DECLARATION

I, Ibrahim Umar Shuaibu hereby declare that this research project titled “PRODUCTION OF

YOGURT FROM POWDERED MILK USING MICROWAVE RADIATION FOR HOLDING

TIME PASTEURIZATION AND THE EFFECT OF BIODISC ENERGIZER” was carried

out by me in the Department of Chemical Engineering under the supervision of I.A. Umar in

partial fulfillment of the award of Bachelor of Engineering (B. Eng.) in Chemical Engineering

and to the best of my knowledge has not been presented anywhere for the award of any degree.

However, the information obtained from the literature has been duly acknowledged in the text

and a list of references provided.

Ibrahim Umar Shuaibu Signature............................. Date................................

CERTIFICATION

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This is to certify that this research project titled “PRODUCTION OF YOGURT USING

MICROWAVE RADIATION FOR HOLDING TIME PASTEURIZATION AND THE

EFFECT OF BIODISC ENERGIZER” by SHUAIBU, Umar Ibrahim with registration number

U06CE2005 meets the regulations governing the award of Bachelor of Engineering (B. Eng) in

Chemical Engineering of the Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.

……………………….. …………………………..
Mal. I. A. Umar Date
(Project Supervisor)

………………………… ………………………….
Dr. I. A. Muhammad Date
(Head of Department)

DEDICATION

To my beloved parents Alhaji Umar Shuaibu and Hajiya Rahmatu S. Umar for their love and

support throughout my entire life, may Allah bless them all.Ameen.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

All praise, thanks and total benediction are to Allah Almighty who has guided us to the right

path, never could we have found a perfect guidance had it not been for Him, may His infinite

mercy, benediction and blessing be to His last and noble messenger Muhammad (SAW). I must

express my sincere gratitude to my father Alhaji Umar Shuaibu for his moral and financial
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support, my mother Hajiya Rahmatu. S. Umar and my step mum Hajiya Rukaiyatu .A. Umar for

their protection and love, also to my brother and sisters for their understanding and care. May

Allah reward them abundantly.Ameen.

I acknowledge with huge gratitude the guidance and experience given to me by my humble and

abled supervisor, Mallam Isah Abubakar Umar. My special thanks go to Mallam Musa of

chemical engineering department laboratory for his help, not forgetting Mallam Yunusa and Mr.

Dodo of veterinary medicine department for their assistance towards the compiling of this work.

My special appreciation goes to SAJ FoodsLimited for their provision of the raw materials used

in this research, and to the management of Jamil yogurt for their advice.

ABSTRACT

This work has investigated the effect of Biodisc energizer on the production of yogurt using

microwave radiation for holding time pasteurization at 630C and kept under different conditions

of refrigeration and shelf storage. The yoghurt was successfully produced by mixing the

powdered milk with distilled water and heating the milk using microwave radiation to 630C and

held for 30min, cooled to 42oC and inoculated with starter culture; thereafter the milk was

incubated for fermentation. The produced yogurt was then separated into six portions (samples);

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i.e. samples A, B, C, D, Biodisc under refrigeration and Biodisc on shelf storage. The samples

under the effect of Biodisc energizer were held at a time interval of 15, 30, 45, 60, and 75

minutes respectively. The samples were then kept under varying conditions and monitored for 21

days during which the pH and viscosity were measured.The study of the effect of Biodisc

energizer on microwave pasteurization of milk at 630C for 30min holding time shows that the

sample under Biodisc effect for 45min holding time in refrigeration storage gives the best quality

product and stays longer than other productions. The study also revealed that refrigeration

storage extends the shelf life of the yoghurt above the recommended storage time.

Table of Contents

DECLARATION...........................................................................................................i
CERTIFICATION........................................................................................................ii
DEDICATION............................................................................................................iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT..............................................................................................iv
ABSTRACT................................................................................................................v
LIST OF TABLES.....................................................................................................viii
LIST OF FIGURES......................................................................................................ix
LIST OF SYMBOLS.....................................................................................................x

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1.0 INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................1
1.1 Brief Introduction....................................................................................................1
1.2 Aim and Objectives..................................................................................................2
1.3 Justification............................................................................................................2
1.4 Scope....................................................................................................................2
CHAPTER TWO..........................................................................................................3
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW...........................................................................................3
2.1 History of Fermented Milk Products..............................................................................3
2.2.1 Choice of raw materials...........................................................................................6
2.3 YOGURT..............................................................................................................6
2.4 PROCESSING YOGURT..........................................................................................9
2.4.1 Factors Affecting the Quality of Yogurt.....................................................................11
2.5 Microwave Thermal Processing.................................................................................17
2.5.1 Dairy Processing using Microwave Technology...........................................................18
CHAPTER THREE.....................................................................................................21
3.0 MATERIALS, EQUIPMENTS AND INSTRUMENTS...................................................21
3.1 List of Materials....................................................................................................21
3.2 List of Equipments/Instruments.................................................................................21
CHAPTER FOUR......................................................................................................25
4.0 METHODOLOGY.................................................................................................25
4.1 EQUIPMENT PREPARATION.................................................................................25
4.2 Collection of Materials............................................................................................25
4.3 Procedure for Propagation of Starter Culture.................................................................25
4.4 Procedure for the Production of Yoghurt......................................................................26
4.5 Determination of pH...............................................................................................27
4.6 Determination of Viscosity.......................................................................................28
CHAPTER FIVE........................................................................................................29
5.0RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS..............................................................29
5.1RESULTS............................................................................................................29
CHAPTER SIX..........................................................................................................48
6.0 CONCLUSION AND RECCOMENDATIONS.............................................................48
6.1 Conclusion...........................................................................................................48
6.2 Recommendations..................................................................................................48

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 REFERENCES..........................................................................................................49
REFERENCES

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Pasteurization conditions used for milk products............................................................5

Table 2.2 Typical composition of commercial fruited yogurt.........................................................8

Table 2.3 Classification of yogurt.................................................................................................13

Table 5.1 Result for sample product (A) under refrigeration without preservative......................29

Table 5.2 Result for sample product (B) under shelf with preservative........................................30

Table 5.3 Result for sample product (C) under shelf without preservative...................................31

