CONCRETE BASICS

Concrete is made by mixing: Cement, water, course fine aggregates and admixtures (if required). The aim
is to mix these materials in measured amounts to make concrete that is easy to: Transport, place, compact,
finish and which will set, and harden, to give a strong and durable product. The amount of each material
(ie cement, water and aggregates) affects the properties of hardened concrete.
Proportionating and mixing concrete
A concrete mix is designed to produce concrete that can be easily placed at the lowest cost. The concrete
must be workable and cohesive when plastic, then set and harden to give strong and durable concrete. The
mix design must consider the environment that the concrete will be in; ie exposure to sea water, trucks,
cars, forklifts, foot traffic or extremes of hot and cold. PROPORTIONING Concrete is a mixture of
Cement, Water, Coarse and Fine Aggregates and Admixtures. The proportions of each material in the
mixture affects the properties of the final hardened concrete. These proportions are best measured by
weight. Measurement by volume is not as accurate, but is suitable for minor projects.CEMENT
CONTENT As the cement content increases, so does strength and durability. Therefore to increase the
strength, increase the cement content of a mix. WATER
CONTENT Adding MORE WATER to a mix gives a WEAKER hardened concrete. Always use as little
water as possible, only enough to make the mix workable.
WATER TO CEMENT RATIO As the Water to Cement ratio INCREASES, the strength and durability
of hardened concrete DECREASES. To increase the strength and durability of concrete, decrease the
Water-Cement ratio.
AGGREGATES Too much fine aggregate gives a sticky mix. Too much coarse aggregate gives a harsh
or boney mix.
MIXING Concrete must be mixed so the Cement, Water, Aggregates and Admixtures blend into an even
mix. Concrete is normally mixed by MACHINE. Machine mixing can be done on-site or be a Pre-Mixed
concrete company. Pre-Mixed concrete is batched (proportioned) at the plant to the job requirements.
Truck Mixing The materials are normally added to the trucks at batching plants and mixed for required
time and speed at the plant. The trucks drum continues to rotate to agitate the concrete as it is delivered to
the site. Site Mixing When site mixing begin by loading a MEASURED AMOUNT of coarse aggregate
into the mixer drum. Add the sand before the cement, both in measured amounts.
NEVER USE A SHOVEL AS A MEASURE AS VOLUMES CAN VARY WIDELY
Mix materials together until there is no visible sand in the mix. Add enough water to get a workable mix.
Be careful not to overload the mixer. Too much concrete in the mixer means each batch takes longer to be
properly mixed, which causes costly delays in the long run or it will not mix at all. Always check how
much the mixer holds so you know how much concrete can be produced at once. Avoid delays between
batches to get maximum output. Small quantities of concrete may be mixed by hand with a shovel.
Mixing should be done on a clean board, or plate, or in a wheelbarrow. Mix the materials together until
they are even. Then dish the material and add water. Use only enough water to get an even, workable mix.
Desired properties of concrete
Workability:
The concrete mix should be workable, so that it can be placed and consolidated properly by the workmen.
Hardness, cohesiveness and strength:
Concrete must be resistant to freezing, thawing, water tight( nopn permeable), wear resistence, and
strength.
Economy:
Since the quality mainly depends on the w/c ratio, the water requiremnt should be minimized to reduce
the cement requirement and hence cost.
Curing
Because the cement requires time to fully hydrate before it acquires strength and hardness, concrete must
be cured once it has been placed and achieved initial setting. Curing is the process of keeping concrete
under a specific environmental condition until hydration is relatively complete. Good curing is typically
considered to provide a moist environment and control temperature. A moist environment promotes
hydration, since increased hydration lowers permeability and increases strength resulting in a higher
quality material. Allowing the concrete surface to dry out excessively can result in tensile stresses, which
the still-hydrating interior cannot withstand, causing the concrete to crack.
Also, the amount of heat generated by the exothermic chemical process of hydration can be problematic
for very large placements. Allowing the concrete to freeze in cold climates before the curing is complete
will interrupt the hydration process, reducing the concrete strength and leading to scaling and other
damage or failure.
The effects of curing are primarily a function of geometry (the relation between exposed surface area and
volume), the permeability of the concrete, curing time, and curing history.
Improper curing can lead to several serviceability problems including cracking, increased scaling, and
reduced abrasion resistance.

Types of concrete
Some common and main types of concrete are:
1. Normal concrete
2. High Strength Concrete
3. High Performance Concrete
4. Air Entrained Concrete
5. Light Weight Concrete
6. Self Compacting Concrete
7. Shotcrete
 8. Pervious Concrete
9. Roller Compacted Concrete

Normal concrete
Properties of Normal Concrete
 Its slump varies from 1 - 4 inches.
 Density ranges from 140 pcf to 175 pcf.
 It is strong in compression and weak in tension.
 Air content 1 - 2 %.
 Normal concrete is not durable against severe conditions e.g. freezing and thawing.

High strength concrete

 Compressive strength of high strength concrete mix is usually greater than 6,000 pounds per
square inch.
 High strength concrete is made by lowering the water cement (W/C) ratio to 0.35 or lower.
 Often silica fume is added to prevent the formation of free calcium hydroxide crystals in the
cement, which might reduce the strength at the cement aggregate bond.
 Low w/c ratios and the use of silica fume make concrete mixes significantly less workable, which
is particularly likely to be a problem in high-strength concrete applications where dense rebar
cages are likely to be used. To compensate for the reduced workability in the high strength
concrete mix, superplasticizers are commonly added to high-strength mixtures.
 Aggregate must be selected carefully for high strength mixes, as weaker aggregates may not be
strong enough to resist the loads imposed on the concrete and cause failure to start in the
aggregate.

High Performance Concrete

This mix has the following main properties:
 High strength.
 High workability.
 High durability.
 Ease of placement.
 Compaction without segregation.
  Early age strength.
 Long-term mechanical properties.
 Permeability.
 Density.
 Heat of hydration.
 Toughness.
 Volume stability.
 Long life in severe environments.
Preparation
High strength concrete mix can be prepared with careful selection of ingredients and optimization of mix
design.
 High workability is attained by super plasticizers, they lower the water cement ratio to 0.25
which is the amount required only for hydration process.
 High durability is attributed to fly ash and silica fume which modify the e mineralogy of the
cement; it enhances the compatibility of ingredients in concrete mass and reduces the CH amount.
Fly ash also causes ball bearing effect increasing workability.
 The admixtures are 20-25% fly ash of partial replacement of cement and rest 70% is Ordinary
Portland Cement.
 As it is not usually durable against freezing and thawing so air entrained agents can also be
utilized.
Properties of high performance concrete mix
 Strength of high performance concrete ranges from 10000 psi - 15000 psi
 Water cement ratio can be reduced to 0.25

Air Entrained Concrete

 One of the greatest achievements in field of concrete technology is development of air entrained
concrete. It is used where the concrete is vulnerable to freezing and thawing action.
 It is used where the concrete is vulnerable to freezing and thawing action. It is prepared by adding
the air entraining admixture.
The air entrainment in concrete does the following functions:.
1. It lowers the surface tension of water and thus bubbles are created.
2. Secondly the air entraining agents prevents coalescing i.e. the combining of bubbles. The diameter
of these bubbles ranges form 10 micrometer to 1000 micrometer and in entrapped air the diameter
of bubble is greater than 1mm.
Air entraining agents OR air entrained admixtures are used for the purpose of making entrained air in
concrete.

FREEZING AND THAWING:

There are two phenomenons regarding the freezing and thawing action on concrete.
1. when water inside concrete mass freezes it expands 9-10% due to this increase in the size it exerts
pressure on its surrounding and thus creating a tensile force due to which micro cracks appear in
the concrete. Due to freezing these micro cracks develop into fissures which results in disruption
of concrete.
When the air entrained agents are present, extra amount of air is there as water expands these air bubble
provide them thin space and the exertion of pressure is prevented.
2. Second is of osmotic pressure: In a concrete structure there are two parts, frozen and unfrozen. As
the water content is higher in the frozen part, the osmotic pressure is developed and water tends to
flow towards the low water concentration part. If capillaries are not available, the water develops
cracks.
 Normal concrete can not sustain 3-4 cycles of freezing and thawing where as the AEA concrete
can sustain 100 cycles of it.
DRAW BACKS of Air Entrained Concrete:
 It has low strength as compare to normal concrete.

