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Contents
[hide]
• 1 History
• 2 Applications
○ 2.1 Optical fiber communication
○ 2.2 Fiber optic sensors
○ 2.3 Other uses of optical fibers
• 3 Principle of operation
○ 3.1 Index of refraction
○ 3.2 Total internal reflection
○ 3.3 Multi-mode fiber
○ 3.4 Single-mode fiber
○ 3.5 Special-purpose fiber
• 4 Mechanisms of attenuation
○ 4.1 Light scattering
○ 4.2 UV-Vis-IR absorption
• 5 Manufacturing
○ 5.1 Materials
5.1.1 Silica
5.1.2 Fluorides
5.1.3 Phosphates
5.1.4 Chalcogenides
○ 5.2 Process
○ 5.3 Coatings
• 6 Practical issues
○ 6.1 Optical fiber cables
○ 6.2 Termination and splicing
○ 6.3 Free-space coupling
○ 6.4 Fiber fuse
• 7 Example
• 8 Electric power transmission
• 9 See also
• 10 References
• 11 Further reading
• 12 External links
[edit] History
Daniel Colladon first described this "light fountain" or "light pipe" in an 1842 article titled
On the reflections of a ray of light inside a parabolic liquid stream. This particular
illustration comes from a later article by Colladon, in 1884.
Fiber optics, though used extensively in the modern world, is a fairly simple and old
technology. Guiding of light by refraction, the principle that makes fiber optics possible, was
first demonstrated by Daniel Colladon and Jacques Babinet in Paris in the early 1840s. John
Tyndall included a demonstration of it in his public lectures in London a dozen years later.[1]
Tyndall also wrote about the property of total internal reflection in an introductory book
about the nature of light in 1870: "When the light passes from air into water, the refracted ray
is bent towards the perpendicular... When the ray passes from water to air it is bent from the
perpendicular... If the angle which the ray in water encloses with the perpendicular to the
surface be greater than 48 degrees, the ray will not quit the water at all: it will be totally
reflected at the surface.... The angle which marks the limit where total reflection begins is
called the limiting angle of the medium. For water this angle is 48°27', for flint glass it is
38°41', while for diamond it is 23°42'."[2][3]
Practical applications, such as close internal illumination during dentistry, appeared early in
the twentieth century. Image transmission through tubes was demonstrated independently by
the radio experimenter Clarence Hansell and the television pioneer John Logie Baird in the
1920s. The principle was first used for internal medical examinations by Heinrich Lamm in
the following decade. In 1952, physicist Narinder Singh Kapany conducted experiments that
led to the invention of optical fiber. Modern optical fibers, where the glass fiber is coated
with a transparent cladding to offer a more suitable refractive index, appeared later in the
decade.[1] Development then focused on fiber bundles for image transmission. The first fiber
optic semi-flexible gastroscope was patented by Basil Hirschowitz, C. Wilbur Peters, and
Lawrence E. Curtiss, researchers at the University of Michigan, in 1956. In the process of
developing the gastroscope, Curtiss produced the first glass-clad fibers; previous optical
fibers had relied on air or impractical oils and waxes as the low-index cladding material. A
variety of other image transmission applications soon followed.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, light was guided through bent glass rods to
illuminate body cavities. Alexander Graham Bell invented a 'Photophone' to transmit voice
signals over an optical beam.[4]
Jun-ichi Nishizawa, a Japanese scientist at Tohoku University, also proposed the use of
optical fibers for communications in 1963, as stated in his book published in 2004 in India.[5]
Nishizawa invented other technologies which contributed to the development of optical fiber
communications, such as the graded-index optical fiber as a channel for transmitting light
from semiconductor lasers.[6][7] Charles K. Kao and George A. Hockham of the British
company Standard Telephones and Cables (STC) were the first to promote the idea that the
attenuation in optical fibers could be reduced below 20 decibels per kilometer (dB/km),
allowing fibers to be a practical medium for communication.[8] They proposed that the
attenuation in fibers available at the time was caused by impurities, which could be removed,
rather than fundamental physical effects such as scattering. They correctly and systematically
theorized the light-loss properties for optical fiber, and pointed out the right material to
manufacture such fibers — silica glass with high purity. This discovery led to Kao being
awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2009.[9]
NASA used fiber optics in the television cameras sent to the moon. At the time such use in
the cameras was 'classified confidential' and only those with the right security clearance or
those accompanied by someone with the right security clearance were permitted to handle the
cameras.[10]
The crucial attenuation limit of 20 dB/km was first achieved in 1970, by researchers Robert
D. Maurer, Donald Keck, Peter C. Schultz, and Frank Zimar working for American glass
maker Corning Glass Works, now Corning Incorporated. They demonstrated a fiber with
17 dB/km attenuation by doping silica glass with titanium. A few years later they produced a
fiber with only 4 dB/km attenuation using germanium dioxide as the core dopant. Such low
attenuation ushered in optical fiber telecommunication. In 1981, General Electric produced
fused quartz ingots that could be drawn into fiber optic strands 25 miles (40 km) long.[11]
Attenuation in modern optical cables is far less than in electrical copper cables, leading to
long-haul fiber connections with repeater distances of 70–150 kilometers (43–93 mi). The
erbium-doped fiber amplifier, which reduced the cost of long-distance fiber systems by
reducing or eliminating optical-electrical-optical repeaters, was co-developed by teams led by
David N. Payne of the University of Southampton and Emmanuel Desurvire at Bell Labs in
1986. Robust modern optical fiber uses glass for both core and sheath and is therefore less
prone to aging processes. It was invented by Gerhard Bernsee of Schott Glass in Germany in
1973.[12]
The emerging field of photonic crystals led to the development in 1991 of photonic-crystal
fiber[13] which guides light by diffraction from a periodic structure, rather than by total
internal reflection. The first photonic crystal fibers became commercially available in 2000.
[14]
Photonic crystal fibers can carry higher power than conventional fibers and their
wavelength-dependent properties can be manipulated to improve performance.
[edit] Applications
[edit] Optical fiber communication
Main article: Fiber-optic communication
Optical fiber can be used as a medium for telecommunication and networking because it is
flexible and can be bundled as cables. It is especially advantageous for long-distance
communications, because light propagates through the fiber with little attenuation compared
to electrical cables. This allows long distances to be spanned with few repeaters.