Table 5.4 Result for sample product (D) under refrigeration with preservative...........................32

Table 5.5 Result for sample product energized with Biodisc for 15min under shelf....................33

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Table 5.6 Result for sample product energized with Biodisc for30min under shelf.....................34

Table 5.7 Result for sample product energized with Biodisc for 45min under shelf....................35

Table 5.8 Result for sample product energized with Biodisc for 60min under shelf....................36

Table 5.9 Result for sample product energized with Biodisc for 75min under shelf....................37

Table 5.10 Result for sample product energized with Biodisc for 15min under refrigeration......38

Table 5.11 Result for sample product energized with Biodisc for 30min under refrigeration......39

Table 5.12 Result for sample product energized with Biodisc for 45min under refrigeration......40

Table 5.13 Result for sample product energized with Biodisc for 60min under refrigeration......41

Table 5.14 Result for sample product energized with Biodisc for 75min under refrigeration......42

Table 5.15 Organoleptic test..........................................................................................................43

Table 5.16 Comparative Analysis..................................................................................................43

Table 5.16 Comparative Analysis

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Biodisc Energizer.........................................................................................................16

Figure 3.5 Setup for pH meter reading..........................................................................................24

Figure 5.1 Chart showing the fall in pH as number of days increases for Biodisc 45min under

refrigeration...................................................................................................................................44

Figure 5.2 Chart showing the fall in pH value as the number of days increases for Biodisc 45min

on shelf storage..............................................................................................................................44

Figure 5.3 Chart showing the fall in pH value as the number of days increases for sample B.....45

Figure 5.4 Chart showing the fall in pH value as the number of days increases for sample D.....45

Figure 5.5 Chart showing relationship between the pH values for the four samples....................46

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Fig 5.5 Chart showing relationship between the pH values for the four samples

LIST OF SYMBOLS
o
C Degree Celsius

kg kilogram

L litre

m meter

min minutes

mg milligram

mPa milipascal

Temp temperature

% percentage

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3
 CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Brief Introduction

Yogurt can be defined as thefood produced by culturing cream, milk, partially skimmed milk, or

skim milk used alone orin combination with a characterizing bacterial culture that contains the

lactic acid-producingbacteria, Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus. It can

also be said to be a product which is obtained from a biological type of food preservation

(fermentation), or more precisely, from the spontaneous or controlled acidification of milk.

Yogurt is a complete food substance equal to milk, of which it is a by-product, and it possesses

some biochemical and bacteriological characteristics, which make it extremely useful both in the

diet of a healthy person as well as in that of a sick person.(http://www.nysaes.cornell.edu/necfe/).

Among the many factors that can affect the nutritional composition or value of yogurt is the heat

treatment of the milk, in other words pasteurization. Thermal pasteurization of food is a long

standing process that has been practiced for a very long time.(Roberto, 1996).

Pasteurization is most important in all dairy processing. It is the biological safeguard which

ensures that all potential pathogens are destroyed. The process was named after its creator,

French chemist and microbiologist Louis Pasteur in April 1864. (Carlisle, 2004).

Extensive studies have determined that heating milk to 63° C (145° F) for 30 minutes or 72° C

(161° F) for 15 seconds kills the most resistant harmful bacteria. In actual practice these

temperatures and times are exceeded, thereby not only ensuring safety but also extending shelf

life. (Britannica, 2008).

Pasteurization has a broad meaning in modern technology of food processing. In this sense it

means a heat treatment of food that is intended to destroy pathogens or that will destroy all or

most forms of organisms that interferes with desirable fermentation. (Melvin, 2007).

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1.2 Aim and Objectives.

The aim of the research is to study the production of yogurt from powdered milk using

microwave radiation for holding system pasteurization and the effect of Biodisc energizer.

The objectives of the research include the following:

1. To producea homogeneous mixture of powdered milk and distilled water.

2. To pasteurize the mixture using microwave radiation using holding time technique.

3. To propagate the starter culture at a temperature of 900C.

4. To further study the resulting product of milk yogurt using Biodisc energizer and

chemical preservation under shelf and refrigeration storage.

5. To analyze the physical properties, (pH and viscosity), nutritional contents such as

protein, soluble carbohydrate, lipid and moisture content analysis.

1.3 Justification.

The mode of processing yogurt using microwave technique proves to be a better, safer, faster and

more economical means than most conventional methods used. Microwaves have the ability to

penetrate and heat up the yogurt to the desired temperature easily and at a shorter time. There is

greater need to have a quality product (yogurt), one that has higher nutritional value and is

consumable by all. (Britannica, 2008).

1.4 Scope

This research work is limited to the production of yogurt from powdered milk using microwave

radiation for holding time pasteurization and the use of Biodisc energizer.

1.5 Limitations

• The Biodisc energizer is expensive, thus few can afford it.

• Interrupted power supply

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 History of Fermented Milk Products.

Milk has been used by humans since the beginning of recorded time to provide both fresh and

storable nutritious foods. In some countries almost half the milk produced is consumed as fresh

pasteurized whole, low-fat, or skim milk. However, most milk is manufactured into more stable

dairy products of worldwide commerce, such as yogurt, butter, cheese, dried milks, ice cream,

and condensed milk.Cow milk (bovine species) is by far the principal type used throughout the

world. Other animals utilized for their milk production include buffalo (in India, China, Egypt,

and the Philippines), goats (in the Mediterranean countries), reindeer (in northern Europe), and

sheep (in southern Europe). In general, the processing technology described for cow milk can be

successfully applied to milk obtained from other species.

The origin of fermented foods and cultured milk products predates recorded history. Most

cultured foods start with milk, which people have been drinking since the dawn of agriculture.

The first evidence of the domestication of cows occurred in 9,000 BC in Libya, and while there

are no written records that prove these ancient people ate yogurt, the probability is high that they

consumed cultured milk products of some sort (Australia Dairy, 2003).

Some people suffer from lactose intolerance due to the fact that their digestive system lacks

enzymes needed to break down the lactose to simple sugar. In many cases cultured milkproducts

where the lactose has been partially broken down can be acceptable to sufferers of lactose

intolerance. (http://www.niel.nem.org).