Light weight concrete

 The concrete which has substantially lower mass per unit volume then the concrete made of
ordinary ingredients is called lightweight concrete. The aggregates used are lighter in weight.
 Density of light weight concrete is 240 kg/m³ (15pcf) -1850 kg/m³ (115 pcf).
 Strength of light weight concrete blocks varies from 7 MPa (1000 psi) - 40 MPa (5800 psi).
 Some times Air Entrained Admixtures are also added to it giving resistance to freezing and
thawing along with strength.
Uses of Light weight concrete:
 Used where extra load is not applied e.g. parapet wall, road lining etc. or to reduce dead load.

Self compacting concrete

The concrete where no vibration is required. The concrete is compacted due to its own weight. It is also
called self consolidated concrete or flowing concrete. It can be also categorized as high performance
concrete as the ingredients are the same, but in this type of concrete workability is increased. This self-
consolidating concrete is characterized by:
 Extreme fluidity as measured by flow, typically between 650-750 mm on a flow table, rather than
slump (height).
 No need for vibrators to compact the concrete.
 Placement being easier.
 No bleed water, or aggregate segregation.
Uses and Applications of Self Compacting Concrete:
1. It is used in location unreachable for vibrations. e.g. underground structure, deep wells or at
bottom of deep sea.
7. SCC can save up to 50% in labor costs due to 80% faster pouring and reduced wear and tear on
formwork.

Shotcrete
 Shotcrete concrete uses compressed air to shoot concrete onto (or into) a frame or structure.
 Shotcrete is mortar or (usually) concrete conveyed through a hose and pneumatically projected at
through a shortcrete nozzle with high velocity onto a surface. Shotcrete undergoes placement and
compaction at the same time due to the force with which it is projected from the nozzle.
 It can be impacted onto any type or shape of surface, including vertical or overhead areas.
 Shotcrete is frequently used against vertical soil or rock surfaces, as it eliminates the need for
formwork.
 It is sometimes used for rock support, especially in tunneling.
 Shotcrete is also used for applications where seepage is an issue to limit the amount of water
entering a construction site due to a high water table or other subterranean sources.
 This type of concrete is often used as a quick fix for weathering for loose soil types in construction
zones.

Pervious concrete
 Pervious concrete contains a network of holes or voids, to allow air or water to move through the
concrete. This allows water to drain naturally through it, and can both remove the normal surface
water drainage infrastructure, and allow replenishment of groundwater when conventional
concrete does not.
 It is formed by leaving out some or the entire fine aggregate (fines), the remaining large aggregate
then is bound by a relatively small amount of Portland cement.
 When set, typically between 15% and 25% of the concrete volumes are voids, allowing water to
drain.
  The majority of pervious concrete pavements function well with little or no maintenance.
Maintenance of pervious concrete pavement consists primarily of prevention of clogging of the
void structure.
 In preparing the site prior to construction, drainage of surrounding landscaping should be designed
to prevent flow of materials onto pavement surfaces. Soil, rock, leaves, and other debris may
infiltrate the voids and hinder the flow of water, decreasing the utility of the pervious concrete
pavement.