Additionally, the per-channel light signals propagating in the fiber have been modulated at
rates as high as 111 gigabits per second by NTT,[15][16] although 10 or 40 Gbit/s is typical in
deployed systems.[17][18] Each fiber can carry many independent channels, each using a
different wavelength of light (wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)). The net data rate
(data rate without overhead bytes) per fiber is the per-channel data rate reduced by the FEC
overhead, multiplied by the number of channels (usually up to eighty in commercial dense
WDM systems as of 2008[update]). The current laboratory fiber optic data rate record, held by
Bell Labs in Villarceaux, France, is multiplexing 155 channels, each carrying 100 Gbit/s over
a 7000 km fiber.[19] Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation have also managed 69.1
Tbit/s over a single 240 km fiber (multiplexing 432 channels, equating to 171 Gbit/s per
channel).[20] Bell Labs also broke a 100 Petabit per second kilometer barrier (15.5 Tbit/s over
a single 7000 km fiber).[21]
For short distance applications, such as creating a network within an office building, fiber-
optic cabling can be used to save space in cable ducts. This is because a single fiber can often
carry much more data than many electrical cables, such as 4 pair Cat-5 Ethernet cabling.[vague]
Fiber is also immune to electrical interference; there is no cross-talk between signals in
different cables and no pickup of environmental noise. Non-armored fiber cables do not
conduct electricity, which makes fiber a good solution for protecting communications
equipment located in high voltage environments such as power generation facilities, or metal
communication structures prone to lightning strikes. They can also be used in environments
where explosive fumes are present, without danger of ignition. Wiretapping is more difficult
compared to electrical connections, and there are concentric dual core fibers that are said to
be tap-proof.[22]
[edit] Fiber optic sensors
Main article: Fiber optic sensor
Fibers have many uses in remote sensing. In some applications, the sensor is itself an optical
fiber. In other cases, fiber is used to connect a non-fiberoptic sensor to a measurement
system. Depending on the application, fiber may be used because of its small size, or the fact
that no electrical power is needed at the remote location, or because many sensors can be
multiplexed along the length of a fiber by using different wavelengths of light for each
sensor, or by sensing the time delay as light passes along the fiber through each sensor. Time
delay can be determined using a device such as an optical time-domain reflectometer.
Optical fibers can be used as sensors to measure strain, temperature, pressure and other
quantities by modifying a fiber so that the quantity to be measured modulates the intensity,
phase, polarization, wavelength or transit time of light in the fiber. Sensors that vary the
intensity of light are the simplest, since only a simple source and detector are required. A
particularly useful feature of such fiber optic sensors is that they can, if required, provide
distributed sensing over distances of up to one meter.
Extrinsic fiber optic sensors use an optical fiber cable, normally a multi-mode one, to
transmit modulated light from either a non-fiber optical sensor, or an electronic sensor
connected to an optical transmitter. A major benefit of extrinsic sensors is their ability to
reach places which are otherwise inaccessible. An example is the measurement of
temperature inside aircraft jet engines by using a fiber to transmit radiation into a radiation
pyrometer located outside the engine. Extrinsic sensors can also be used in the same way to
measure the internal temperature of electrical transformers, where the extreme
electromagnetic fields present make other measurement techniques impossible. Extrinsic
sensors are used to measure vibration, rotation, displacement, velocity, acceleration, torque,
and twisting. A solid state version of the gyroscope using the interference of light has been
developed. The fiber optic gyroscope (FOG) has no moving parts and exploits the Sagnac
effect to detect mechanical rotation.
A common use for fiber optic sensors are in advanced intrusion detection security systems,
where the light is transmitted along the fiber optic sensor cable, which is placed on a fence,
pipeline or communication cabling, and the returned signal is monitored and analysed for
disturbances. This return signal is digitally processed to identify if there is a disturbance, and
if an intrusion has occurred an alarm is triggered by the fiber optic security system.
[edit] Other uses of optical fibers
A laser bouncing down an acrylic rod, illustrating the total internal reflection of light in a
multi-mode optical fiber.
Main article: Multi-mode optical fiber
Fiber with large core diameter (greater than 10 micrometers) may be analyzed by geometrical
optics. Such fiber is called multi-mode fiber, from the electromagnetic analysis (see below).
In a step-index multi-mode fiber, rays of light are guided along the fiber core by total internal
reflection. Rays that meet the core-cladding boundary at a high angle (measured relative to a
line normal to the boundary), greater than the critical angle for this boundary, are completely
reflected. The critical angle (minimum angle for total internal reflection) is determined by the
difference in index of refraction between the core and cladding materials. Rays that meet the
boundary at a low angle are refracted from the core into the cladding, and do not convey light
and hence information along the fiber. The critical angle determines the acceptance angle of
the fiber, often reported as a numerical aperture. A high numerical aperture allows light to
propagate down the fiber in rays both close to the axis and at various angles, allowing
efficient coupling of light into the fiber. However, this high numerical aperture increases the
amount of dispersion as rays at different angles have different path lengths and therefore take
different times to traverse the fiber.
Specular reflection
Diffuse reflection
The propagation of light through the core of an optical fiber is based on total internal
reflection of the lightwave. Rough and irregular surfaces, even at the molecular level, can
cause light rays to be reflected in random directions. This is called diffuse reflection or
scattering, and it is typically characterized by wide variety of reflection angles.
Light scattering depends on the wavelength of the light being scattered. Thus, limits to spatial
scales of visibility arise, depending on the frequency of the incident light-wave and the
physical dimension (or spatial scale) of the scattering center, which is typically in the form of
some specific micro-structural feature. Since visible light has a wavelength of the order of
one micrometre (one millionth of a meter) scattering centers will have dimensions on a
similar spatial scale.
Thus, attenuation results from the incoherent scattering of light at internal surfaces and
interfaces. In (poly)crystalline materials such as metals and ceramics, in addition to pores,
most of the internal surfaces or interfaces are in the form of grain boundaries that separate
tiny regions of crystalline order. It has recently been shown that when the size of the
scattering center (or grain boundary) is reduced below the size of the wavelength of the light
being scattered, the scattering no longer occurs to any significant extent. This phenomenon
has given rise to the production of transparent ceramic materials.
Similarly, the scattering of light in optical quality glass fiber is caused by molecular level
irregularities (compositional fluctuations) in the glass structure. Indeed, one emerging school
of thought is that a glass is simply the limiting case of a polycrystalline solid. Within this
framework, "domains" exhibiting various degrees of short-range order become the building
blocks of both metals and alloys, as well as glasses and ceramics. Distributed both between
and within these domains are micro-structural defects which will provide the most ideal
locations for the occurrence of light scattering. This same phenomenon is seen as one of the
limiting factors in the transparency of IR missile domes.[27]
At high optical powers, scattering can also be caused by nonlinear optical processes in the
fiber.[28][29]
[edit] UV-Vis-IR absorption
In addition to light scattering, attenuation or signal loss can also occur due to selective
absorption of specific wavelengths, in a manner similar to that responsible for the appearance
of color. Primary material considerations include both electrons and molecules as follows:
1) At the electronic level, it depends on whether the electron orbitals are spaced (or
"quantized") such that they can absorb a quantum of light (or photon) of a specific
wavelength or frequency in the ultraviolet (UV) or visible ranges. This is what gives rise to
color.
