Study Tour To GSP Quetta.

Submitted by:
Adnan Ali 019
Adnan Khan 011
Muhammad Iqbal 021
Ikram ullah Khan 012
Fawad Ali 040
Riasat Ali 041

Submitted to: Sir Shoukat Parvaiz

 “Acknowledgement”
Our Sincere thanks to Dean Faculty of Engineering Dr.
syed Abid Hussain, Chairman Faculty of Geological Engineering Engr Kamran
Zafar, Sir Shoukat Parvaiz and Engr Shabir Ahmad For Arranging Practical’s of
Geophysical Exploration in Geological Survey of Pakistan (GSP) Headquarter
Quetta…
Day 01 “Introductory
Presentation”

Director General presentation

 (Director general of GSP presenting introductory presentation)

On Arrival at GSP Quetta, we were warmly welcomed by the GSP Staff. Then an Introductory
presentation was given by Director General of GSP , He Shows his height of pleasure of our
interests in Geological survey of Pakistan. He gave General overview about Geophysical
Techniques and Future Scope of Geophysics. He emphasize on understanding these techniques
and their applications for future field works.

Explaining various methods of Geophysical Exploration

Mr Saeed Works as a Geophysict at GSP. First of all he welcome us and thanked Director
General of GSP For General Overview. He further carried out the presentation in detail.

First he presented Various Geophysical techniques namely;

 Electrical resistivity Survey (ERS)

 Gravity Survey
 Magnetic Survey
 Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
 Seismic Survey
 Bore hole logging

The above techniques were discussed Theoretically i.e performing techniques, Calculations,
Error Corrections,
Data collecting
sheets, etc on
Particular day and
he assured us to
perform practical
of the above
techniques on
next day.
 Day 02
( Mr. Saeed presenting the General overview of various method of geophysical
Exploration)

“Field Practical’s & Discussions”

The Second day of Study tour Starts with Practical’s Session i-e performing of
geophysical Techniques Practically. All the setup of the practicals along with
instruments was already prepared by the team of Geological Survey of Pakistan
(GSP). All the practical’s and their theoretical discussions i-e performing
Methods, Data Acquisitions, Error Corrections, Field Precautions, Instrument
safety Precautions are discussed below;
1. Electrical Resistivity Survey (ERS):-
1.1 Equipments:
Current Source, Potential Electrodes, Current Electrodes,
Terrameter, Cables, Measuring Tapes.

1.2 Working Principle:

Observation of electric fields caused by current introduced
into the ground as a means of studying earth resistivity in geophysical exploration. Resistivity is
the property of a material that resists
the flow of electrical current. Electrical
resistance surveys work on the
principle that anomalies beneath the
ground can be detected by differences
in their resistance to the flow of an
electrical current. These surveys
measure the distortion of an induced
electrical field caused by something in
the subsurface, in our case it is the
archeology or cultural feature (Clark
2000). Because an electrical current is
injected into the ground to generate an
electrical field, this type of survey is an
active remote sensing technique. 

1.4 Explanation:
(Schlemberger configuration)

        To cause a charge to flow, a voltage must be applied. Voltage is

also referred to as potential difference (a measure of the energy used to move the charge). As the
voltage is applied and the current flows, a resistance is encountered to the movement of the
charge. The resistance is dependent on the physical characteristics of the medium in which the
charge flows. These three quantities (current, voltage, and resistance) are related by Ohm’s law
where resistance is measured in Ohm’s (Ω), voltage in volts (V), and current in amperes or amps
(A). 

                         Voltage                       V

Resistance = -----------------, or     R = ------

                         Current                    I

Resistance can then be converted to resistivity (ρ) where V/L is the change of voltage with
distance in the direction of current flow and J is the current density in the medium in which
charge is flowing.                                                                      

                                                                                                  V/L                       

                                                                                    ρ = ------------,

                                                                                                 J

The basic measure of resistivity is the Ohm-meter or Ohm centimeter.  The inverse of resistivity
(1/ρ) is conductivity. 

             In resistance and resistivity surveys, an electrical current is injected into the ground to
generate an electric field in the subsurface. If the sediments are completely uniform, there will
be no contrast in the electrical data and the resulting map will be featureless.  However, when
the archaeological feature (or geological feature) differs from the sediments in various
properties, then the induced electrical field is no longer uniform. The resistance either increases
or decreases. The differences in the electrical properties or contrast combined with the size and
depth of archaeological features produces a record that can be mapped

             The resistance to the flow of electrical current in sediments and soils depends on several
variables. The most important variables are soil moisture and soluble salts (mobile ions), but
the most important factor is the soil moisture content. Other significant variables to resistance
include soil permeability and temperature. Seldom is there a one-to-one correspondence between
an individual variable and the resultant resistance data. On the contrary, these variables show
wide spatial variation depending on environmental conditions. Therefore, the resistivity of
different archaeological sites changes accordingly. Because no two archaeological sites possess
the same subsurface properties, the resistivity data from different archaeological sites will vary
as well. It is entirely possible that a feature that is easily found by resistivity survey in one
location may be imperceptible in another.
    Resistivity and resistance surveys are dependent on the underlying sediments, which
themselves differ in their resistant values. Loams have the lowest resistivity and crystalline
rocks the highest. Conductivity is the inverse of resistivity and the higher the resistivity, the
lower the conductivity. For example, clays are low in resistance but high in conductivity due to
factors of moisture retention, permeability and ion content, whereas crystalline rocks are
virtually nonconductive. Thinking in terms of conductivity along with resistance may be useful
especially for beginners in the field of remote sensing.