Roller compacted concrete

 Roller compacted concrete, sometimes called rollcrete, is a low-cement-content stiff concrete
placed using techniques borrowed from earthmoving and paving work.
 The concrete is placed on the surface to be covered, and is compacted in place using large heavy
rollers typically used in earthwork.
 The concrete mix achieves a high density and cures over time into a strong monolithic block.
Roller compacted concrete is typically used for concrete pavement. Roller compacted concrete dams can
also be built, as the low cement content causes less heat to be generated while curing than typical for
conventionally placed massive concrete pours.
Properties of Concrete
Properties of concrete are divide into two major groups
 Properties of Fresh Concrete
 Properties of Hardened Concrete
Fresh Concrete
Fresh concrete is that stage of concrete in which concrete can be moulded and it is in plastic state. This is
also called "Green Concrete". Another term used to describe the state of fresh concrete is consistence,
which is the ease with which concrete will flow.
Properties of Fresh Concrete
Following are the important properties of fresh concrete
1. Setting
2. Workability
3. Bleeding and Segregation
a. Bleeding
b. Segregation
4. Hydration
5. Air Entrainment
1. Setting of Concrete
The hardening of concrete before its hydration is known as setting of concrete. OR
The hardening of concrete before it gains strength. OR
The transition process of changing of concrete from plastic state to hardened state. Setting of concrete is
based or related to the setting of cement paste. Thus cement properties greatly affect the setting time.
Factors affecting setting:
Following are the factors that affect the setting of concrete.
1. Water Cement ratio
2. Suitable Temperature
3. Cement content
4. Type of Cement
5. Fineness of Cement
6. Relative Humidity
7. Admixtures
8. Type and amount of Aggregate
2. Workability of Concrete
Workability is often referred to as the ease with which a concrete can be transported, placed and
consolidated without excessive bleeding or segregation.
OR
The internal work done required to overcome the frictional forces between concrete ingredients for full
compaction. It is obvious that no single test can evaluate all these factors. In fact, most of these cannot be
easily assessed even though some standard tests have been established to evaluate them under specific
conditions.
In the case of concrete, consistence is sometimes taken to mean the degree of wetness; within limits, wet
concretes are more workable than dry concrete, but concrete of same consistence may vary in workability.
Because the strength of concrete is adversely and significantly affected by the presence of voids in the
compacted mass, it is vital to achieve a maximum possible density. This requires sufficient workability
for virtually full compaction to be possible using a reasonable amount of work under the given conditions.
Presence of voids in concrete reduces the density and greatly reduces the strength: 5% of voids can lower
the strength by as much as 30%.
Slump Test can be used to find out the workability of concrete. View Procedure of Slump Test
Factors affecting cpncrete workability:
i. Water-Cement ratio
ii. Amount and type of Aggregate
iii. Amount and type of Cement
 iv. Weather conditions
1. Temperature
2. Wind
v. Chemical Admixtures
vi. Sand to Aggregate ratio
i. Water content or Water Cement Ratio
More the water cement ratio more will be workability of concrete. Since by simply adding water the inter
particle lubrication is increased.
High water content results in a higher fluidity and greater workability. Increased water content also results
in bleeding. another effect of increased water content can also be that cement slurry will escape through
joints of formwork.
ii. Amount and type of Aggregate
More the amount of aggregate less will be workability.
 Using smooth and round aggregate increases the workability. Workability reduces if
angular and rough aggregate is used.
 Greater size of Aggregate- less water is required to lubricate it, the extra water is available
for workability
 Angular aggregates increases flakiness or elongation thus reduces workability. Round
smooth aggregates require less water and less lubricationand gretaer workability in a given w/c
ratio
 Porous aggregates require more water compared to non absorbent aggregates for achieving
sam degree of workability.
iii. Aggregate Cement ratio
More ratio, less workability. Since less cement mean less water, so the paste is stiff.
iv. Weather Conditions
1. Temperature
If temperature is high, evaporation increases, thus workability decreases.
2. Wind:
If wind is moving with greater velocity, the rate of evaporation also increase reduces the amount of water
and ultimately reducing workability.
v. Admixtures
Chemical admixtures can be used to increase workability.
Use of air entraining agent produces air bubbles which acts as a sort of ball bearing between particles and
increases mobility, workability and decreases bleeding, segregation. The use of fine pozzolanic materials
also have better lubricating effect and more workability.
vi. Sand to Aggregate ratio
If the amount of sand is more the workability will reduce because sand has more surface area and more
contact area causing more resistance.
3(a). Concrete Bleeding
Bleeding in concrete is sometimes referred as water gain. It is a particular form of segregation, in which
some of the water from the concrete comes out to the surface of the concrete, being of the lowest specific
gravity among all the ingredients of concrete. Bleeding is predominantly observed in a highly wet mix,
badly proportioned and insufficiently mixed concrete. In thin members like roof slab or road slabs and
when concrete is placed in sunny weather show excessive bleeding.
Due to bleeding, water comes up and accumulates at the surface. Sometimes, along with this water,
certain quantity of cement also comes to the surface. When the surface is worked up with the trowel, the
aggregate goes down and the cement and water come up to the top surface. This formation of cement
paste at the surface is known as “Laitance”. In such a case, the top surface of slabs and pavements will
not have good wearing quality. This laitance formed on roads produces dust in summer and mud in rainy
season.
Water while traversing from bottom to top, makes continuous channels. If the water cement ratio used is
more than 0.7, the bleeding channels will remain continuous and un segmented. These continuous
bleeding channels are often responsible for causing permeability of the concrete structures. While the
mixing water is in the process of coming up, it may be intercepted by aggregates. The bleeding water is
likely to accumulate below the aggregate. This accumulation of water creates water voids and reduces
the bond between the aggregates and the paste.
The above aspect is more pronounced in the case of flaky aggregate. Similarly, the water that accumulates
below the reinforcing bars reduces the bond between the reinforcement and the concrete. The poor bond
between the aggregate and the paste or the reinforcement and the paste due to bleeding can be remedied
by re vibration of concrete. The formation of laitance and the consequent bad effect can be reduced by
delayed finishing operations.
Bleeding rate increases with time up to about one hour or so and thereafter the rate decreases but
continues more or less till the final setting time of cement.
Prevention of Bleeding in concrete
 Bleeding can be reduced by proper proportioning and uniform and complete mixing.
 Use of finely divided pozzolanic materials reduces bleeding by creating a longer path for
the water to traverse.
 Air-entraining agent is very effective in reducing the bleeding.
  Bleeding can be reduced by the use of finer cement or cement with low alkali content. Rich
mixes are less susceptible to bleeding than lean mixes.
The bleeding is not completely harmful if the rate of evaporation of water from the surface is equal to the
rate of bleeding. Removal of water, after it had played its role in providing workability, from the body of
concrete by way of bleeding will do good to the concrete.
Early bleeding when the concrete mass is fully plastic, may not cause much harm, because concrete being
in a fully plastic condition at that stage, will get subsided and compacted. It is the delayed bleeding, when
the concrete has lost its plasticity, which causes undue harm to the concrete. Controlled re vibration may
be adopted to overcome the bad effect of bleeding.
3(b). Segregation in concrete
Segregation can be defined as the separation of the constituent materials of concrete. A good concrete is
one in which all the ingredients are properly distributed to make a homogeneous mixture. There are
considerable differences in the sizes and specific gravities of the constituent ingredients of concrete.
Therefore, it is natural that the materials show a tendency to fall apart.
Segregation may be of three types
1. Coarse aggregate separating out or settling down from the rest of the matrix.
2. Paste separating away from coarse aggregate.
3. Water separating out from the rest of the material being a material of lowest specific
gravity.
A well made concrete, taking into consideration various parameters such as grading, size, shape and
surface texture of aggregate with optimum quantity of waters makes a cohesive mix. Such concrete will
not exhibit any tendency for segregation. The cohesive and fatty characteristics of matrix do not allow the
aggregate to fall apart, at the same time; the matrix itself is sufficiently contained by the aggregate.
Similarly, water also does not find it easy to move out freely from the rest of the ingredients.
The conditions favorable for segregation are:
1. Badly proportioned mix where sufficient matrix is not there to bind and contain the
aggregates
2. Insufficiently mixed concrete with excess water content
3. Dropping of concrete from heights as in the case of placing concrete in column concreting
4. When concrete is discharged from a badly designed mixer, or from a mixer with worn out
blades
5. Conveyance of concrete by conveyor belts, wheel barrow, long distance haul by dumper,
long lift by skip and hoist are the other situations promoting segregation of concrete
Vibration of concrete is one of the important methods of compaction. It should be remembered that only
comparatively dry mix should be vibrated. It too wet a mix is excessively vibrated; it is likely that the
concrete gets segregated. It should also be remembered that vibration is continued just for required time
for optimum results. If the vibration is continued for a long time, particularly, in too wet a mix, it is likely
to result in segregation of concrete due to settlement of coarse aggregate in matrix.
4. Hydration in concrete
Concrete derives its strength by the hydration of cement particles. The hydration of cement is not a
momentary action but a process continuing for long time. Of course, the rate of hydration is fast to start
with, but continues over a very long time at a decreasing rate In the field and in actual work, even a higher
water/cement ratio is used, since the concrete is open to atmosphere, the water used in the concrete
evaporates and the water available in the concrete will not be sufficient for effective hydration to take
place particularly in the top layer.
If the hydration is to continue, extra water must be added to refill the loss of water on account of
absorption and evaporation. Therefore, the curing can be considered as creation of a favorable
environment during the early period for uninterrupted hydration. The desirable conditions are, a suitable
temperature and ample moisture.
Concrete, while hydrating, releases high heat of hydration. This heat is harmful from the point of view of
volume stability. Jeat of hydration of concrete may also shrinkage in concrete, thus producing cracks. If
the heat generated is removed by some means, the adverse effect due to the generation of heat can be
reduced. This can be done by a thorough water curing.
5. Air Entrainment
Air entrainment reduces the density of concrete and consequently reduces the strength. Air entrainment is
used to produce a number of effects in both the plastic and the hardened concrete. These include:
1. Resistance to freeze–thaw action in the hardened concrete.
2. Increased cohesion, reducing the tendency to bleed and segregation in the plastic concrete.
3. Compaction of low workability mixes including semi-dry concrete.
4. Stability of extruded concrete.
5. Cohesion and handling properties in bedding mortars.
Hardened Concrete Properties
Following are the properties of hardened concrete:
1. Strength of concrete
2. Concrete Creep
3. Shrinkage
4. Modulus Of Elasticity
5. Water tightness (impermeability)
6. Rate of Strength gain of Concrete
1. Strength:
The strength of concrete is basically referred to compressive strength and it depends upon three factors.
1- Paste Strength
2- Interfacial Bonding
3- Aggregate Strength
1. Paste strength:
It is mainly due to the binding properties of cement that the ingredients are compacted together. If the
paste has higher binding strength, higher will be strength of concrete.
2. Interfacial bonding:
Interfacial bonding is very necessary regarding the strength. Clay hampers the bonding between paste and
aggregate. The aggregate should be washed for a better bonding between paste and aggregate.
3. Aggregate strength:
It is mainly the aggregate that provide strength to concrete especially coarse aggregates which act just like
bones in the body. Rough and angular aggregate provides better bonding and high strength.
Factors affecting Strength of concrete:
Following are the factors that affect the strength of concrete:
1. Water-Cement ratio
2. Type of cementing material
3. Amount of cementing material
4. Type of aggregate
5. Air content
6. Admixtures
1. Water-Cement ratio:
It is water cement ratio that basically governs the property of strength. Lesser the water cement ratio,
greater will be strength.
2. Type of cement:
Type of cement affect the hydration process and therefore strength of concrete.
Amount of cementing material: it is the paste that holds or binds all the ingredients. Thus greater amount
of cementing material greater will be strength.
3. Type of Aggregate:
Rough and angular aggregates is preferable as they provide greater bonding.
4. Admixtures:
Chemical admixtures like plasticizers reduce the water cement ratio and increase the strength of concrete
at same water cement ratio. Mineral admixtures affect the strength at later stage and increase the strength
by increasing the amount of cementing material.