2) At the atomic or molecular level, it depends on the frequencies of atomic or molecular
vibrations or chemical bonds, how close-packed its atoms or molecules are, and whether or
not the atoms or molecules exhibit long-range order. These factors will determine the
capacity of the material transmitting longer wavelengths in the infrared (IR), far IR, radio and
microwave ranges.
The design of any optically transparent device requires the selection of materials based upon
knowledge of its properties and limitations. The lattice [disambiguation needed] absorption
characteristics observed at the lower frequency regions (mid IR to far-infrared wavelength
range) define the long-wavelength transparency limit of the material. They are the result of
the interactive coupling between the motions of thermally induced vibrations of the
constituent atoms and molecules of the solid lattice and the incident light wave radiation.
Hence, all materials are bounded by limiting regions of absorption caused by atomic and
molecular vibrations (bond-stretching)in the far-infrared (>10 µm).
Thus, multi-phonon absorption occurs when two or more phonons simultaneously interact to
produce electric dipole moments with which the incident radiation may couple. These dipoles
can absorb energy from the incident radiation, reaching a maximum coupling with the
radiation when the frequency is equal to the fundamental vibrational mode of the molecular
dipole (e.g. Si-O bond) in the far-infrared, or one of its harmonics.
The selective absorption of infrared (IR) light by a particular material occurs because the
selected frequency of the light wave matches the frequency (or an integer multiple of the
frequency) at which the particles of that material vibrate. Since different atoms and molecules
have different natural frequencies of vibration, they will selectively absorb different
frequencies (or portions of the spectrum) of infrared (IR) light.
Reflection and transmission of light waves occur because the frequencies of the light waves
do not match the natural resonant frequencies of vibration of the objects. When IR light of
these frequencies strikes an object, the energy is either reflected or transmitted.
[edit] Manufacturing
[edit] Materials
Glass optical fibers are almost always made from silica, but some other materials, such as
fluorozirconate, fluoroaluminate, and chalcogenide glasses as well as crystalline materials
like sapphire, are used for longer-wavelength infrared or other specialized applications. Silica
and fluoride glasses usually have refractive indices of about 1.5, but some materials such as
the chalcogenides can have indices as high as 3. Typically the index difference between core
and cladding is less than one percent.
Plastic optical fibers (POF) are commonly step-index multi-mode fibers with a core diameter
of 0.5 millimeters or larger. POF typically have higher attenuation coefficients than glass
fibers, 1 dB/m or higher, and this high attenuation limits the range of POF-based systems.
[edit] Silica
Silica exhibits fairly good optical transmission over a wide range of wavelengths. In the near-
infrared (near IR) portion of the spectrum, particularly around 1.5 μm, silica can have
extremely low absorption and scattering losses of the order of 0.2 dB/km. A high
transparency in the 1.4-μm region is achieved by maintaining a low concentration of
hydroxyl groups (OH). Alternatively, a high OH concentration is better for transmission in
the ultraviolet (UV) region.
Silica can be drawn into fibers at reasonably high temperatures, and has a fairly broad glass
transformation range. One other advantage is that fusion splicing and cleaving of silica fibers
is relatively effective. Silica fiber also has high mechanical strength against both pulling and
even bending, provided that the fiber is not too thick and that the surfaces have been well
prepared during processing. Even simple cleaving (breaking) of the ends of the fiber can
provide nicely flat surfaces with acceptable optical quality. Silica is also relatively chemically
inert. In particular, it is not hygroscopic (does not absorb water).
Silica glass can be doped with various materials. One purpose of doping is to raise the
refractive index (e.g. with Germanium dioxide (GeO2) or Aluminium oxide (Al2O3)) or to
lower it (e.g. with fluorine or Boron trioxide (B2O3)). Doping is also possible with laser-
active ions (for example, rare earth-doped fibers) in order to obtain active fibers to be used,
for example, in fiber amplifiers or laser applications. Both the fiber core and cladding are
typically doped, so that the entire assembly (core and cladding) is effectively the same
compound (e.g. an aluminosilicate, germanosilicate, phosphosilicate or borosilicate glass).
Particularly for active fibers, pure silica is usually not a very suitable host glass, because it
exhibits a low solubility for rare earth ions. This can lead to quenching effects due to
clustering of dopant ions. Aluminosilicates are much more effective in this respect.
Silica fiber also exhibits a high threshold for optical damage. This property ensures a low
tendency for laser-induced breakdown. This is important for fiber amplifiers when utilized
for the amplification of short pulses.
Because of these properties silica fibers are the material of choice in many optical
applications, such as communications (except for very short distances with plastic optical
fiber), fiber lasers, fiber amplifiers, and fiber-optic sensors. The large efforts which have been
put forth in the development of various types of silica fibers have further increased the
performance of such fibers over other materials.[30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37]
[edit] Fluorides
Fluoride glass is a class of non-oxide optical quality glasses composed of fluorides of various
metals. Because of their low viscosity, it is very difficult to completely avoid crystallization
while processing it through the glass transition (or drawing the fiber from the melt). Thus,
although heavy metal fluoride glasses (HMFG) exhibit very low optical attenuation, they are
not only difficult to manufacture, but are quite fragile, and have poor resistance to moisture
and other environmental attacks. Their best attribute is that they lack the absorption band
associated with the hydroxyl (OH) group (3200–3600 cm−1), which is present in nearly all
oxide-based glasses.
An example of a heavy metal fluoride glass is the ZBLAN glass group, composed of
zirconium, barium, lanthanum, aluminium, and sodium fluorides. Their main technological
application is as optical waveguides in both planar and fiber form. They are advantageous
especially in the mid-infrared (2000–5000 nm) range.
HMFGs were initially slated for optical fiber applications, because the intrinsic losses of a
mid-IR fiber could in principle be lower than those of silica fibers, which are transparent only
up to about 2 μm. However, such low losses were never realized in practice, and the fragility
and high cost of fluoride fibers made them less than ideal as primary candidates. Later, the
utility of fluoride fibers for various other applications was discovered. These include mid-IR
spectroscopy, fiber optic sensors, thermometry, and imaging. Also, fluoride fibers can be
used for guided lightwave transmission in media such as YAG (yttria-alumina garnet) lasers
at 2.9 μm, as required for medical applications (e.g. ophthalmology and dentistry).[38][39]
[edit] Phosphates
The P4O10 cagelike structure—the basic building block for phosphate glass.