2.2 General Requirements for Culturing Of Milk.

The yogurt manufacturing process is fairly simple and can be broken down into the following

steps:

1. Preparation of the milk

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The milk may be whole full fat, semi skimmed or low fat skimmed milk depending on the type

of yoghurt you intend to make. It is normal in commercial yoghurt production to homogenize the

milk prior to its fermentation. The homogenisation helps prevent the cream (fat) rising to the

surface during the fermentation.The addition of stabilisers and gums to the milk to improve

viscosity and texture is fairly common in the commercials large scale yoghurt manufacturing

plants.

Concentration of the milk by evaporation prior to fermentation is also fairly common; this gives

a thicker more full bodied yoghurt. This technique is most common when skimmed milk is used

as the base material to produce low fat yoghurt. The solids level is typically increased by a factor

of two. As energy costs spiral ever higher the cost of concentrating milk is becoming prohibitive

and evaporation is being replaced by a technique known as fortification, where dried powdered

milk solids are added to the base milk prior to inoculation.Many commercial yoghurt

manufacturers are fortifying the base milk with a cocktail of milk and non-milk solids along with

starches, gums, gels and stabilisers. These techniques are generally aimed at improving the

viscosity, texture, "mouth feel" and profit obtained from yoghurt.

2. Heat treatment.

The heat treatment of the milk prior to fermentation is generally considered essential in

commercial manufacturing. The presence of unknown numbers of unknown organisms in the

raw milk would make the fermentation too unreliable and unpredictable for commercial

operations. In order to ensure that the flavour, aroma and texture of the product is optimized the

growing conditions for the "starter culture" must be as near perfect as possible. In order to

achieve these conditions modern commercial Yoghurt manufacturers go to great lengths, when

compared to the random inoculation of a pitcher of milk on a Turkish mountain side centuries

ago. To ensure that the "starter culture" has little if any competition from other organisms the

milk will be heat treated to kill any organisms that may have been in the milk. Apart from killing

3
unwanted bacteria the heat treatment will have a physio-chemical effect on the proteins and other

additives within the mix. The heating may be necessary for some of the ingredients to achieve

the required state to form gels and protein lattice that lead to the products final viscosity and

texture.

Pasteurization can be done as a batch or a continuous process. A vat pasteurizer consists of a

temperature-controlled, closed vat. The milk is pumped into the vat, the milk is heated to the

appropriate temperature and held at that temperature for the appropriate time and then cooled.

Table 2.1 Pasteurization conditions used for milk products.

Pasteurization Typical Product Typical Storage Temperature 0F Holding Time

Type
Milk 145 30min
Viscous 150 30min
products, or
Batch, vat
products with
more than 10%
fat or added
sweetener
Egg nog, frozen 155 30min
dessert mixes Refrigerated

Milk 161 15sec

Viscous 166 15sec
products, or
Continuous, high
products with
temperature short
more than 10%
time (HTST)
fat or added
sweetener
Egg nog, frozen 175 25sec
dessert mixes 180 15sec
191 1sec
Continuous, higher Milk 194 0.5sec
heat shorter time 201 0.1sec
(HHST)
204 0.05sec
212 0.01sec
Continuous, Refrigerated, 280 2sec
Ultrapasteurization Milk and cream Extended storage

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Aseptic, ultra-high Milk Room temp 275-302 4-5sec
temperature (UHT)
Sterilization Canned products 240 20min
Source: (http://www.milkfacts.info/MilkProcessing/heattreatmentsandPasteurization)

2.2.1 Choice of raw materials.

The choice of raw materials will greatly affect the quality of the finished product, and these are:

• Type of milk

• Milk standardization

• Additives

• Choice of starter culture

• Culture preparation

• Design of process plant

• Heat treatment

• Homogenisation.

• The handling of the yoghurt during processing also has an effect on the texture and

viscosity of the yoghurt.(http://www.cip.ukcentre.com/yogurt).

2.3 YOGURT

As earlier mentioned, Yogurt is a product which is obtained from a biological type of food

preservation (fermentation), or more precisely, from the spontaneous or controlled acidification

of milk. Consumption of yogurt is highest in areas around the Mediterranean, in Asia and central

Europe. The consistency, flavor and taste vary with region. In some areas it’s produced as a

highly viscous liquid while in other areas it’s in the form of a softer gel, or served as dessert.

Yogurt is typically classified into the following groups:

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Set yogurt

This type of yoghurt is incubated and cooled in the final package and is characterized by a firm

jelly" like texture.

Stirred yogurt

This type of yoghurt is incubated in a tank and the final coagulum is "broken" by stirring prior to

cooling and packing. The texture of stirred yoghurt will be less firm than a set yoghurt somewhat

like a very thick cream. There is some slight reformation of the coagulum after the yoghurt has

been packed, however this is slight and cannot be relied upon.

Drinking yogurt.

This type of yoghurt is very similar to stirred yoghurt, having the coagulum "broken!" prior to

cooling. In drinking yoghurt the agitation used to "break" the coagulum is severe. Little if any

reformation of the coagulum will reoccur after packing.

Frozen yogurt.

Frozen yoghurt is inoculated and incubated in the same manner as a stirred yogurt. However

cooling is achieved by pumping through a chiller or freezer in a fashion similar to ice cream. The

texture of the finished product is mainly influenced by the chiller or freezer and the size and

distribution of the ice crystals produced.

Concentrated yogurt

This type of yoghurt is inoculated and fermented in the same manner as stirred yoghurt.

Following the "breaking" of the coagulum the yoghurt is concentrated by boiling off some of the

water, this is often done under vacuum to reduce the temperature required. Heating of low pH

yoghurt can often lead to protein being totally denatured and producing rough and gritty textures.

This is often called strained yoghurt due to the fact that the liquid that is released from the

coagulum upon heating used to be "strained" off in a manner similar to making soft cheese.