Batching, Mixing, Placing and Compaction of Concrete

Batching
Is the process of measuring concrete mix ingredients either by volume or by mass and introducing them
into the mixture. Traditionally batching is done by volume but most specifications require that batching be
done by mass rather than volume.
Percentage of accuracy for measurement of concrete materials as follows.
Cement:
When the quantity of cement to be batched exceeds 30% of scale capacity, the measuring accuracy should
be within 1% of required mass.
If measuring quantity is less than 30% i.e. for smaller batches then the measuring accuracy should be
within 4% of the required quantity.
Aggregates:
If the measurement is more than 30% of the scale capacity then the measuring accuracy should be within
1%. If measurement is less than 30% then the measuring accuracy should be within less than 3%.
Water:
Water is measured in volumetric quantity as 1 litre=1kg.
In case of water, the measuring accuracy should be within 1%.
Admixtures:
For mineral admixtures same accuracy as that required for cement.For chemical admixtures same
accuracy as that required for water. Mineral admixtures accuracy is same as that of cement because it is
used as partial replacement of cement. As chemical admixtures are liquid or added to water therefore its
accuracy is same as that of water
Mixing
The mixing operation consists of rotation or stirring, the objective being to coat the surface the all
aggregate particles with cement paste, and to blind all the ingredients of the concrete into a uniform mass;
this uniformity must not be disturbed by the process of discharging from the mixer.
Batch mixer
The usual type of mixer is a batch mixer, which means that one batch of concrete is mixed and discharged
before any more materials are put into the mixer. There are four types of batch mixer.
Tilting drum mixer:
A tilting drum mixer is one whose drum in which mixing take place is tilted for discharging. The drum is
conical or bowl shaped with internal vanes, and the discharge is rapid and unsegregated so that these
mixers are suitable for mixes of low workability and for those containing large size aggregate.
Non tilting drum mixer:
A non tilting drum is one in which the axis of the mixer is always horizontal, and discharge take place by
inserting a chute into the drum or by reversing the direction or rotation of drum. Because of slow rate of
discharge, some segregation may occur.
Pan type mixer:
A pan type mixer is a forced–action mixer, as distinct from drum mixer which relies on the free fall of the
concrete inside the drum. The pan mixer consist of a circular pan rotating about its axis with one or two
stars paddles rotating about vertical axis of pan.
Dual drum mixer:
A dual drum is sometimes used in highway construction. Here there are two drums in series, concrete
being mixed part of the time in one and then transferred to the other for the remainder of the mixing time
before discharging.
Continuous mixers:
These are fed automatically by a continuous weigh-batching system.
Charging the mixer:
There are no general rules on the order of feeding the ingredients into the mixer as this depend on the
properties of the mixer and mix. Usually a small quantity of water is fed first, followed by all the solids
materials. If possible greater part of the water should also be fed during the same time, the remainder
being added after the solids. However, when using very dry mixes in drum mixers it is necessary to feed
the coarse aggregate just after the small initial water feed in order to ensure that the aggregate surface is
sufficiently wetted.
Uniformity of Mixing
In any mixer, it is essential that a sufficient interchange of materials occurs between parts of the chamber,
so that a uniform concrete is produced. The efficiency of the mixer can be measured by the variability of
the samples from the mix. ASTM prescribes samples to be taken from about points 1/6 and 5/6 of the
discharge of the batch and the difference in the properties of the two samples should not exceed any of the
following:
1. Density of concrete 1 lb/ft³
2. Air content 1%
3. Slump 1" when average is less than 4"
4. 1.5" when average is less than 4 to 6"
4. % of aggregate retained on 4 No. sieve 6%
 5. Compressive strength 7 day, 3 cylinders 7.5%
Mixing time:
It is important to know the minimum mixing time necessary to produce a concrete of uniform
composition, and of reliable strength.
The mixing time or period should be measured from time all the cementing materials and aggregates are
in mixer drum till taking out the concrete.
Mixing time depends on the type and size of mixer, on the speed of rotation, and on the quality of
blending of ingredients during charging of the mixer. Generally, a mixing time of less than 1 to 1.25
minutes produces appreciable non-uniformity in composition and a significant lower strength; mixing
beyond 2 minutes causes no significant improvement in these properties.
Table: Recommended minimum mixing times

Capacity of mixer (yd³) Mixing time (Minutes)

Up to 1 1
2 1.25
3 1.5
4 1.75
5 2
6 2.25
10 3.25

Prolong mixing:
If mixing take place over a long period, evaporation of water from the mix can occur, with a consequent
decrease in workability and an increase in strength. A secondary effect is that of grinding of the
aggregate, particularly if soft; the grading thus becomes finer and the workability lower. In case of air
entrained concrete, prolong mixing reduces the air content.
Ready mixed concrete:
If instead of being batched and mixed on site, concrete is delivered for placing from a central plant. It is
referred to as ready-mixed or pre-mixed concrete. This type of concrete is used extensively abroad as it
offers numerous advantages in comparison with other methods of manufacture:
1. Close quality control of batching which reduces the variability of the desired properties of
hardened concrete.
2. Use on congested sites or in highway construction where there is little space for a mixing plant
and aggregate stockpiles;
 3. Use of agitator trucks to ensure care in transportation, thus prevention segregation and maintaining
workability
4. Convenience when small quantities of concrete or intermittent placing is required.
There are two categories of ready-mixed concrete: central-mixed and transit mixed or truck mixed. In the
first category, mixing is done in a central plant and then concrete is transported in an agitator truck. In the
second category, the materials are batched at a central plant but are mixed in a truck.
Concrete Placing and Compaction of Concrete
The operation of placing and compaction are interdependent and are carried out simultaneously. They are
most important for the purpose of ensuring the requirements of strength, impermeability and durability of
hardened concrete in the actual structure. As for as placing is concerned, the main objective is to deposit
the concrete as close as possible to its final position so that segregation is avoided and the concrete can be
fully compacted. The aim of good concrete placing can be stated quite simply.
It is to get the concrete into position at a speed, and in a condition, that allow it to be compacted
properly.
To achieve proper placing following rules should be kept in mind:
1. The concrete should be placed in uniform layers, not in large heaps or sloping layers.
2. The thickness of the layer should be compatible with the method of vibration so that entrapped air
can be removed from the bottom of each layer.
3. The rate of placing and of compaction should be equal. If you proceed too slowly, the mix could
stiffen so that it is no longer sufficiently workable. On no account should water ever be added to
concrete that is setting. On the other hand, if you go too quickly, you might race ahead of the
compacting gang, making it impossible for them to do their job properly.
4. Each layer should be fully compacted before placing the next one, and each subsequent layer
should be placed whilst the underlying layer is still plastic so that monolithic construction is
achieved
5. Collision between concrete and formwork or reinforcement should be avoided.
6. For deep sections, a long down pipe ensures accuracy of location of concrete and minimum
segregation.
7. You must be able to see that the placing is proceeding correctly, so lighting should be available for
large, deep sections, and thin walls and columns.
Compaction
Once the concrete has been placed, it is ready to be compacted.
The purpose of compaction is to get rid of the air voids that are
trapped in loose concrete.
Why is compaction of concrete necessary?
It is important to compact the concrete fully because:
 Air voids reduce the strength of the concrete. For every 1% of entrapped air, the strength falls by
somewhere between 5 and 7%. This means that concrete containing a mere 5% air voids due to
incomplete compaction can lose as much as one third of its strength.
 Air voids increase concrete's permeability. That in turn reduces its durability. If the concrete is not
dense and impermeable, it will not be watertight. It will be less able to withstand aggressive iquids
and its exposed surfaces will weather badly.
 Moisture and air are more likely to penetrate to the reinforcement causing it to rust.
 Air voids impair contact between the mix and reinforcement (and, indeed, any other embedded
metals). The required bond will not be achieved and the reinforced member will not be as strong
as it should be.
 Air voids produce blemishes on struck surfaces. For instance, blowholes and honeycombing might
occur.
Summing up, fully compacted concrete is dense, strong and durable; badly compacted concrete will be
porous, weak and prone to rapid deterioration. Sooner or later it will have to be repaired or replaced. It
pays, therefore, to do the job properly in the first place.
Stiff mixes contain far more air than workable ones. That is one of the reasons why a low-slump concrete
requires more compactive effort than one with a higher slump - the compaction needs to continue for a
longer time, or more equipment has to be used.
Even air-entrained concrete needs to be compacted to get rid of entrapped air voids. The difference
between air voids and entrained air bubbles should be noted at this stage. The air bubbles that are
entrained are relatively small and spherical in shape, increase the workability of the mix, reduce bleeding,
and increase frost resistance. Entrapped air on the other hand tends to be irregular in shape and is
detrimental to the strength of the mix. It is to remove this air that the concrete must be properly
compacted. There is little danger that compaction will remove the minute air bubbles that have been
deliberately entrained, since they are so stable.
Methods of Compaction of concrete
Vibration:
To compact concrete you apply energy to it so that the mix becomes more fluid. Air trapped in it can then
rise to the top and escape. As a result, the concrete becomes consolidated, and you are left with a good
dense material that will, after proper curing, develop its full strength and durability.
Vibration is the next and quickest method of supplying the energy. Manual techniques such as rodding are
only suitable for smaller projects. Various types of vibrator are available for use on site.
Poker Vibrators
The poker, or immersion, vibrator is the most popular of the appliances used for compacting concrete.
This is because it works directly in the concrete and can be moved around easily.
Sizes:
Pokers with diameters ranging from 25 to 75mm are readily available, and these are suitable for most
reinforced concrete work. Larger pokers are available - with diameters up to 150mm - but these are for
mass concrete in heavy civil engineering.
Radius of action:
When a poker vibrator is operating, it will be effective over a circle centred on the poker. The distance
from the poker to the edge of the circle is known as the radius of action.
However, the actual effectiveness of any poker depends on the workability of the concrete and the
characteristics of the vibrator itself. As a general rule, the bigger the poker and the higher its amplitude,
the greater will be the radius of action. It is better to judge from your own observations, as work proceeds
on site, the effective radius of the poker you are operating on the concrete you are compacting.
The length of time it takes for a poker vibrator to compact concrete fully depends on:
1. The workability of the concrete: the less workable the mix, the longer it must be vibrated.
2. The energy put in by the vibrator: bigger vibrators do the job faster.
The depth of the concrete: thick sections take longer.
Once the concrete has been placed, it is ready to be compacted. The purpose of compaction is to get rid of
the air voids that are trapped in loose concrete.