Phosphate glass constitutes a class of optical glasses composed of metaphosphates of various
metals. Instead of the SiO4 tetrahedra observed in silicate glasses, the building block for this
glass former is Phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5), which crystallizes in at least four different
forms. The most familiar polymorph (see figure) comprises molecules of P4O10.
Phosphate glasses can be advantageous over silica glasses for optical fibers with a high
concentration of doping rare earth ions. A mix of fluoride glass and phosphate glass is
fluorophosphate glass.[40][41]
[edit] Chalcogenides
The chalcogens—the elements in group 16 of the periodic table—particularly sulfur (S),
selenium (Se) and tellurium (Te)—react with more electropositive elements, such as silver, to
form chalcogenides. These are extremely versatile compounds, in that they can be crystalline
or amorphous, metallic or semiconducting, and conductors of ions or electrons.
[edit] Process
Illustration of the modified chemical vapor deposition (inside) process
Standard optical fibers are made by first constructing a large-diameter preform, with a
carefully controlled refractive index profile, and then pulling the preform to form the long,
thin optical fiber. The preform is commonly made by three chemical vapor deposition
methods: inside vapor deposition, outside vapor deposition, and vapor axial deposition.[42]
With inside vapor deposition, the preform starts as a hollow glass tube approximately
40 centimeters (16 in) long, which is placed horizontally and rotated slowly on a lathe. Gases
such as silicon tetrachloride (SiCl4) or germanium tetrachloride (GeCl4) are injected with
oxygen in the end of the tube. The gases are then heated by means of an external hydrogen
burner, bringing the temperature of the gas up to 1900 K (1600 °C, 3000 °F), where the
tetrachlorides react with oxygen to produce silica or germania (germanium dioxide) particles.
When the reaction conditions are chosen to allow this reaction to occur in the gas phase
throughout the tube volume, in contrast to earlier techniques where the reaction occurred only
on the glass surface, this technique is called modified chemical vapor deposition (MCVD).
The oxide particles then agglomerate to form large particle chains, which subsequently
deposit on the walls of the tube as soot. The deposition is due to the large difference in
temperature between the gas core and the wall causing the gas to push the particles outwards
(this is known as thermophoresis). The torch is then traversed up and down the length of the
tube to deposit the material evenly. After the torch has reached the end of the tube, it is then
brought back to the beginning of the tube and the deposited particles are then melted to form
a solid layer. This process is repeated until a sufficient amount of material has been
deposited. For each layer the composition can be modified by varying the gas composition,
resulting in precise control of the finished fiber's optical properties.
In outside vapor deposition or vapor axial deposition, the glass is formed by flame hydrolysis,
a reaction in which silicon tetrachloride and germanium tetrachloride are oxidized by reaction
with water (H2O) in an oxyhydrogen flame. In outside vapor deposition the glass is deposited
onto a solid rod, which is removed before further processing. In vapor axial deposition, a
short seed rod is used, and a porous preform, whose length is not limited by the size of the
source rod, is built up on its end. The porous preform is consolidated into a transparent, solid
preform by heating to about 1800 K (1500 °C, 2800 °F).
The preform, however constructed, is then placed in a device known as a drawing tower,
where the preform tip is heated and the optic fiber is pulled out as a string. By measuring the
resultant fiber width, the tension on the fiber can be controlled to maintain the fiber thickness.
[edit] Coatings
The light is "guided" down the core of the fiber by an optical "cladding" with a lower
refractive index that traps light in the core through "total internal reflection."
The cladding is coated by a "buffer" that protects it from moisture and physical damage. The
buffer is what gets stripped off the fiber for termination or splicing. These coatings are UV-
cured urethane acrylate composite materials applied to the outside of the fiber during the
drawing process. The coatings protect the very delicate strands of glass fiber—about the size
of a human hair—and allow it to survive the rigors of manufacturing, proof testing, cabling
and installation.
Today’s glass optical fiber draw processes employ a dual-layer coating approach. An inner
primary coating is designed to act as a shock absorber to minimize attenuation caused by
microbending. An outer secondary coating protects the primary coating against mechanical
damage and acts as a barrier to lateral forces. Sometimes a metallic armour layer is added to
provide extra protection.
These fiber optic coating layers are applied during the fiber draw, at speeds approaching
100 kilometers per hour (60 mph). Fiber optic coatings are applied using one of two methods:
wet-on-dry, in which the fiber passes through a primary coating application, which is then
UV cured, then through the secondary coating application which is subsequently cured; and
wet-on-wet, in which the fiber passes through both the primary and secondary coating
applications and then goes to UV curing.
Fiber optic coatings are applied in concentric layers to prevent damage to the fiber during the
drawing application and to maximize fiber strength and microbend resistance. Unevenly
coated fiber will experience non-uniform forces when the coating expands or contracts, and is
susceptible to greater signal attenuation. Under proper drawing and coating processes, the
coatings are concentric around the fiber, continuous over the length of the application and
have constant thickness.
Fiber optic coatings protect the glass fibers from scratches that could lead to strength
degradation. The combination of moisture and scratches accelerates the aging and
deterioration of fiber strength. When fiber is subjected to low stresses over a long period,
fiber fatigue can occur. Over time or in extreme conditions, these factors combine to cause
microscopic flaws in the glass fiber to propagate, which can ultimately result in fiber failure.
Three key characteristics of fiber optic waveguides can be affected by environmental
conditions: strength, attenuation and resistance to losses caused by microbending. External
fiber optic coatings protect glass optical fiber from environmental conditions that can affect
the fiber’s performance and long-term durability. On the inside, coatings ensure the reliability
of the signal being carried and help minimize attenuation due to microbending.
[edit] Practical issues
[edit] Optical fiber cables
Electronics portal
[edit] References
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19. ^ !!!x-in-lab/ Alcatel Boosts Fiber Speed to 100 Petabits in Lab, Stacey Higginbotham, Sep. 28, 2009
20. ^ World Record 69-Terabit Capacity for Optical Transmission over a Single Optical Fiber
21. ^ Bell Labs breaks optical transmission record, 100 Petabit per second kilometer barrier
22. ^ Siemen's claim to a fiber optic line that can not be tapped. Retrieved 18 Dec 2009.
23. ^ Al Mosheky, Zaid; Melling, Peter J. ; Thomson, Mary A. (June 2001). "In situ real-time monitoring
of a fermentation reaction using a fiber-optic FT-IR probe" (pdf). Spectroscopy.
http://www.remspec.com/pdfs/SP5619.pdf.
24. ^ Melling, Peter; Thomson, Mary (October 2002). "Reaction monitoring in small reactors and tight
spaces" (pdf). American Laboratory News. http://www.remspec.com/pdfs/amlab1002.pdf.