Flavoured yogurt

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Yoghurt with various flavours and aromas has become very popular. The flavours are usually

added at or just prior to filling into pots. Common additives are fruit or berries, usually as a puree

or as whole fruit in syrup. These additives often have as much as 50% sugar in them, however

with the trend towards healthy eating gaining momentum; many manufacturers offer a low sugar

and low fat version of their products. Low or no sugar yoghurts are often sweetened with

saccharin or more commonly aspartame. The use of "fruit sugars" in the form of concentrated

apple juice is sometimes found as a way of avoiding "added sugar" on the ingredients

declaration; this tends to be a marketing ploy and has no real added benefit.

(http://www.cip.ukcentre.com/yogurt).

Table 2.2 Typical composition of commercial fruited yogurt

Fat 0.1-3.5%
Lactose 3.0-4.5%
Milk solids non fat 11-18%
Stabilizer 0.2-0.4%
Fruit 10-20%

Source: (http://www.cip.ukcentre.com/yogurt)

2.4 PROCESSING YOGURT

Yogurt is made in a similar fashion to buttermilk and sour cream, but it requires different

bacteria and temperatures. Whole, low-fat, or skim milk is fortified with nonfat dry milk or fresh

condensed skim milk, in order to raise the total solids to 14 to 16 percent. The mixture is heat-

treated as for buttermilk and then cooled to 45.6° to 46.7° C (114° to 116° F). At this point a

culture of equal parts Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilus is added to the

warm milk, followed by one of two processing methods. For set, or sundae-style, yogurt (fruit on

the bottom), the cultured mixture is poured into cups containing the fruit, held in a warm room

until the milk coagulates (usually about four hours), and then moved to a refrigerated room. For

blended (Swiss- or French-style) yogurt, the milk is allowed to incubate in large heated tanks.

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After coagulation occurs, the mixture is cooled, fruit or other flavors are added, and the product

is placed in containers and immediately made ready for sale. This can be summarized as shown

in the following steps:

1. Adjust Milk Composition & Blend Ingredients

Milk composition may be adjusted to achieve the desired fat and solids content. Often dry milk is

added to increase the amount of whey protein to provide a desirable texture. Ingredients such as

stabilizers are added at this time.

2. Pasteurize Milk

The milk mixture is pasteurized at 185°F (85°C) for 30 minutes or at 203°F (95°C) for 10

minutes. A high heat treatment is used to denature the whey (serum) proteins. This allows the

proteins to form a more stable gel, which prevents separation of the water during storage. The

high heat treatment also further reduces the number of spoilage organisms in the milk to provide

a better environment for the starter cultures to grow. Yogurt is pasteurized before the starter

cultures are added to ensure that the cultures remain active in the yogurt after fermentation to act

as probiotics; if the yogurt is pasteurized after fermentation the cultures will be inactivated.

3. Homogenize

The blend is homogenized (2000 to 2500 psi) to mix all ingredients thoroughly and improve

yogurt consistency.

4. Cool Milk

The milk is cooled to 108°F (42°C) to bring the yogurt to the ideal growth temperature for the

starter culture.

5. Inoculate with Starter Culture

The starter cultures are mixed into the cooled milk.

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6. Hold

The milk is held at 108°F (42°C) until a pH 4.5 is reached. This allows the fermentation to

progress to form a soft gel and the characteristic flavor of yogurt. This process can take several

hours.

7. Cool

The yogurt is cooled to 7°C to stop the fermentation process.

8. Add Fruit & Flavors

Fruit and flavors are added at different steps depending on the type of yogurt. For set style yogurt

the fruit is added in the bottom of the cup and then the inoculated yogurt is poured on top and the

yogurt is fermented in the cup. For Swiss style yogurt the fruit is blended with the fermented,

cooled yogurt prior to packaging.

9. Package

The yogurt is pumped from the fermentation vat and packaged as desired.

(http://www.milkfacts.info/MilkProcessing/YogurtProduction).

2.4.1 Factors Affecting the Quality of Yogurt

It is highly essential that so many things need to be put into consideration during the processing

of yogurt. This is aimed at achieving a highly nutritious product of great quality and long shelf

life. These include:

1. Milk Quality

The milk used for yoghurt manufacture should be of the highest bacterial quality available. It

should also have an absence of any material that will impede or prevent the growth of the starter

organism (antibiotics, preservatives, disinfectants, bacteriophages).

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 2. Bacteriophages

Bacteriophages are a group of virus that attacks the yoghurt starter organisms, a whole range of

defects can be attributed to the action of this bacteriophage. Bacteriophage normally referred to

just as "phage" is the most likely cause of long or never-ending incubations. Large manufacturers

that have laboratory facilities to check incoming milk will often eliminate the possibilities of

other starter inhibiting substances but "phage" is always a risk. "Phage" is usually found in the

drains and floor gullies of a dairy producing any cultured product, poor hygiene and a lack of

general housekeeping increase the risk. Cheese manufacturing and the subsequent whey handling

are prime sources of "phage".

3. Starter culture

The starter culture is the term generally applied to the organisms used to ferment a cultured

product, (cheese, yoghurt, Kefir, ). The organisms selected for this purpose need to produce the

desired effect in the product, (although you could use a cheese starter in yoghurt fermentation,

the result would not be yoghurt). For normal commercial yoghurt the starter must be capable of

fermenting lactose and producing lactic acid, little if any carbon dioxide is required and the

flavour and aroma must be clean and fresh. Traditionally when a suitable starter organism had

been found a large quantity would be grown in a suitable nutrient medium (traditionally milk, but

commercial blends of nutrients are now available), and small quantities would be used to

inoculate each new batch of yoghurt. This technique with a main batch of starter culture is often

referred to as using "bulk starter". The use of a bulk starter is becoming increasingly uncommon

amongst commercial producers, mainly because of the risk of "phage" attack on the bulk starter,

and the subsequent lost time while a new batch of starter organisms are prepared. A technique

often referred to as DVI (Direct Vat Inoculation) is becoming the industry norm. DVI involves

inoculating the yoghurt mix directly with a very large number of freeze dried starter organisms.

1
The advantage of relative immunity to “phage” attack far outweighs the slightly longer

incubation time required with this technique.