Tests on concrete
SAMPLING The first step is to take a test sample from the large batch of concrete. This should be done
as soon as discharge of the concrete commences. The sample should be representative of the concrete
supplied. The sample is taken in one of two ways:
For purposes of accepting or rejecting the load: Sampling after 0.2 m3 of the load has been poured.
For routine quality checks: Sampling from three places in the load.
a) Concrete Slump Test
This test is performed to check the consistency of freshly made concrete. The slump test is done to make
sure a concrete mix is workable. The measured slump must be within a set range, or tolerance, from the
target slump.
Workability of concrete is mainly affected by consistency i.e. wetter mixes will be more workable than
drier mixes, but concrete of the same consistency may vary in workability. It can also be defined as the
relative plasticity of freshly mixed concrete as indicative of its workability.
Tools and apparatus used for slump test (equipment):
1. Standard slump cone (100 mm top diameter x 200 mm bottom diameter x 300 mm high)
2. Small scoop
 3. Bullet-nosed rod (600 mm long x 16 mm diameter)
4. Rule
Slump plate (500 mm x 500 mm)
1. Flexural Strength of Concrete
2. High Strength Concrete Mix
3. Rate of Strength gain of Concrete
4. Reinforced Concrete Design
5. Concrete Types
6. Bitumen tests
Procedure of slump test for concrete:
1. Clean the cone. Dampen with water and place on the slump plate. The slump plate should be
clean, firm, level and non-absorbent. Collect a sample of concrete to perform the slum test.
2. Stand firmly on the footpieces and fill 1/3 the volume of the cone with the sample. Compact the
concrete by 'rodding' 25 times. Rodding means to push a steel rod in and out of the concrete to
compact it into the cylinder, or slump cone. Always rod in a definite pattern, working from outside
into the middle.
3. Now fill to 2/3 and again rod 25 times, just into the top of the first layer.
4. Fill to overflowing, rodding again this time just into the top of the second layer. Top up the cone
till it overflows.
5. Level off the surface with the steel rod using a rolling action. Clean any concrete from around the
base and top of the cone, push down on the handles and step off the footpieces.
6. Carefully lift the cone straight up making sure not to move the sample.
7. Turn the cone upside down and place the rod across the up-turned cone.
8. Take several measurements and report the average distance to the top of the sample.If the sample
fails by being outside the tolerance (ie the slump is too high or too low), another must be taken. If
this also fails the remainder of the batch should be rejected.
b) The Compression Test
The compression test shows the compressive strength of hardened concrete. The compression test shows
the best possible strength concrete can reach in perfect conditions. The compression test measures
concrete strength in the hardened state. Testing should always be done carefully. Wrong test results can be
costly.
The testing is done in a laboratory off-site. The only work done on-site is to make a concrete cylinder for
the compression test. The strength is measured in Megapascals (MPa) and is commonly specified as a
characteristic strength of concrete measured at 28 days after mixing. The compressive strength is a
measure of the concrete’s ability to resist loads which tend to crush it.
Apparatus for compression test
Cylinders (100 mm diameter x 200 mm high or 150 mm diameter x 300 mm high) (The small cylinders
are normally used for most testing due to their lighter weight)
1. Small scoop
2. Bullet-nosed rod (600 mm x 16 mm)
3. Steel float
4. Steel plate
How to do a compression test?
Procedure for compression test of concrete
1. Clean the cylinder mould and coat the inside lightly with form oil, then place on a clean, level and
firm surface, ie the steel plate. Collect a sample.
2. Fill 1/2 the volume of the mould with concrete then compact by rodding 25 times. Cylinders may
also be compacted by vibrating using a vibrating table.
3. Fill the cone to overflowing and rod 25 times into the top of the first layer, then top up the mould
till overflowing.
4. Level off the top with the steel float and clean any concrete from around the mould.
5. Cap, clearly tag the cylinder and put it in a cool dry place to set for at least 24 hours.
After the mould is removed the cylinder is sent to the laboratory where it is cured and crushed to test
compressive strength
ACI Method Concrete Mix Design
High Strength Concrete Mix Design
Definition:
Mix design can be defined as the process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete and determining
their relative proportions with the object of producing concrete of certain minimum strength and
durability as economically as possible. One of the ultimate aims of studying the various properties of the
materials of concrete, plastic concrete and hardened concrete is to enable a concrete technologist to design
a concrete mix for a particular strength and durability.
The design of concrete mix is not a simple task on account of the widely varying properties of the
constituent materials, the conditions that prevail at the site of work, in particular the exposure condition,
and the conditions that are demanded for a particular work for which the mix is designed.
Design of concrete mix requires complete knowledge of the various properties of these constituent
materials, these make the task of mix design more complex and difficult. Design of concrete mix needs
not only the knowledge of material properties and properties of concrete in plastic condition; it also needs
wider knowledge and experience of concreting. Even then the proportion of the materials of concrete
found out at the laboratory requires modification and re adjustments to suit the field conditions.
Planning and Site Preparation for Concrete
Concrete Planning
The most important step in placing concrete is planning. Always plan every step before any concrete is
delivered. Proper planning avoids delays, wastage, segregation and problems which develop from these.
Proper concrete planning also eliminates problems of Delay, Segregation and Wastage.
Safety
Workers on the site should always wear protective clothing, strong boots and, if required, helmets or eye
protection. Always avoid direct contact with cement and never kneel in or touch the concrete mix directly.
Wear gloves or use barrier creams. Ensure that anyone using heavy equipment, such as screeds or
vibrators, has been properly trained.
The following steps should be taken before any concrete is placed:

