to one of compost and
fertiliser as above.
More damage is often done by
over-fertilising rather than by lack
of plant nu.trient. Do not use too
much fertiliser in the base mixture
but keep plants growing along by
using complete liquid fertilisers
such as NPK 18 : 12 : 18 t o the
manufacturers directions. Don't
make the mixture ,too strong and
don't apply it more frequently than
recommended by the manufacturer.
Herbs
People who like cooking with
herbs will undoubtedly find it most
rewarding to plant a h e r b garden.
Many species are perennial and
oncc established will only need a
little maintenance and repotting
every couple of years. Single
plants of marjoram, winter savory
and thyme may be grown in 125
to 150 mm pots. Sage, a some-
what larger plant, would be best
suited by a 150-200 mm pot.
Two annual herbs well worth
planting in spring after the frosts
have gone are basil, a sweet-
scented and useful herb, and
summer savory which seems to
combine the flavors of sage, thyme,
and marjoram and consequently
makes an excellent seasoning with-
out any other herb.
The big advantage about herbs
is that they will thrive in a wide
range of soil types. They demand
only reasonable drainage and a
minimum amount of water and
fertiliser. In fact their quality is
better if grown under fairly hard
conditions. Mint and parsley are
two other common herbs which
may be grown successfully in pots.
However they do require high
fertility and plenty of water.
Mint is best grown in a well
drained 10 litre plastic bucket or
a large pot. Parsley grows well in
small 150 to 200 mm pots and
although a biennial it is best
treated as an annual. Many other
species of herbs can be grown by
the keen gardener with a little
perseverance.
 Tomatoes
Tomatoes are by far the most
popular of the conventional vege-
I
tables for pot culture and they can
be quite profitable if given proper
attention.
Tomatoes are subject to soil
borne diseases (especially the
fungus diseases Verticillium and
F'usarium) which are carried over
from year to year in soils con-
stantly growing tomatoes or
related species. Sterile commercial
potting mixes, now available, are I
free of diseases and weed seed
and for this reason are well suited
for tomato production if new
material is used with every crop.
Growers preparing their own mix-
tures should obtain their soil from
some area which has not been
cropped for many years and en- ,
sure that their compost is free of
any tomatoes, potatoes or other
related plants.
Tubs or lnrge pots are a rnlrst for growing nlint. Tlte tub prevents the rnirzt from
creeping over garden beds and it is ensier to keep watered.
Pots 150 to 250 mm in dia-
meter may be used for small
novelty varieties such as Tiny Tim,
i
Small Fry or Cherry Red. These
varieties grow to about one metre
tall and bear masses of fruit about
10 mm in diameter.
Pots 30 mm in diameter are
suited t o medium-sized varieties
such as Epoch and Patio. How-
ever for the large commercial
varieties of mid-season, Grosse
Lisse and Day Dream, or the late
variety Burnley Bounty, 20-litre
cans or better still, 25-litre drums
are preferred. This ensures that
there is sufficient nutrient avail-
able, and more important, that
there is a larger soil block to re-
tain moisture during heat-waves
when moisture stress may cause
heavy losses of fruit by blossom-
end rot.
Do not leave plants on a wall
with a northerly aspect during hot
summer weather because in sun
traps like this the temperature may
well be in excess of 50°C. Scalded

Tomatoes can be grown in large pots or drums when garden space is limited.
The plants can be shifted t o take advantage of sunshine early in the spring.
 fruiat, blossom end rot, and sunburn
pl'an,ts are the inevitable resul't if
this is not watched carefully.
All tomatoes grown in contain-
ers should be supported by stakes.
Place the stakes early and train
the tomatoes as for open-bed
culture.
Capsicums
Capsicu.ms have similar require-
ments to tomatoes but being of
smaller growth habit may be
grown in 150 to 200 mm pots.
There are several types avail-
able-the large sweet bell-shaped,
a long sweet green and a long
sweet yellow, all of which ripen to
a bright red color and may be
eaten raw or cooked at the green
or red stage.
There are also small, long, hot
capsicums which ripen to a
spectacular red which may be left
on the plant till fully mature.
Then the p1an.t is pulled out and
hung in a dry draughty place until
. . the fruit is dried out. The fruit
may ,then be stored in a screw-top
jar for future use in the kitchen.
One plant will be more than
sufficient to supply a year's needs.
Capsicums do not need pruning.
Climbers
Cucumbers and climbing beans
may be grown in containers and
are especially valuable to grow as
a screen to relieve the starkness of
a wall. They must be trained on
a trellis about 1.5 m high and
require solid containers such as
18-litre tins so that they will not
be top-heavy and overbalance in
wind. Two or three beans or one
cucumber may be grown in a
container. Both plants require a
well drained soil with an abundant
supply of plant nutrients and
moisture, from the budding stage
through to harvest.
Some suitable climbing bean
varieties are Blue Coco (Purple
King) which produces a spectacu-
lar purple-podded bean which
turns green in color when cooked,
and Blue Lake which is a very
good quality stringless bean. Make
sure however that you do not plant
dwarf varieties, which of course
do not climb. Golden Crop and
Golden Lake are butter beans of
good quality which carry attractive
light yellow pods.
The most suitable green
cucumber for planting is Burpless.
It is a hybrid of excellent flavor,
easily digested, and when trellised,
the fruit are of a good straight
shape because they hang down.
Seed saved from this variety are
unsuitable for replanting. A wise vacant pots.
suitable apple cucumber type is
Patio Pik.
Other vegetables
When novelty, beauty and utility
are required some rainbow chard
may be planted in about 200 mm
pots, Rainbow Chard is a variety
of silver beet with stems of cream,
gold, orange, purple, red or in-
between shades. Plant several
A miniature terraced gardetz constrrrcted from treated timber is srritable for herbs
and smaller kinds of vegetables.
seeds to a pot and allow them to
grow 150 to 200 mm tall. Select
,,
the plant of the desired color and
remove the rest. The thinnings
can be eaten like spinach. Allow
the single plants to grow on and I
treat as silver beet. These plants
are gross feeders so remember to
apply complete liquid fertilisers
regularly especially following a
pick. Half a dozen plants of
various shades will make a splash
of color and provide a useful green
in your kitchen.
Containers used for sum-
mer vegetables-tomatoes, beans,
cucumbers, or capsicums that will
be empty over winter can be used
to produce radish, spinach, or
1
spring onions during winter and
provide a little color to the other-
All types of vegetables except
perennials such as artichokes,
asparagus and rhubarb and large
members of the pumpkin family
may be grown in pots. However
the species mentioned are most
suitable for pot culture with herbs
and well cared for tomatoes being
the most rewarding. Root crops
and members of the cabbage
family require more area than can
be easily provided in containers.