4. Fat Percentage

The percentage of fat in the final yoghurt has a significant effect on the "mouth feel", the normal

range of fat content is from 0.5% to about 3.5%, however levels as low as 0% and as high as

10% are found in some specialty products, as shown in the table below:

Table 2.3 Classification of yogurt

Yogurt Minimum milk fat 3%
Partially skimmed- Maximum milk fat < 3%

yogurt Minimum milk fat >0.5%

Skimmed yogurt Maximum milk fat 0.5%
Source:http://www.cip.ukcentre.com/yogurt.

In general the higher the fat level in the yoghurt the creamier and smother it will feel in the

consumer’s mouth. A considerable amount of work has been carried out by the commercial

manufacturers to reproduce this "creamy mouth feel" without the use of fat. There are now a

number of very low fat yoghurts on the market that has this "creamy mouth feel" and still offer

the health benefits of a low fat diet.

5. The Dry Matter content.

The higher the dry matter (solids non milk fat) the firmer the yoghurt will be. Commercial

manufacturers control the dry matter in their yoghurt to ensure consistency of production. The

normal methods used to standardize the dry matter content are:

• Evaporation,

• Addition of skimmed milk powder,

1
 • Addition of milk concentrate,

• Addition of the ultra-filtration retentive from skimmed milk,

• Addition or whey powder,

• Addition of sodium Caseinate powder.

1. Sugars and sweeteners

Disaccharide sugars such as sucrose or monosaccharide’s such as glucose can be used alone or in

conjunction to produce the sweetness level required. Levels of sugar greater than 10% should not

be added to the yoghurt mix prior to the incubation, this is because the changes in osmotic

pressure will adversely affect the starter culture. If higher levels of sugar addition are required

then a means of adding the sugar after fermentation needs to be devised. The addition of sugar

often improves the "body “and "mouth feel” of yoghurt.

2. Stabilisers

Hydrophilic colloids will bind water and consequently increase the viscosity of yoghurt; they

also help prevent the separation of whey from the yogurt, a problem known as synuresis. The

most beneficial quantity of stabilizer to add to a yoghurt mix has to be determined

experimentally by each manufacturer. Too much stabilizer and the yoghurt can take on a rubbery

texture, far too much stabilizer and the yoghurt can become a hard solid mass. A traditionally

produced natural yogurt will require no stabilisers to produce a firm, fine gel, however

commercially produced yoghurt that has to be pumped, stirred, fruited and filled will often break

down to a runny liquid without the addition of stabilisers. Pasteurized yoghurt will definitely

need to be stabilized as the nature of the heat treatment will adversely affect any naturally

formed gel.

The mechanical handling of yoghurt after its incubation has a significant effect on its final

texture and viscosity, consequently the design of the equipment needs to reflect this. Common

1
stabilisers are gelatin, pectin, agar, starch, in quantities in the order of 0.1% to 0.5%.

(http://www.cip.ukcentre.com/yogurt.)

3. Biodisc

The Bio Disc is a natural energy generating device that produces scalar energy frequenciesthat

have no negative side effects. The energy created specifically rejuvenates molecular structures in

all liquids. The Bio Disc is made of 13 technically engineered natural minerals. A nano fusion

process using several high heat fusion methods, structurally bonds the minerals together, at a

molecular level. The combination of the minerals and the fusion techniques produces a catalytic

conversion of energy known as “Scalar energy”.This 21stcentury technology develops a long

lasting natural Scalar resonance which has the ability to be transferred to any liquid, renewing

the natural molecular chains.The molecular structure causes any liquid to become more

hydratious, taste better and extends shelf life.

2
Fig 2.1 Biodisc Energizer.

Source; (http://amezcua.com/biodisc).

Biodisc Benefits

• Drinking Water Energizer

• Maximizes Nutritional Benefits

• Improves Taste

• Extends Shelf life

• Improves Wellness

• Enhances Immune system

• Rejuvenates Cells

• Increases Blood Oxygen Level

2.5 Microwave Thermal Processing

Microwaves are a form of electromagnetic wave. The most familiar kind of electromagnetic

wave is visible light. It takes energy to produce light and microwaves. A typical microwave oven

needs several hundred watts of energy to make microwaveenergy powerful enough to heat a food

product.Like light, microwaves travel very fast, about 186,000 miles (300,000kilometers) per

second in air. In addition, both light and microwaves get weaker thefurther they travel from their

source, and both can be focused into narrow beams bylenses (such as a magnifying lens) or

concave mirrors called reflectors. This is becauseof the biggest difference between microwaves

and light waves: their wavelengths. Lightwaves and microwaves are both electromagnetic waves

and, therefore, part of theelectromagnetic spectrum. The electromagnetic spectrum is the range

of allelectromagnetic waves. It includes everything from radio waves to microwaves, infrared

and ultraviolet rays, and gamma rays. Each of the different types of waves has a different

1
wavelength. The length of a wave is not how far it travels, but how far it is from one peak of a

wave to the next peak. Microwaves have much longer wavelengths than light, ranging from

about 1 centimeter to 30 centimeters (about half an inch to a foot) and a frequency that range

from 300 to 300,000 MHz. In the years since microwaves were discovered they have been used

in many ways, including radar, telecommunications, television, and heating of food products.

(David, 2006)

One of the most common non-military uses of microwaves is, of course, the microwave oven.

Like many of today’s great inventions, the microwave oven was a byproduct of another

technology. It was during a radar-related research project around 1946 that Dr. Percy Spencer

was testing a new vacuum tube called a magnetron when he discovered that food placed near the

magnetron increased in temperature the logical scientific conclusion was that temperature

increases were all attributable to exposure to low-density microwave energy. Dr. Spencer then

fashioned a metal box with an opening into which he fed microwave power. The energy entering

the box was unable to escape, thereby creating a higher density electromagnetic field. When food

was placed in the box and microwave energy fed in, the temperature of the food rose very

rapidly. Dr. Spencer had invented what was to revolutionize cooking, and formed the basis of a

multimillion-dollar industry, the microwave oven.(http://smecc.org/microwave_oven.htm).

Doctor Spencer continued at Raytheon as a senior consultant until he died at the age of 76. At

the time of his death, Dr. Spencer held 150 patents and was considered one of the world’s

leading experts in the field of microwave energy, despite his lack of a high school education.