Measurement
Measure and stake out the area to be concreted and consider how
thick the slab must be. The thickness will depend on the weight the
concrete must carry (ie driveway carries the weight of a car and needs
to be thicker than a garden path).
The Finishing Level
Once the thickness of concrete has been established, work out where the concrete will finish.Concrete
cannot finish too high against steps or the external house wall and should not cover any part of weepholes
in the wall.The finishing level shows how much digging or excavation must be done.Pavements must
grade away from buildings and boundaries.
Steps (Stairs):
Steps must have even risers.
Excavation
The ground should be excavated as deep as is required by the finishing levels.Any roots or grass must be
dug out until there is firm soil to place on.Always dig the hole wider than needed to allow for the
formwork. Try to keep the edges and corners square.
Subgrade
The soil a concrete pavement or floor rests on is called the subgrade.If the soil is soft or varies in softness, a
layer of crushed rock should be used.If there are only a few poor areas these can be dug out, refilled and
compacted.It is important that the soil evenly supports the concrete. Many later problems can be avoided by
properly preparing the subgrade.
FORMWORK
Formwork gives concrete its shape, Formwork must be properly braced so it is strong. It should not flex
or move.
SERVICES
Plumbing, heating or electrical services often run through a slab.These must be in place before any
concrete is poured.
UNDERLAY AND SERVICES
The underlay, or vapour barrier, is a heavy plastic covering the ground to minimise water vapour rising
through the hardened concrete.Always overlap the sheets a minimum of 200 mm and do not tape
them.Tape the edges of underlay only around drainage pipes or services which pass vertically through the
concrete slab. Termite protection may be required around service penetrations and round the perimeter of
the slab.
REINFORCEMENT LOCATION
Reinforcement can be used to increase the strength of concrete and/or to help control cracking. For house
floors resting on the ground it is placed in the top 1/3 of slabs and in the bottom of trenches and footings.
The reinforcement must be covered by a set amount of concrete which protects the steel from rusting.
This is called cover.
The amount of cover depends on whether it is inside or outside and is measured to the top or bottom of
the outer surface. Reinforcement should be securely held for slab on ground construction.It should overlap
a set distance or from one piece of reinforcing bar, or wire fabric, to another and at the corners of a trench.
ACCESS
Clear access must be provided to transport the concrete. If concrete is to be delivered by trucks make sure
they have unrestricted access to the site in all weather conditions. PLACEMENT Ensure all planning and
site preparation takes into account how concrete will be placed allowing room for trucks, ramps for
wheelbarrows, space for a pump etc.
JOINTS
The position, type and number of joints should be planned well before the concrete is placed.

WASTAGE
Good planning and site preparation reduces wastage.Reducing wastage can cut costs, since up to 15% of
concrete can be lost this way.
Admixtures of Concrete & Cement
Engineering Materials
 Admixtures
 Types of Admixtures
• Chemical Admixtures
1. Plasticizers
2. Super Plasticizers
3. Accelerators
4. Set Retarders
• Mineral Admixtures
1. Cementitious
2. Pozzolanic
3. Blast Furnace Slag
4. Flyash
5. Silica Fume
6. Rice Husk
Admixtures
A material other than water, aggregates, or cement that is used as an ingredient of concrete or mortar to
control setting and early hardening, workability, or to provide additional cementing properties.
Why is admixture used?
Over decades, attempts have been made to obtain concrete with certain desired characteristics such as
high compressive strength, high workability, and high performance and durability parameters to meet the
requirement of complexity of modern structures.
The properties commonly modified are the heat of hydration, accelerate or retard setting time,
workability, water reduction, dispersion and air-entrainment, impermeability and durability factors.
Types of Admixtures
Chemical admixtures - Accelerators, Retarders, Water-reducing agents, Super plasticizers, Air
entraining agents etc.
Mineral admixtures - Fly-ash Blast-furnace slag, Silica fume and Rice husk Ash etc
Chemical admixtures
1. Water-reducing admixture / Plasticizers:
These admixtures are used for following purposes:
 1. To achieve a higher strength by decreasing the water cement ratio at the same workability as an
admixture free mix.
2. To achieve the same workability by decreasing the cement content so as to reduce the heat of
hydration in mass concrete.
3. To increase the workability so as to ease placing in accessible locations
4. Water reduction more than 5% but less than 12%
5. The commonly used admixtures are Ligno-sulphonates and hydrocarbolic acid salts.
Plasticizers are usually based on lignosulphonate, which is a natural polymer, derived from wood
processing in the paper industry.
Actions involved:
1. Dispersion:
Surface active agents alter the physic chemical forces at the interface. They are adsorbed on the cement
particles, giving them a negative charge which leads to repulsion between the particles. Electrostatic
forces are developed causing disintegration and the free water become available for workability.
2. Lubrication:
As these agents are organic by nature, thus they lubricate the mix reducing the friction and increasing the
workability.
3. Retardation:
A thin layer is formed over the cement particles protecting them from hydration and increasing the setting
time. Most normal plasticizers give some retardation, 30–90 minutes

2. Super Plasticizers:
These are more recent and more effective type of water reducing
admixtures also known as high range water reducer. The main
benefits of super plasticizers can be summarized as follows:
Increased fluidity:
 Flowing
 Self-leveling
 Self-compacting concrete
 Penetration and compaction round dense reinforcement
Reduced W/C ratio:
 Very high early strength, >200% at 24 hours or earlier
 Very high later age strengths, >100 MPa or 15000 psi.
  Reduced shrinkage, especially if combined with reduced cement content.
 Improved durability by removing water to reduce permeability and diffusion.
The commonly used Super Plasticizers are as follows:
 Sulphonated melamine formaldehyde condensates (SMF)
Give 16–25%+ water reduction. SMF gives little or no retardation, which makes them very effective at
low temperatures or where early strength is most critical. However, at higher temperatures, they lose
workability relatively quickly. SMF generally give a good finish and are colorless, giving no staining in
white concrete. They are therefore often used where appearance is important.
 Sulphonated naphthalene formaldehyde condensates (SNF)
Typically give 16–25%+ water reduction. They tend to increase the entrapment of larger, unstable air
bubbles. This can improve cohesion but may lead to more surface defects. Retardation is more than with
SMF but will still not normally exceed 90 minutes. SNF is a very cost-effective.
 Polycarboxylate ether superplasticizers (PCE)
Typically give 20–35%+ water reduction. They are relatively expensive per liter but are very powerful so
a lower dose (or more dilute solution) is normally used.
In general the dosage levels are usually higher than with conventional water reducers, and the possible
undesirable side effects are reduced because they do not markedly lower the surface tension of the water.
3. Accelerators:
An admixture which, when added to concrete, mortar, or grout, increases the rate of hydration of
hydraulic cement, shortens the time of set in concrete, or increases the rate of hardening or strength
development.
Accelerating admixtures can be divided into groups based on their performance and application:
1. Set Accelerating Admixtures,
Reduce the time for the mix to change from the plastic to the hardened state.
Set accelerators have relatively limited use, mainly to produce an early set.
2. Hardening Accelerators,
Which increase the strength at 24 hours by at least 120% at 20ºC and at 5ºC by at least 130% at 48 hours.
Hardening accelerators find use where early stripping of shuttering or very early access to pavements is
required. They are often used in combination with a high range water reducer, especially in cold
conditions.
Calcium chloride is the most effective accelerator and gives both set and hardening characteristics.
However, is limited due to acceleration of corrosion of steel reinforcement and decrease resistance of
cement paste in a sulfate environment. For this reason, it should not be used in concrete where any steel
will be embedded but may be used in plain unreinforced concrete.
Chloride-free accelerators are typically based on salts of nitrate, nitrite, formate and thiocyanate.
Hardening accelerators are often based on high range water reducers, sometimes blended with one of
these salts.
Accelerating admixtures have a relatively limited effect and are usually only cost effective in specific
cases where very early strength is needed for, say, access reasons. They find most use at low temperatures
where concrete strength gain may be very slow so that the relative benefit of the admixture becomes more
apparent.
In summary, a hardening accelerator may be appropriate for strength gain up to 24 hours at low
temperature and up to 12 hours at ambient temperatures. Beyond these times, a high range water reducer
alone will usually be more cost-effective.
4. Set Retarders:
The function of retarder is to delay or extend the setting time of cement paste in concrete. These are
helpful for concrete that has to be transported to long distance, and helpful in placing the concrete at high
temperatures.
When water is first added to cement there is a rapid initial hydration reaction, after which there is little
formation of further hydrates for typically 2–3 hours. The exact time depends mainly on the cement type
and the temperature. This is called the dormant period when the concrete is plastic and can be placed. At
the end of the dormant period, the hydration rate increases and a lot of calcium silicate hydrate and
calcium hydroxide is formed relatively quickly. This corresponds to the setting time of the concrete.
Retarding admixtures delay the end of the dormant period and the start of setting and hardening. This is
useful when used with plasticizers to give workability retention. Used on their own, retarders allow later
vibration of the concrete to prevent the formation of cold joints between layers of concrete placed with a
significant delay between them.
The mechanism of set retards is based on absorption. The large admixture anions and molecules are
absorbed on the surface of cement particles, which hinders further reactions between cement and water
i.e. retards setting. The commonly known retards are Calcium Ligno-sulphonates and Carbohydrates
derivatives used in fraction of percent by weight of cement.