25. ^ Melling, Peter J.; Thomson, Mary (2002). "Fiber-optic probes for mid-infrared spectrometry". In
Chalmers, John M.; Griffiths, Peter R. (eds.) (pdf). Handbook of Vibrational Spectroscopy. Wiley.
http://www.remspec.com/pdfs/2703_o.pdf.
26. ^ "Novak Fiber Optic Sights" Novak Sights Web site. Retrieved July 29, 2008.
27. ^ Archibald, P.S. and Bennett, H.E., Scattering from infrared missile domes, Opt. Engr., Vol. 17, p.647
(1978)
28. ^ Smith, R. G. (1972). "Optical Power Handling Capacity of Low Loss Optical Fibers as Determined
by Stimulated Raman and Brillouin Scattering". Applied Optics 11 (11): 2489–94.
doi:10.1364/AO.11.002489. PMID 20119362.
29. ^ Paschotta, Rüdiger. "Brillouin Scattering". Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology. RP
Photonics. http://www.rp-photonics.com/brillouin_scattering.html.
30. ^ Glasesmenn, G. S. (1999). "Advancements in Mechanical Strength and Reliability of Optical Fibers".
Proc. SPIE CR73: 1. http://www.corning.com/WorkArea/downloadasset.aspx?id=7783.
31. ^ Kurkjian, Charles R.; Simpkins, Peter G.; Inniss, Daryl (1993). "Strength, Degradation, and Coating
of Silica Lightguides". Journal of the American Ceramic Society 76: 1106. doi:10.1111/j.1151-
2916.1993.tb03727.x.
32. ^ Kurkjian, C (1988). "Mechanical stability of oxide glasses". Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 102:
71. doi:10.1016/0022-3093(88)90114-7.
33. ^ Kurkjian, C.R.; Krause, J.T.; Matthewson, M.J. (1989). "Strength and fatigue of silica optical fibers".
Journal of Lightwave Technology 7: 1360. doi:10.1109/50.50715.
34. ^ Kurkjian, Charles R. (1999). Strength variations in silica fibers. pp. 77. doi:10.1117/12.372757.
35. ^ Skontorp, Arne (2000). Nonlinear mechanical properties of silica-based optical fibers. pp. 278.
doi:10.1117/12.396408.
36. ^ Proctor, B. A.; Whitney, I.; Johnson, J. W. (1967). "The Strength of Fused Silica". Proceedings of
the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences (1934-1990) 297: 534.
doi:10.1098/rspa.1967.0085.
37. ^ Bartenev, G (1968). "The structure and strength of glass fibers". Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids 1:
69. doi:10.1016/0022-3093(68)90007-0.
38. ^ Tran, D., et al. (1984). "Heavy metal fluoride glasses and fibers: A review". J. Lightwave Technology
2: 566. doi:10.1109/JLT.1984.1073661. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?
arnumber=1073661.
39. ^ Nee, Soe-Mie F. (2000). Optical and surface properties of oxyfluoride glass. pp. 122.
doi:10.1117/12.405276.
40. ^ Karabulut, M (2001). "Mechanical and structural properties of phosphate glasses". Journal of Non-
Crystalline Solids 288: 8. doi:10.1016/S0022-3093(01)00615-9.
41. ^ Kurkjian, C (2000). "Mechanical properties of phosphate glasses". Journal of Non-Crystalline Solids
263-264: 207. doi:10.1016/S0022-3093(99)00637-7.
42. ^ Gowar, John (1993) (2d ed.). Hempstead, UK: Prentice-Hall. p. 209. ISBN 0136387276.
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44. ^ Hecht, Jeff (2002). Understanding Fiber Optics (4th ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-027828-9.
45. ^ "Screening report for Alaska rural energy plan" (pdf). Alaska Division of Community and Regional
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47. ^ Olzak, Tom (2007-05-03). "Protect your network against fiber hacks". Techrepublic. CNET.
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05. .
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Special:Search
Gradient-index optics
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A gradient-index
distance (x). The lens
lens with a parabolic
focuses variation
light in the of refractive
same way index (n) with
as a conventional lens.radial
Gradient-index optics is the branch of materials science dealing with the production and
characterization of gradually changing refractive index lenses. These lenses are able to
eliminate the aberrations caused by traditional spherical lenses without requiring variation to
the shape of the lens. Gradient index lenses may have a refraction gradient that is spherical,
axial, or radial.
Contents
[hide]
• 1 Gradient-Index Lenses in Nature
• 2 History
• 3 Theory
• 4 Design and Manufacture of GRIN
Lenses
• 5 Applications
• 6 References
Where n is the refractive index and S is the arc length of the curve. If Cartesian coordinates
are used, this equation is modified to incorporate the change in arc length for a spherical
gradient, to each physical dimension:
where prime corresponds to d/ds (Marchand, 1978). The light path integral is able to
characterize the path of light through the lens in a qualitative manner, such that the lens may
be easily reproduced in the future.
The refractive index gradient of GRIN lenses can be mathematically modelled according to
its method of production. For example, GRIN lenses made from a radial gradient index
material, such as SELFOC® (Flores-Arias et al, 2006), express a refractive index that varies
according to:
Where, nr the refractive index at a distance, r, from the optical axis; is the design index on the
optical axis and A is a positive constant.
[edit] Design and Manufacture of GRIN Lenses
The GRIN lens is designed in two separate phases. In the first phase, the lens is evaluated by
analytical techniques. The second phase involves the design of the lens. When considering
the manufacturing of GRIN lenses, there are two important features of any technique: the
depth of the gradient; and the magnitude of the change in index-of-refraction, Δn, throughout
the lens (Moore, 1980). Production techniques involve:
• Neutron Irradiation (Sinai, 1971) – Boron-rich glass is bombarded with
neutrons in order to cause a change in the boron concentration, and thus
the refractive index of the lens.
• Chemical Vapour Deposition (Keck et al., 1975) – Involving the deposition
of different glass with varying refractive indexes, onto a surface to
produce a cumulative refractive change.
• Partial Polymerisation (Moore, 1973) – Organic monomer is partially
polymerized using UV light at varying intensities in order to give a
refractive gradient.
• Ion Exchange (Hensler, 1975) – Ions, such as lithium replace sodium ions
already present in a glass substrate. When this technique is modulated
spatially, a gradient index lens is formed.
• Ion Stuffing (Mohr, 1979) – Phase separation of a specific glass causes
pores to form, which can later be filled using a variety of salts or
concentration of salts to give a varying gradient.