The microwave oven has become a necessity in the commercial market and the possibilities seem

endless.The microwaves are converted into heat by the food product. The product is circulated

through this system repeatedly until the desired temperature is reached. Temperature is

monitored using thermocouples at the entrance and exit of the reactor. The temperature and time

are recorded during the processing run. Once the desired temperature is reached the microwave

2
generator is turned off. The product is then cooled by applying ice to the exterior of the transport

tubes. Once the product is below 100° C the system is slowly depressurized by slightly loosening

the sealed top of the product bin. Once the system is completely depressurized the product

transport tube is disconnected and the product is pumped into storage containers.

2.5.1 Dairy Processing using Microwave Technology

One of the challenges processors face is being able to provide consumers with products that meet

their expectations every time regardless of what point the product is in its life-cycle. Longer shelf

life of products is essential for the dairy industry to remain prosperous because of the change in

distribution practices. This is due to the decrease in the number of dairies and an increase in

larger herds (Olson, 2001), which increases the average distance between processing locations

and the consumer. Increased shelf life can increase the processing and distribution efficiency,

reduce spoilage and insure the consumer receives higher quality dairy products. Each dairy

product has its own processing procedures and problems. Two major issues related to the

processing performance of sour cream are fouling of the smoothing valve and the stability to

syneresis during freezing and thawing. To render the texture of an acidified gel commercially

acceptable as sour cream, the process of smoothing is introduced after the gel network is broken.

Although several techniques have been used to smooth the texture, one of the most popular is the

use of a single service homogenization value. This valve can be described as a tightly woven

stainless steel plug that creates a mild shear force by flow diversion when the product is pumped

through it (Hunt et al, 1997).

One of the new methods of extending shelf life of dairy products is microwave heating.

Currently available industrial methods of heating (indirect heating using plate or tubular heat

exchangers and direct heating using steam injection or infusion) cause undesirable quality

changes in dairy products such as ‘cooked’ flavors, especially in viscous thermo-sensitive

products. Increased fouling of the heat exchanger walls can also occur which can raise

2
processing costs due to cleaning and maintenance. To achieve the UHT pasteurization of sour

cream without these negative effects, the use of rapid continuous non-contact heating using

cylindrical microwave heaters was implemented. Cylindrical microwave heaters/reactors are

patented devices providing a focused, uniform high powered microwave energy field across a

cylindrical exposure region containing a microwave transparent tube made of Teflon® through

which the processed material is pumped. This will enable heating the product to 135°C to 145°C

for 2 seconds to produce a commercially sterile sour cream. This new patented technology

enables rapid continuous and uniform heat delivery to pumpable products which results in a

reduction of heat induced flavor compounds and a reduction of the degradation of nutritional

components, and reduced fouling of the pipe walls. Very little is known about microwave

heating of sour cream for extended shelf life (ESL) products. J.J. Tuchyet al 1987 demonstrated

that cream and sour cream shelf life could be extended by using a hot fill system where the

product is heated to 73-80°C, then taken directly from the pasteurizer and filled into plastic

pouches on a Jencopack FFS machine. Pouches were then cooled to l0° C in 15-20 minutes by

immersion in a water bath cooled to 3° C. In the second system, which was an ultra-clean cold-

filling system, product from the chilled section of the pasteurizer was filled into form fill-seal

pouches that had been sterilized in a unit utilizing H2O2 high intensity UV light, hot sterile air

and bacterial filters. Product contact surfaces downstream of the pasteurizer were cleaned at 88°

C. Both systems improved keeping quality of product held at 4-7° C compared with the

commercially pasteurized controls. Products filled on the ultraclean system had longer shelf life

than those filled on the hot fill system (e.g. shelf life of low acid products was extended by

approximately 10 days). (David,2006).

2
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS, EQUIPMENTS AND INSTRUMENTS







3.1 List of Materials

1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 



7. 

8. 

3.2 List of Equipments/Instruments

1.  (Michem, model MD6C-6H)

2. 

3. 

4. 

3
 5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 

10. 

11. 

12. 

13. 

14. 

15. 

16. 

Figure 3.1: Stainless Steel Pots Used as Reactors for Mixing, Inoculation and Incubation

1
 Fig

ure 3.2: Experimental Set up for Viscosity Test

Fi

gure 3.3: Microwave set up for pasteurization

3
Figure 3.4: Experimental Set up for Mixing and Homogenization

Fig 3.5 Setup for pH meter reading.

5
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 METHODOLOGY





4.1 EQUIPMENT PREPARATION



















4.2 Collection of Materials













4.3 Procedure for Propagation of Starter Culture





3














4.4 Procedure for the Production of Yoghurt








































2









































4.5 Determination of pH













2














4.6 Determination of Viscosity

The viscometer was set and switched on; spindles 3, 4, and 5 were used depending on the nature

of the sample. 200ml beaker was used to carry the sample; the tied spindle was lowered into the

sample until the level on the spindle is reached. The rotor was switch on and the spindle starts

rotating in a clockwise direction until the reading stabilizes, then the rotor was switch off and the

reading was recorded. The same procedure was used for all the other samples.

3
 CHAPTER FIVE

50RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS

5.1 RESULTS

The results obtained from the production of yoghurt using microwave radiation for holding time

pasteurization, is as tabulated below:

Table 5.1 Result for sample product (A) under refrigeration without preservative.

Days pH Viscosity Colour Odour Taste Count Temp

VALUE (mpa) (mg/ml) (0C)

1 4.23 198 No growth 4
3 4.23 249 1 4
5 4.21 273 1 3
7 4.20 277 2 3
9 4.20 281 2 4
11 4.17 288 2 3
13 4.15 293 3 2
15 4.10 297 4 2

White pleasant Sweet

17 4.08 303 5 3
19 4.00 308 5 3
21 3.98 315 unpleasant Sour 6 3

Table 5.2 Result for sample product (B) under shelf with preservative.