5. Air Entrained Admixtures:

An addition for hydraulic cement or an admixture for concrete or mortar which causes air, usually in
small quantity, to be incorporated in the form of minute bubbles in the concrete or mortar during mixing,
usually to increase its workability and frost resistance.
Air-entraining admixtures are surfactants that change the surface tension of the water. Traditionally, they
were based on fatty acid salts or vinsol resin but these have largely been replaced by synthetic surfactants
or blends of surfactants to give improved stability and void characteristics to the entrained air.
Air entrainment is used to produce a number of effects in both the plastic and the hardened concrete.
These include:
• Resistance to freeze–thaw action in the hardened concrete.
• Increased cohesion, reducing the tendency to bleed and segregation in the plastic concrete.
• Compaction of low workability mixes including semi-dry concrete.
• Stability of extruded concrete.
• Cohesion and handling properties in bedding mortars.
Mineral Admixtures
Types of Mineral Admixtures
Cementitious
These have cementing properties themselves. For example:
 Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS)
Pozzolanic
A pozzolan is a material which, when combined with calcium hydroxide (lime), exhibits cementitious
properties. Pozzolans are commonly used as an addition (the technical term is "cement extender") to
Portland cement concrete mixtures to increase the long-term strength and other material properties of
Portland cement concrete and in some cases reduce the material cost of concrete. Examples are
 Fly ash
 Silica Fume
 Rice Husk Ash
 Metakaolin
Pozzolanic Action:
The additive act in three ways
1. Filler
2. Nucleating
3. Pozzolanic
1. Filler:
These additives/admixtures are finer than cement, so when added to concrete they occupy the small pores
previously left vacant.
2. Nucleating:
These fine particles accelerate the rate of hydration and precipitation starts.
3. Pozzolanic:
When cementing material reacts with water the following reaction take place:
C2S + H CSH + CH
C3S + H CSH + CH
CSH is responsible for strength while CH is a soluble material reacts and dissolves in water leaving
behind pores.
So when admixture is added
SiO3 or Al2O3+CH CSH
Thus it reduces the amount of CH & increase CSH
Conditions to Declare a Material Pozzolan:
 Having silica + Alumina oxide+ ferrous oxide more than 70%.
 Surface area on normal admixture is more than 300m²/kg.
 Surface area should be more than cement used.
3. Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS)
Ground granulated blast-furnace slag is the granular material formed when molten iron blast furnace
slag (a by-product of iron and steel making) is rapidly chilled (quenched) by immersion in water. It is a
granular product, highly cementitious in nature and, ground to cement fineness, hydrates like Portland
cement.
(Blast-Furnace Slag: A by-product of steel manufacture which is sometimes used as a substitute for
Portland cement. In steel industry when iron ore is molted, then in the molted state all the impurities come
at its surface which are removed called slag. It consists mainly of the silicates and aluminosilicates of
calcium, which are formed in the blast furnace in molten form simultaneously with the metallic iron. Blast
furnace slag is blended with Portland cement clinker to form PORTLAND BLASTFURNACE SLAG
CEMENT).
GGBFS is used to make durable concrete structures in combination with ordinary Portland cement and/or
other pozzolanic materials. GGBFS has been widely used in Europe, and increasingly in the United States
and in Asia (particularly in Japan and Singapore) for its superiority in concrete durability, extending the
lifespan of buildings from fifty years to a hundred years.
Concrete made with GGBFS cement sets more slowly than concrete made with ordinary Portland cement,
depending on the amount of GGBFS in the cementitious material, but also continues to gain strength over
a longer period in production conditions. This results in lower heat of hydration and lower temperature
rises, and makes avoiding cold joints easier, but may also affect construction schedules where quick
setting is required.
Use of GGBFS significantly reduces the risk of damages caused by alkali-silica reaction (ASR), provides
higher resistance to chloride ingress, reducing the risk of reinforcement corrosion, and provides higher
resistance to attacks by sulfate and other chemicals.
Benefits:
1. Durability
 2. GGBFS cement is routinely specified in concrete to provide protection against both
sulphate attack and chloride attack
3. GGBFS is also routinely used to limit the temperature rise in large concrete pours. The
more gradual hydration of GGBFS cement generates both lower peak and less total overall heat
than Portland cement.
4. Appearance
5. In contrast to the stony grey of concrete made with Portland cement, the near-white color
of GGBFS cement permits architects to achieve a lighter colour for exposed fair-faced concrete
finishes, at no extra cost.
6. Strength
7. Concrete containing GGBFS cement has a higher ultimate strength than concrete made
with Portland cement. It has a higher proportion of the strength-enhancing calcium silicate
hydrates (CSH) than concrete made with Portland cement only, and a reduced content of free
lime, which does not contribute to concrete strength. Concrete made with GGBFS continues to
gain strength over time, and has been shown to double its 28 day strength over periods of 10 to 12
years.
4. Fly Ash:
The finely divided residue resulting from the combustion of ground or powdered coal. Fly ash is generally
captured from the chimneys of coal-fired power plants; it has POZZOLANIC properties, and is
sometimes blended with cement for this reason.
Fly ash includes substantial amounts of silicon dioxide (SiO2) (both amorphous and crystalline) and
calcium oxide (CaO). Toxic constituents include arsenic, beryllium, boron, cadmium, chromium, cobalt,
lead, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, selenium, strontium, thallium, and vanadium.
Class F Fly Ash:
The burning of harder, older anthracite and bituminous coal typically produces Class F fly ash. This fly
ash is pozzolanic in nature, and contains less than 10% lime (CaO). The glassy silica and alumina of Class
F fly ash requires a cementing agent, such as Portland cement, quicklime, or hydrated lime, with the
presence of water in order to react and produce cementitious compounds.
Class C Fly Ash:
Fly ash produced from the burning of younger lignite or subbituminous coal, in addition to having
pozzolanic properties, also has some self-cementing properties. In the presence of water, Class C fly ash
will harden and gain strength over time. Class C fly ash generally contains more than 20% lime (CaO).
Unlike Class F, self-cementing Class C fly ash does not require an activator. Alkali and sulfate (SO4)
contents are generally higher in Class C fly ashes.
In addition to economic and ecological benefits, the use of fly ash in concrete improves its workability,
reduces segregation, bleeding, heat evolution and permeability, inhibits alkali-aggregate reaction, and
enhances sulfate resistance. Even though the use of fly ash in concrete has increased in the last 20 years,
less than 20% of the fly ash collected was used in the cement and concrete industries.
One of the most important fields of application for fly ash is PCC pavement, where a large quantity of
concrete is used and economy is an important factor in concrete pavement construction.
5. Silica Fume
 By-product of semiconductor industry
The terms condensed silica fume, microsilica, silica fume and volatilized silica are often used to describe
the by-products extracted from the exhaust gases of silicon, ferrosilicon and other metal alloy furnaces.
However, the terms microsilica and silica fume are used to describe those condensed silica fumes that are
of high quality, for use in the cement and concrete industry.
Silica fume was first ‘obtained’ in Norway, in 1947, when environmental restraints made the filtering of
the exhaust gases from the furnaces compulsory.
Silica Fume consists of very fine particles with a surface area ranging from 60,000 to 150,000 ft²/lb or
13,000 to 30,000 m²/kg, with particles approximately 100 times smaller than the average cement particle.
Because of its extreme fineness and high silica content, Silica Fume is a highly effective pozzolanic
material. Silica Fume is used in concrete to improve its properties. It has been found that Silica Fume
improves compressive strength, bond strength, and abrasion resistance; reduces permeability of concrete
to chloride ions; and therefore helps in protecting reinforcing steel from corrosion, especially in chloride-
rich environments such as coastal regions.
6. Rice Husk Ash:
This is a bio waste from the husk left from the grains of rice. It is used as a pozzolanic material in cement
to increase durability and strength.
The silica is absorbed from the ground and gathered in the husk where it makes a structure and is filled
with cellulose. When cellulose is burned, only silica is left which is grinded to fine powder which is used
as pozzolana.
Types of Special Concrete:
Special Concrete means the concrete used or made for special cases, such as:
1. Concreting in Hot Weather
2. Concreting in Cold Weather
Frequently, concrete may be used for some special purpose for which special properties are more
important than those commonly considered. Sometimes, it may be of great importance to enhance one of
the ordinary properties. These special applications often become apparent as new developmsents using
new materials or as improvements using the basic materials.
Some utilize special aggregates (lightweight aggregate, steel fiber, plastic fiber, glass fiber, and special
heavy aggregate).
Some special properties — increased compressive and tensile strength, water proofing, and improved
chemical resistance are achieved with polymers, either as admixtures or surface treatment of hardened
concrete.
Admixtures for coloring concrete are available in all colors. The oldest and cheapest is perhaps carbon
black. Admixtures causing expansion for use in sealing cracks or under machine bases, etc., include
powdered aluminum and finely ground iron.
Cold Weather Concreting
ACI 306 “Cold Weather Concreting” defines cold weather concreting as a period when for more than
three (3) consecutive days, the following conditions exist:
 The average daily air temperature is less than 5°C (40°F) and,
 The air temperature is not greater than 10°C (50°F) for more than one-half of any 24 hour
period.
Concrete placed during cold weather will develop sufficient strength and durability to satisfy intended
service requirements only if it is properly produced, placed and protected.
What Happens When Concrete Freezes?
1. Pore water in concrete starts to freeze around -1°C (30°F)
2. As some water freezes the ion concentration in the unfrozen water goes up, further
depressing the freezing point.
3. At around -3 to -4°C (25 to 27°F), enough of the pore water will freeze so that hydration
will completely stop, and depending on the extent of hydration, and thus the strength of the
concrete, the forces generated by the expansion of ice (ice occupies ~9% more volume than water)
may be detrimental to the long term integrity of the concrete.
Objectives of Cold Weather Concreting
The objectives of cold weather concreting are to:
 Prevent damage to concrete due to freezing at early ages
 Assure that concrete develops the required strength for the safe removal of forms
 Maintain curing conditions that foster normal strength development without using
excessive heat
 Limit rapid temperature changes in the concrete to prevent thermal cracking
For every 10°C (18°F) reduction in concrete temperature, the times of setting of the concrete double, thus
increasing the amount of time that the concrete is vulnerable to damage due to freezing.
Concrete that is protected from freezing until it has attained a compressive strength of at least 3.45 Mpa
(500 psi) will not be damaged by exposure to a single freezing cycle.
Concrete that is protected and properly cured will mature to its potential strength despite subsequent
exposure to cold weather.
Except in heated, protective enclosures, little or no external supply of moisture is required for curing
during cold weather.
Deleterious Effects:
Following deleterious effect may occur due to cold weather concreting
1. Hydration will be hampered
2. Setting time will be prolong
3. Disruption of freshly placed concrete because of freezing
4. Low workability
5. Freezing and thawing effect
6. Improper curing
7. Workmanship is affected
8. Deicing effect
Precautionary Measures for concrete in cold weather
1. Using hot water
2. Providing enclosures i.e. covered area
3. Using air entraining agents
4. Scheduling concreting
5. Using admixtures Accelerators
6. Type III or high early strength cement
7. Using amount of cement
Hot Weather Concreting