[edit] Applications
The main uses of GRIN lenses involve applications in telecommunications and optical
imaging. In telecommunications, a long fibre many kilometres in length but only a 20-100µm
diameter have refractive gradients engineered to vary radially from the centre, with refractive
index decreasing as distance from the centre increases. This allows for a sinusoidal height
distribution of the ray within the fibre, preventing the ray from touching the walls. This
differs from the traditional optical fibres which rely on total internal reflection, in that all
modes of the GRIN fibres propagate at the same velocity, thus allowing for a higher temporal
bandwidth for the fibre (Moore, 1980). Imaging using GRIN lenses is used to mainly reduce
the aberrations and increase focus. This involves detailed calculations of aberrations as well
as the efficient manufacture of the lenses. Recently, a number of different methods of
gradient production have been implemented, such as, optical glasses; plastics; germanium;
zinc selenide; and sodium chloride.
[edit] References
Flores-Arias M T, Bao C, Castelo A, Perez M V, Gomez-Reino C, (2006). “Optics
Communicaitons”266, 490-494
Hensler J R, "Method of Producing a Refractive Index Gradient in Glass," U.S. Patent
3,873,408 (25 Mar. 1975).
Keck D B and Olshansky R, "Optical Waveguide Having Optimal Index Gradient," U.S.
Patent 3,904,268 (9 Sept. 1975).
Luneberg R K, (1964). “Mathematical Theory of Optics.” Univ. of California Press,
Berkeley.
Marchand E W (1976). J. Opt. Soc. Amer. 66, 1326.
Marchand E W (1978). “Gradient Index Optics”. New York Academic Press.
Maxwell, J.C. (1854). Cambridge and Dublin Math. J. 8, 188
Mohr R K, Wilder J A, Macedo P B, and Gupta P K, in Digest of Topical Meeting on
Gradient- index Optical Imaging Systems (Optical Society of America, Washington, D.C.,
1979), paper WAL.
Moore, D.T. (1980). Applied Optics. 19, 1035-1038
Moore R S, "Plastic Optical Element Having Refractive Index Gradient," U.S. Patent
3,718,383 (Feb. 1973).
Shirk J.S, Sandrock M, Scribner D, Fleet E, Stroman R, Baer E, Hilter A. (2006) NRL
Review pp 53-61
Sinai P, (1970). Applied Optics. 10, 99-104
Wood, R.W. (1905). “Physical Optics,” p. 71. Macmillan, New York.
[hide]v · d · eGlass science topics
Search
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Figure 1:response
spectral A Fiber Bragg Grating structure, with refractive index profile and
Contents
[hide]
• 1 History
• 2 Manufacture
○ 2.1 Interference
○ 2.2 Photomask
○ 2.3 Point-by-point
○ 2.4 Production
• 3 Theory
• 4 Types of gratings
○ 4.1 Standard gratings or Type I gratings
○ 4.2 Type IA gratings
○ 4.3 Type In (commonly known as Type IIA gratings)
○ 4.4 Regenerated gratings
○ 4.5 Type II gratings
• 5 Grating structure
○ 5.1 Apodized gratings
○ 5.2 Chirped fiber Bragg gratings
○ 5.3 Tilted fiber Bragg gratings
○ 5.4 Long-period gratings
• 6 Applications
○ 6.1 Communications
○ 6.2 Fiber Bragg grating sensors
• 7 See also
• 8 References
• 9 External links
[edit] History
The first in-fiber Bragg grating was demonstrated by Ken Hill in 1978.[1] Initially, the
gratings were fabricated using a visible laser propagating along the fiber core. In 1989,
Gerald Meltz and colleagues demonstrated the much more flexible transverse holographic
technique where the laser illumination came from the side of the fiber. This technique uses
the interference pattern of ultraviolet laser light[2] to create the periodic structure of the Bragg
grating.
[edit] Manufacture
Fiber Bragg gratings are created by "inscribing" or "writing" systematic (periodic or
aperiodic) variation of refractive index into the core of a special type of optical fiber using an
intense ultraviolet (UV) source such as a UV laser. Two main processes are used:
interference and masking. The method that is preferable depends on the type of grating to be
manufactured. A special germanium-doped silica fiber is used in the manufacture of fiber
Bragg gratings. The germanium-doped fiber is photosensitive, in that the refractive index of
the core changes with exposure to UV light, with the amount of the change a function of the
intensity and duration of the exposure.
[edit] Interference
The first manufacturing method, specifically used for uniform gratings, is the use of two-
beam interference. Here the UV laser is split into two beams which interfere with each other
creating a periodic intensity distribution along the interference pattern. The refractive index
of the photosensitive fiber changes according to the intensity of light that it is exposed to.
This method allows for quick and easy changes to the Bragg wavelength, which is directly
related to the interference period and a function of the incident angle of the laser light.
[edit] Photomask
A photomask having the intended grating features may also be used in the manufacture of
fiber Bragg gratings. The photomask is placed between the UV light source and the
photosensitive fiber. The shadow of the photomask then determines the grating structure
based on the transmitted intensity of light striking the fiber. Photomasks are specifically used
in the manufacture of chirped Fiber Bragg gratings, which cannot be manufactured using an
interference pattern.
[edit] Point-by-point
A single UV laser beam may also be used to 'write' the grating into the fiber point-by-point.
Here, the laser has a narrow beam that is equal to the grating period. This method is
specifically applicable to the fabrication of long period fiber gratings. Point-by-point is also
used in the fabrication of tilted gratings.
[edit] Production
Originally, the manufacture of the photosensitive optical fiber and the 'writing' of the fiber
Bragg grating were done separately. Today, production lines typically draw the fiber from the
preform and 'write' the grating, all in a single stage. As well as reducing associated costs and
time, this also enables the mass production of fiber Bragg gratings. Mass production is in
particular facilitating applications in smart structures utilizing large numbers (3000) of
embedded fiber Bragg gratings along a single length of fiber.
[edit] Theory
Figure 2: FBGs reflected power as a function of wavelength
The fundamental principle behind the operation of a FBG, is Fresnel reflection. Where light
traveling between media of different refractive indices may both reflect and refract at the
interface.
The grating will typically have a sinusoidal refractive index variation over a defined length.
The reflected wavelength (λB), called the Bragg wavelength, is defined by the relationship,
,
where ne is the effective refractive index of the grating in the fiber core and Λ is the grating
period. The effective refractive index quantifies the velocity of propagating light as compared
to its velocity in vacuum. ne depends not only on the wavelength but also (for multimode
waveguides) on the mode in which the light propagates. For this reason, it is also called
modal index.
The wavelength spacing between the first minima (nulls, see Fig. 2), or the bandwidth (Δλ),
is given by,
where δn0 is the variation in the, refractive index (n3 − n2), and η is the fraction of power in
the core.