Days pH Viscosity Colour Odour Taste Count Temp

Value (mpa) (mg/ml) (0C)

1 4.25 232 1 25
3 4.25 230 1 24
5 4.23 197 2 26
7 4.21 182 3 26
9 4.20 181 3 25
11 4.18 176 4 25
13 4.15 175 5 27
15 4.12 168 6 25

1
 Pleasant
White Sweet
17 3.98 165 7 25
19 3.94 160 9 25
21 3.90 157 unpleasant Sour 10 26

Table 5.3 Result for sample product (C) under shelf without preservative

Days pH Viscosity Colour Odour Taste Count Temp

Value (mpa) (mg/ml) (0C)

1 4.24 230 3 25
3 4.23 216 4 25
5 4.20 197 7 26
7 4.18 194 7 25
9 4.14 186 9 24
11 4.00 170 10 27
Sweet
White Pleasant
13 3.97 164 11 25
15 3.92 159 13 25
17 3.88 153 15 26
19 3.82 149 15 24
21 3.78 145 Sour 17 25
unpleasant

1
Table 5.4 Result for sample product (D) under refrigeration with preservative

Days pH Viscosity Colour Odour Taste Count Temp

Value (mpa) (mg/ml) (0C)

1 4.23 227 1 2
3 4.23 254 2 3
5 4.19 283 2 43
7 4.17 290 3 5
9 4.15 298 3 2
11 4.12 332 4 3
13 4.08 358 4 2
15 4.06 361 5 2
17 4.00 369 6 4

White pleasant sweet

19 3.97 370 8 3
21 3.80 374 8 3
unpleasant sour

1
Table 5.5 Result for sample product energized with Biodisc for 15min under shelf

Days pH Viscosity Colour Odour Taste Count Temp

Value (mpa) (mg/ml) (0C)

1 4.30 235 1 25
3 4.28 228 3 25
5 4.10 209 3 25
7 4.10 196 4 26
9 4.06 184 5 24
11 3.99 171 7 25

White Pleasant
Sweet
13 3.97 168 9 27
15 3.92 163 10 24
17 3.90 158 10 25
19 3.83 155 12 25
21 3,79 150 13 25

Unpleasant Sour

Table 5.6 Result for sample product energized with Biodisc for30min under shelf

Days pH Viscosity Colour Odour Taste Count Temp

Value (mpa) (mg/ml) (0C)

1 4.30 218 No growth 25
3 4.29 198 No growth 25

1
 5 4.24 176 1 25
7 4.21 157 1 24
9 4.20 150 2 26
11 4.19 146 3 26

White Sweet
Pleasant
13 4.17 143 4 24
15 4.10 139 4 25
17 3.96 137 5 25
19 3.91 131 6 26
21 3.89 127 Unpleasant Sour 6 25

Table 5.7 Result for sample product energized with Biodisc for 45min under shelf

Days pH Viscosity Colour Odour Taste Count Temp

Value (mpa) (mg/ml) (0C)

1 4.30 249 1 24
3 4.29 227 2 25
5 4.27 217 2 25
7 4.25 211 4 25
9 4.22 207 5 26
11 4.19 201 6 25
13 4.13 197 7 26
White Pleasant Sweet
15 3.98 194 7 25
17 3.91 190 9 25
19 3.90 187 10 25

1
 21 3.87 182 Unpleasant Sour 11 25

Table 5.8 Result for sample product energized with Biodisc for 60min under shelf

Days pH Viscosity Colour Odour Taste Count Temp

Value (mg/ml) (0C)

1 4.25 213 1 25
3 4.25 197 1 25
5 4.22 194 2 24
7 4.21 177 3 26
9 4.19 168 3 27
11 4.10 165 4 27
13 3.97 158 4 25

White Pleasant Sweet

15 3.92 153 7 25
17 3.89 149 9 25
19 3.83 147 10 24
21 143 143 14 25
Unpleasant Sour

1
Table 5.9 Result for sample product energized with Biodisc for 75min under shelf

Days pH Viscosity Colour Odour Taste Count Temp

Value (mpa) (mg/ml) (0C)

1 4.28 198 1 25
3 4.26 186 2 25
5 4.21 157 3 24
7 4.19 149 4 26
9 4.16 143 5 26

White
Pleasant Sweet
11 4.10 139 7 25
13 3.90 138 7 25
15 3.86 134 9 27
17 3.78 129 10 25
19 3.73 127 11 25
21 3.69 124 13 25

Unpleasant Sour

3
Table 5.10 Result for sample product energized with Biodisc for 15min under refrigeration

Days pH Viscosity Colour Odour Taste Count Temp

Value (mpa) (mg/ml) (0C)

1 4.30 235 1 3
3 4.30 249 1 3
5 4.28 273 2 2
7 4.26 280 2 3
9 4.25 289 3 4
11 4.22 294 3 4
13 4.20 299 4 3
15 4.18 321 7 2
17 4.13 327 7 2

White Pleasant Sweet

19 4.10 336 8 2
21 4.00 346 unpleasant 10 3
Sour

Table 5.11 Result for sample product energized with Biodisc for 30min under refrigeration

Days pH Viscosity Colour Odour Taste Count Temp

1
 Value (mpa) (mg/ml) (0C)
1 4.29 227 3
3 4.28 232 2
5 4.26 286 No growth 2
7 4.24 292 1 3
9 4.22 298 1 3
11 4.20 301 2 3
13 4.18 311 3 4
15 4.11 317 3 4

White Pleasant Sweet

17 4.08 324 Sour 4 3
19 4.00 327 4 2

21 3.98 341 Unpleasant 4 2

Table 5.12 Result for sample product energized with Biodisc for 45min under refrigeration

Days pH Viscosity Colour Odour Taste Count Temp

Value (mpa) (mg/ml) (0C)

1 4.30 252 2
3 4.30 267 2
5 4.28 312 No growth 3
7 4.25 321 1 4
9 4.21 325 1 4
11 4.19 329 2 2

1
 13 4.15 331 2 2
15 4.12 339 3 3
17 4.11 342 3 2
19 4.07 347 3 3
21 4.00 352 White Pleasant Sweet 4 3

Table 5.13 Result for sample product energized with Biodisc for 60min under refrigeration

Days pH Viscosity Colour Odour Taste Count Temp

Value (mpa) (mg/ml) (0C)