ACI 305 “Hot Weather Concreting” defines hot weathers as any combination of the following conditions
that tends to impair the quality of the freshly mixed or hardened concrete:
 High ambient temperature
 High concrete temperature
 Low relative humidity
 Wind speed
 Solar radiation
The success of many hot-weather concreting operations depends on the steps taken to slow the cement
hydration reactions within the concrete and to minimize the rate of evaporation of moisture from the
freshly mixed concrete.
Potential concrete problems in hot weather are likely to include:
 Increased water demand
 Increased rate of slump loss
 Increased rate of setting
 Increased tendency for plastic-shrinkage cracking
 Increased difficulty in controlling entrained air content
 Decreased 28-day and later strengths
 Increased tendency for differential thermal cracking
 Greater variability in surface appearance

Increased permeability
High temperatures accelerate the hardening of concrete and more water is generally required to
maintain workable consistencies. If the water-cement ratio is not maintained by adding additional cement,
strength and durability will be reduced. For example, if the temperature of concrete is increased from 50
degrees F (10ºC) to 100 degrees F (38ºC), about 33 pounds (roughly 15 liters) of additional water is
needed per cubic yard of concrete to maintain a three-inch slump. If the water content of concrete is
increased without increasing the cement content, the strength and other properties of concrete are
adversely affected.
High water contents also mean greater drying shrinkage. Furthermore, setting is accelerated which
shortens the time within which the concrete can be handled and finished. Curing concrete requires that it
be kept damp so that hydration can be completed, therefore, it cannot be allowed to dry too rapidly.
Keeping equipment such as mixers, chutes, wheelbarrows, etc. in the shade or covered with wet burlap
will reduce the effect of the sun's heat. Forms, reinforcing steel, and subgrade should be sprinkled with
cool water just before the concrete is placed. Wetting down the area cools the surrounding air and
increases the relative humidity. This not only reduces the temperature but also minimizes the evaporation
of water from the concrete.
Aggregates have a pronounced effect on fresh concrete temperature because they represent 60 to 80
percent of the total weight of concrete. Stockpiles should be shaded from the sun and kept moist by
sprinkling. Since evaporation is a cooling process, sprinkling provides effective cooling, especially when
the relative humidity is low. Cement temperature has only a minor effect on the temperature of freshly
mixed concrete because it represents a relatively small percentage of the total mixture.
Concrete Curing is a hydration process and requires water to be present. Forms should be sprayed
with water to keep them damp, or they will absorb part of the mixing water. As soon as the concrete has
set sufficiently to prevent marring the surface, it should be covered with straw, burlap, or other materials
such as sand and kept moist for several days. Covering with polyethylene plastic sheets or using curing
compounds helps in preventing evaporation by air or wind. Anything to prevent rapid dehydration will be
helpful.
High ambient temperature cause low relative humidity due to which loss of water from concrete is very
high which result in high water requirement for mix preparing.
Precautions in hot weather concreting:
To control the high concrete temperature following steps may be taken:
1. Schedule concreting. The concrete can be scheduled to time when the temperature is not
high e.g. in summer it can be schedule to night or early morning
2. Material and mix proportions: use material and mix design proportion having good
weather resistance e.g. select sand having low specific heat.
3. Covered environment: The concrete can be done in a covered environment.
4. Chilling: The chilling of aggregate can be done by watering or keeping them covered.
5. Efficient work force: employ efficient workforce and machinery to improve the handling.
6. Use of low heat cement: Use low heat cement.
Temperature of Concrete:
The formula to calculate temperature of concrete is given as:
OR
Where Ta, Tc,Tw & Twa and Ma, Mc, Mw, Mwa are temperature and mass of aggregate, cement, water
and water content in aggregate respectively. Mi is the mass of ice.

Heat to vary
Mass Specific Heat Initial Temperature Total
Material Temperature by
(kg) (kJ/kg°C) (°C) Heat (KJ)
1°C (kJ)

Cement 300 0.92 66 276 18216

Water 150 4.184 25 627.6 15690

Aggregate 1800 0.92 25 1656 41400

Total 2559.6 75306

To decrease the temperature of concrete by 1 ºC, decrease the temperature of any one of the following by:
Cement OR
Water OR
Aggregate
Sometimes ice is used to decrease the temperature of concrete
 Heat to vary
Mass Specific Heat Initial Temperature Total
Material Temperature by
(kg) (kJ/kg°C) (°C) Heat (KJ)
1°C (kJ)

Cement 300 0.92 66 276 18216

Water 110 4.184 25 460.24 11506

Aggregate 1800 0.92 25 1656 41400

Ice 40 4.184 0 167.36 0

Heat of Fusion=335 kJ/kg -13400

Total 2559.6 57722