The peak reflection (PB(λB)) is approximately given by,
where N is the number of periodic variations. ,The full equation for the reflected power
(PB(λ)), is given by,
where,
,
The term “type” in this context refers to the underlying photosensitivity mechanism by which
grating fringes are produced in the fiber. The different methods of creating these fringes have
a significant effect on physical attributes of the produced grating, particularly the temperature
response and ability to withstand elevated temperatures. Thus far, five (or six) types of FBG
have been reported with different underlying photosensitivity mechanisms.[3] These are
summarized below:
[edit] Standard gratings or Type I gratings
Written in both hydrogenated and non-hydrogenated fiber of all types Type I gratings are
usually known as standard gratings and are manufactured in fibers of all types under all
hydrogenation conditions. Typically, the reflection spectra of a type I grating is equal to 1-T
where T is the transmission spectra. This means that the reflection and transmission spectra
are complementary and there is negligible loss of light by reflection into the cladding or by
absorption. Type I gratings are the most commonly used of all grating types, and the only
types of grating available off-the-shelf at the time of writing.
[edit] Type IA gratings
• Regenerated grating written after erasure of a type I grating in
hydrogenated germanosilicate fiber of all types
Type IA gratings were first published in 2001[4] during experiments designed to determine the
effects of hydrogen loading on the formation of IIA gratings in germanosilicate fiber. In
contrast to the anticipated blue shift of the peak Bragg wavelength, a large positive
wavelength shift was measured. This type IA grating appeared once the conventional type I
FBG had reached saturation followed by subsequent complete or partial erasure, and was
therefore labeled as regenerated. It was also noted that the temperature coefficient of the
regenerated grating was lower than a standard grating written under similar conditions.
There is a clear relationship between type IA and IIA gratings insomuch as their fabrication
conditions are identical in all but one aspect: they both form in B/Ge co-doped fiber but IAs
form only in hydrogenated fibers and IIAs form only in non-hydrogenated fibers.[4][5][6]
[edit] Type In (commonly known as Type IIA gratings)
• These are gratings that form as the negative part of the induced index
change overtakes the positive part. It is usually associated with gradual
relaxation of induced stress along the axis and/or at the interface. These
gratings have recently been relabeled Type In (for Type 1 gratings with a
negative index change; Type II label is reserved for those that are
distinctly made above the damage threshold of the glass).[7]
Later research by Xie et al. showed the existence of another type of grating with similar
thermal stability properties to the type II grating. This grating exhibited a negative change in
the mean index of the fiber and was termed type IIA. The gratings were formed in
germanosilicate fibers with pulses from a frequency doubled XeCl pumped dye laser. It was
shown that initial exposure formed a standard (type I) grating within the fiber which
underwent a small red shift before being erased. Further exposure showed that a grating
reformed which underwent a steady blue shift whilst growing in strength.[8][9]
[edit] Regenerated gratings
These are gratings that are reborn at higher temperatures after erasure of gratings, usually
Type I gratings and usually, though not always, in the presence of hydrogen. They have been
interpreted in different ways including dopant diffusion (oxygen being the most popular
current interpretation) and glass structural change. Recent work has shown that there exists a
regeneration regime beyond diffusion where gratings can be made to operate at temperatures
in excess of 1295C, outperforming even Type II femtosecond gratings.[10] These are
extremely attractive for ultra high temperature applications.
[edit] Type II gratings
• Damage written gratings inscribed by multiphoton excitation with higher
intensity lasers that exceed the damage threshold of the glass. Lasers
employed are usually pulsed in order to reach these intensities. They
include recent developments in multiphoton excitation using femtosecond
pulses where the short timescales (commensurate on a timescale similar
to local relaxation times) offer unprecedented spatial localization of the
induced change. The amorphous network of the glass is usually
transformed via a different ionization and melting pathway to give either
higher index changes or create, through micro-explosions, voids
surrounded by more dense glass.
Archambault et al. showed that it was possible to inscribe gratings of ~100% (>99.8%)
reflectance with a single UV pulse in fibers on the draw tower. The resulting gratings were
shown to be stable at temperatures as high as 800˚C (up to 1000C in some cases, and higher
with femtosecond laser inscription). The gratings were inscribed using a single 40mJ pulse
from an excimer laser at 248 nm. It was further shown that a sharp threshold was evident at
~30mJ; above this level the index modulation increased by more than two orders of
magnitude, whereas below 30mJ the index modulation grew linearly with pulse energy. For
ease of identification, and in recognition of the distinct differences in thermal stability, they
labeled gratings fabricated below the threshold as type I gratings and above the threshold as
type II gratings. Microscopic examination of these gratings showed a periodic damage track
at the grating’s site within the fiber [10]; hence type II gratings are also known as damage
gratings. However, these cracks can be very localized so as to not play a major role in
scattering loss if properly prepared [11][12]
[edit] Grating structure
Figure
FBG 3:aStructure
(2), of(3),
tilted FBG theand
refractive index change
a superstructure FBGin(4).
a uniform FBG (1), a chirped
Figure
a 4: Refractive index
Gaussian-apodized FBG, profile
3) FBG. in the core of, 1) a uniform
a raised-cosine-apodized positive-only
FBG with FBG, 2)
zero-dc change,
and 4) a discrete phase shift
The structure of the FBG can vary via the refractive index, or the grating period. The grating
period can be uniform or graded, and either localised or distributed in a superstructure. The
refractive index has two primary characteristics, the refractive index profile, and the offset.
Typically, the refractive index profile can be uniform or apodized, and the refractive index
offset is positive or zero.
There are six common structures for FBGs;[13]
1. uniform positive-only index change,
2. Gaussian apodized,
3. raised-cosine apodized,
4. chirped,
5. discrete phase shift, and
6. superstructure.
The first complex grating was made by J. Canning in 1994.[14][citation needed] This supported the
development of the first distributed feedback (DFB) fiber lasers, and also laid the
groundwork for most complex gratings that followed, including the sampled gratings first
made by Peter Hill and colleagues in Australia.[citation needed]
[edit] Apodized gratings
There are basically two quantities that control the properties of the FBG. These are the
grating length, Lg, given as
,
and the grating strength, δn0 η. There are, however, three properties that need to be
controlled in a FBG. These are the reflectivity, the bandwidth, and the side-lobe strength. As
shown above, the bandwidth depends on the grating strength, and not the grating length. This
means the grating strength can be used to set the bandwidth. The grating length, effectively
N, can then be used to set the peak reflectivity, which depends on both the grating strength
and the grating length. The result of this is that the side-lobe strength cannot be controlled,
and this simple optimisation results in significant side-lobes. A third quantity can be varied to
help with side-lobe suppression. This is apodization of the refractive index change. The term
apodization refers to the grading of the refractive index to approach zero at the end of the
grating. Apodized gratings offer significant improvement in side-lobe suppression while
maintaining reflectivity and a narrow bandwidth. The two functions typically used to apodize
a FBG are Gaussian and raised-cosine.