1 4.29 238 1 2
3 4.28 242 1 2
5 4.24 268 1 2
7 4.22 271 2 3
9 4.20 279 2 4
11 3.98 284 2 2
13 3.96 286 4 4
15 3.92 292 4 2
17 3.89 298 5 2
White Pleasant Sweet

19 3.84 307 Unpleasant Sour 6 3

21 3.80 315 7 3

1
Table 5.14 Result for sample product energized with Biodisc for 75min under refrigeration

Days pH Viscosity Colour Odour Taste Count Temp

Value (mpa) (mg/ml) (0C)

1 4.30 238 1 2
3 4.27 242 3 2
5 4.24 268 3 2
7 4.20 271 4 3
9 4.10 279 5 2
11 3.96 284 5 4
13 3.93 288 5 3
15 3.90 297 7 3
17 3.87 311 White Pleasant Sweet 8 2
19 3.82 324 9 2
21 3.78 329 Unpleasant 9 2
Sour

1
Table 5.15 Organoleptic test

Sample Appearance Sourness Aroma Mouthfeel

Sample D 97 96 97 96
Biodisc 15min 98 97 98 97
Biodisc 30min 98 96 96 97
Biodisc 45min 98 97 97 98
Biodisc 60min 96 97 97 97
Biodisc 75min 97 96 97 96

Table 5.16 Comparative Analysis

Samples % Protein % Moisture % Lipid %Soluble

carbohydrate
Sample A 2.92 79.66 10.92 5.42
Sample C 2.56 77.56 11.19 5.68
Biodisc 15min 2.04 78.06 11.72 5.62
Biodisc 30min 2.30 80.14 10.82 5.06
Biodisc 45min 3.34 85.66 12.40 5.60
Biodisc 60min 1.76 78.68 10.80 5.40
Biodisc 75min 1.33 72.34 9.94 5.02

Fig 5.1 Chart showing the fall in pH as number of days increases for Biodisc 45min under

refrigeration.

4.35
4.3
4.25
4.2
4.15
H
p

4.1
4.05
4
3.95
3.9
3.85
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21
Days

1
Fig 5.2 Chart showing the fall in pH value as the number of days increases for Biodisc 45min

on shelf storage.

Fig 5.3 Chart showing the fall in pH value as the number of days increases for sample B

4.3

4.2

4.1
H
p

3.9

3.8

3.7
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21
Days

Fig 5.4 Chart showing the fall in pH value as the number of days increases for sample D

4.3
4.2
4.1
4
H
p

3.9
3.8
3.7
3.6
3.5
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21
Days

1
Fig 5.5 Chart showing relationship between the pH values for the four samples

4.4
Day1
4.3
Day 3
4.2
Day 5
4.1
Day 7
4
H
p

Day 9
3.9
3.8 Day 11

3.7 Day 13

3.6 Day 15

3.5 Day 17
B45f B45s D B Day 19
Sample type Day 21

.
5.2 Discussion of results

From the results obtained as tabulated above, it can be seen that all samples kept under

refrigeration, stayed for a longer time and gave the best qualities than the others kept on shelf

life. This may be as a result of rapid growth of bacteria as room temperature changes. Tables 5.1,

5.2, 5.3 and 5.4 shows results obtained for samples A, B, C, and D for both refrigeration and

shelf respectively. It can be seen that samples A and D show a remarkable difference to samples

B and C, they maintained a high quality in terms of taste, colour, odour and count within the first

17 and 19 days respectively, with slight decrease in pH value and thereafter changes in its

qualities were noted.

Similarly, samples B and C maintained a high quality in their respective properties for the first

17 and 13 days respectively, thereafter a rapid change in their physical properties is noticed, and

a sour taste was observed.This indicates that the samples become more acidic as a result of

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fermentation which subsequently results into clotting or curdling (coagulation) of the samplesas

the room temperature increases. In addition, the microbial count in the samples increased,

indicating further deterioration of the yogurt quality.

Biodisc energizer

Tables 5.5-5.14 shows results obtained for the Biodisc energizer under refrigeration and shelf

storage respectively. Comparing the results obtained for the Biodisc energizer and the other

samples, a significant change in the various properties of the yogurt is observed. It is seen that

the pH values of the samples under the effect of the Biodisc energizer still remained within the

limit of proximity i.e. from 4.2-3.9. In particular interest is the sample held for 45minutes under

Biodisc effect in refrigeration. The sample showed a total difference to all the other samples, be

it in terms of pH, colour, odour, taste, nutritional value, e.t.c. It maintained a high quality despite

the very slight change in pH throughout the 21-day period of study. From table 5.16, it is seen

that the samples followed a particular trend, there is an increase in the %protein, fat/lipid,

moisture and soluble carbohydrate content from sample 15min to 45min, with that of the 45min

having the highest value, and then followed by a decreasing trend in the values for both the

60min and 75min respectively. It is also noted that the bacterial growth for the sample showed

no activity for the first 5days; this inactivity clearly shows that the sample under the effect of the

Biodisc energizer held for 45min gives the best quality in yogurt production for holding time

pasteurization at 630C.

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 CHAPTER SIX

6.0 CONCLUSION AND RECCOMENDATIONS

6.1 Conclusion

Yogurt was produced using microwave radiation for holding time pasteurization technique and

some of the products were energized and preserved using chemical preservatives, and kept under

shelf and refrigeration for a period of three (3) weeks. Based on the results, the following

conclusions can be drawn:

1. Yogurt pasteurized at 630C, held for 45min under Biodisc energizer gives the best quality

product with superb taste, and odor than the other samples.

2. The storage condition at low temperature increases the shelf life of the yoghurt samples

above the recommended storage times (between 5-7 days). The chemical changes

undergone by the other yogurt samples during storage gradually lead to loss in color,

odor and taste.

3. The increase in acidity was due to decrease in pH that provides ideal environment for

microorganisms to grow. Fermentation of yogurt especially on samples under shelf

storage was due to the oxidation of organic compounds that are present in the yogurt by

microorganisms (bacteria).

6.2 Recommendations

• Biodisc energizer is a new technology that needs to be explored, thus more research work

should be carried out using varying operating conditions for optimum and quality

product.

• New and digital up to date equipments and instruments should be provided by the

department in order to make the researches easier and possible for the students.

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