[edit] Chirped fiber Bragg gratings
The refractive index profile of the grating may be modified to add other features, such as a
linear variation in the grating period, called a chirp. The reflected wavelength changes with
the grating period, broadening the reflected spectrum. A grating possessing a chirp has the
property of adding dispersion—namely, different wavelengths reflected from the grating will
be subject to different delays. This property has been used in the development of phased-
array antenna systems and polarization mode dispersion compensation, as well.
[edit] Tilted fiber Bragg gratings
In standard FBGs, the grading or variation of the refractive index is along the length of the
fiber (the optical axis), and is typically uniform across the width of the fiber. In a tilted FBG
(TFBG), the variation of the refractive index is at an angle to the optical axis. The angle of tilt
in a TFBG has an effect on the reflected wavelength, and bandwidth.
[edit] Long-period gratings
Typically the grating period is the same size as the Bragg wavelength, as shown above. For a
grating that reflects at 1500 nm, the grating period is 500 nm, using a refractive index of 1.5.
Longer periods can be used to achieve much broader responses than are possible with a
standard FBG. These gratings are called long-period fiber grating. They typically have
grating periods on the order of 100 micrometers, to a millimeter, and are therefore much
easier to manufacture.
[edit] Applications
[edit] Communications
or, ,
Here, CS is the coefficient of strain, which is related to. the strain optic coefficient pe. Also,
CT is the coefficient of temperature, which is made up of the thermal expansion coefficient of
the optical fiber, αΛ, and the thermo-optic coefficient, αn.[15]
Fiber Bragg gratings can then be used as direct sensing elements for strain and temperature.
They can also be used as transduction elements, converting the output of another sensor,
which generates a strain or temperature change from the measurand, for example fiber Bragg
grating gas sensors use an absorbent coating, which in the presence of a gas expands
generating a strain, which is measurable by the grating. Technically, the absorbent material is
the sensing element, converting the amount of gas to a strain. The Bragg grating then
transduces the strain to the change in wavelength.
Specifically, fiber Bragg gratings are finding uses in instrumentation applications such as
seismology,[16] pressure sensors for extremely harsh environments, and as downhole sensors
in oil and gas wells for measurement of the effects of external pressure, temperature, seismic
vibrations and inline flow measurement. As such they offer a significant advantage over
traditional electronic gauges used for these applications in that they are less sensitive to
vibration or heat and consequently are far more reliable. In the 1990s, investigations were
conducted for measuring strain and temperature in composite materials for aircraft and
helicopter structures.[17][18]
[edit] See also
• Bragg's law
• Bragg diffraction
• Diffraction
○ Diffraction grating
• Dielectric mirror
• Hydrogen sensor
• Long-period fiber grating
• Photonic crystal fiber
• Distributed temperature sensing by fiber optics
• PHOSFOS project - embedding FBGs in flexible skins
[edit] References
1. ^ Hill, K.O.; Fujii, Y.; Johnson, D. C.; Kawasaki, B. S. (1978).
"Photosensitivity in optical fiber waveguides: application to reflection fiber
fabrication". Appl. Phys. Lett. 32: 647. doi:10.1063/1.89881.
2. ^ Meltz, G.; et al. (1989). "Formation of Bragg gratings in optical fibers by
a transverse holographic method". Opt. Lett. 14 (15): 823.
doi:10.1364/OL.14.000823. PMID 19752980.
3. ^ J. Canning, Fiber Gratings and Devices for Sensors and Lasers, Lasers
and Photonics Reviews, 2 (4), 275-289, Wiley, USA (2008)
4. ^ a b Liu, Y. (2001). Advanced fiber gratings and their application. Ph.D.
Thesis, Aston University.
5. ^ Simpson, A. G. (2005). Optical Fibre Sensors and Their Interrogationdv.
Ph.D. Thesis, Aston University.
6. ^ Simpson, A. G.; Kalli, K.; Zhou, K.; Zhang, L.; Bennion, I. (2003). "An
ideal method for the fabrication of temperature compensating IA-I strain
sensors". OFS16. Nara, Japan. pp. postdeadline paper PD4.
7. ^ For a contemporary review, see J. Canning, Fiber Gratings and Devices
for Sensors and Lasers, Lasers and Photonics Reviews, 2 (4), 275-289,
Wiley, USA (2008)
8. ^ Xie, W. X.; Niay, P.; Bernage, P.; Douay, M.; Bayon, J. F.; Georges, T.;
Monerie, M.; Poumellec, B. (1993). "Experimental-Evidence of 2 Types of
Photorefractive Effects Occurring During Photo inscriptions of Bragg
Gratings Within Germanosilicate Fibres". Optics Communications 104 (1-
3): 185–195. doi:10.1016/0030-4018(93)90127-Q.
9. ^ Niay, P.; Bernage, P.; Legoubin, S.; Douay, M.; Xie, W. X.; Bayon, J. F.;
Georges, T.; Monerie, M.; Poumellec, B. (1994). "Behaviour of Spectral
Transmissions of Bragg Gratings Written in Germania-Doped Fibres -
Writing and Erasing Experiments Using Pulsed or CW UV Exposure". Optics
Communications 113 (1-3): 176–192. doi:10.1016/0030-4018(94)90606-
8.
10.^ J. Canning, M. Stevenson, S. Bandyopadhyay, K. Cook, “Extreme silica
optical fibre gratings”, Sensors, 8, pp.1-5, (2008)
11.^ Dong, L.; Archambault, J. L.; Reekie, L.; Russell, P. S. J.; Payne, D. N.
(1993). "Single-Pulse Bragg Gratings Written During Fibre Drawing".
Electronics Letters 29 (17): 1577–1578. doi:10.1049/el:19931051.
12.^ Archambault, J. L.; Reekie, L.; Russell, P. S. J. (1993). "100-Percent
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Laser Pulses". Electronics Letters 29 (5): 453–455.
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Leaky mode
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
A leaky mode or tunneling mode in an optical fiber or other waveguide is a mode having an
electric field that decays monotonically for a finite distance in the transverse direction but
becomes oscillatory everywhere beyond that finite distance. Such a mode gradually "leaks"
out of the waveguide as it travels down it, producing attenuation even if the waveguide is
perfect in every respect. In order for a leaky mode to be definable as a mode, the relative
amplitude of the oscillatory part (the leakage rate) must be sufficiently small that the mode
substantially maintains its shape as it decays.
Leaky modes correspond to leaky rays in the terminology of geometric optics.
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Fiber-Optics.info
Transmission
Technology | Basics
System| Performance
Components | Applying Fiber Optic
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