             It should be apparent that knowing as much as possible about the matrix of the
archaeological site and the types of features that might be encountered is necessary for accurate
data interpretation. Geologic strata produce strong electrical resistance contrasts, which could
effectively wash out the lower contrasting archaeological features.  Archaeological features that
typically produce resistance maxima are buried walls and features that restrict the flow of ions. 
Ditches and pits that were later filled, even with the same sediments or soil from the surrounding
area, will result in resistivity minima. Lower resistivity may result from loosely packed fill,
which is more permeable, retains more moisture, and has organic matter creating more ions

1.5 Wenner and Schlumberger

When doing resistivity sounding surveys, one of two survey types is most commonly used. For
both of these surveys, electrodes are distributed along a line, centered about a midpoint that is
considered the location of the sounding. The simplest in terms of the geometry of electrode
placement is referred to as a Wenner survey. The most time-effective in terms of field work is
referred to as a Schlumberger survey. For a Wenner survey, the two current electrodes (green)
and the two potential electrodes (red) are placed in line with each other, equidistant from one
another, and centered on some location as shown below.

The apparent resistivity computed from measurements of voltage, ÆV, and current, i, is given by
the relatively simple equation shown above. This equation is nothing more than the apparent
resistivity expression shown previously with the electrode distances fixed to a. To generate a
plot of apparent resistivity versus electrode spacing, from which we could interpret the
resistivity variation with depth, we would have to compute apparent resistivity for a variety of
electrode spacings, a. That is, after making a measurement we would have to move all four
electrodes to new positions.

For a Schlumberger survey, the two current electrodes (green) and the two potential electrodes
(red) are still placed in line with other, centered on some location, but the potential and current
electrodes are not placed equidistant from one another.

The current electrodes are at equal distances from the center of the sounding, s. The potential
electrodes are also at equal distances from the center of the sounding, but this distance, a/2, is
much less than the distance s. Most of the interpretation software available assumes that the
potential electrode spacing is negligible compared to the current electrode spacing. In practice,
this is usually interpreted as meaning that a must be less than 2s/5.

In principle, this implies that we could set a to be less than 2s/5 for the smallest value of s we
will use in the survey and never move the potential electrodes again. In practice, however, as the
current electrodes are moved outward, the potential difference between the two potential
electrodes gets smaller. Eventually this difference becomes smaller than our voltmeter is capable
of reading, and we will need to increase a to increase the potential difference we are attempting
to measure.

1.6 Data collection

Survey usually involves walking with the instrument
along closely spaced parallel traverses, taking readings at regular intervals. In most
cases, the area to be surveyed is staked into a series of square or rectangular
survey "grids" (terminology can vary). With the corners of the grids as known
reference points, the instrument operator uses tapes or marked ropes as a guide
when collecting data. In this way, positioning error can be kept to within a few
centimeters for high-resolution mapping. Early surveys recorded readings by hand,
but computer controlled data logging and storage are now the norm

           Repeated DC Resistivity Observations - Schlumberger Array

rho (ohm.m) rho (ohm.m) rho (ohm.m) rho (ohm.m)

AB/2 (m) Number of Readings (Group 1) (Group 2) (Group 3) (Group 4)

0.25 1 350.18 350.12 350.13 350.19

0.5 1 349.99 349.98 349.63 349.52

0.75 1 349.08 349.46 349.75 350.04

1.0 1 349.49 350.22 349.13 350.00

1.25 1 348.03 349.71 349.16 348.32

1.75 1 347.02 347.10 347.75 348.85

2.0 1 345.56 345.38 343.40 345.79

2.25 1 343.71 343.92 342.70 342.49

2.5 1 343.61 337.98 341.59 338.74

5.0 1 301.23 295.02 296.94 296.04

7.5 1 236.33 238.67 244.05 239.90

10.0 1 202.46 208.05 208.71 191.27

12.5 1 188.32 174.77 167.77 177.83

15.0 1 173.49 148.82 154.22 162.53

17.5 1 147.17 158.11 146.56 163.20

20.0 1 144.70 164.38 176.71 168.20

22.5 1 166.55 155.96 160.93 168.92

25.0 1 189.31 185.72 159.45 179.18

1.7 Procedure
 The first column in this data set is the half-spacing of the current electrodes, AB/2, in
meters. The second through fifth columns represent the apparent resistivities determined
by each group from a single voltage reading at the specified electrode spacing. A
Schlumberger spread was used to collect these observations. Clicking on the highlighted
area will create a file with the name resgrp.dat on your machine. *
 Import resgrp.dat into your favorite spreadsheet.
 Using the
graphical
features of your
spreadsheet, plot
the apparent
resistivity versus
electrode
spacing for each
group on a Log-
Log plot. This is
a plot that has as
its axes the Log
of the electrode
spacing versus
the Log of the
apparent
resistivity.
 For the listed
electrode
spacings,

(ERS Configuration)

 compute the average apparent resistivity and the standard deviation of the apparent
resistivities observed by the four groups.
 On a Log-Log plot, plot the average resistivity versus electrode spacing, and on a Log-
Linear plot, plot the standard deviation of the measured apparent resistivities versus
electrode spacing.
 If the errors associated with each voltage reading are randomly distributed, we can
reduce the standard deviation of the apparent resistivity observations by making repeated
voltage readings at each electrode position and averaging the repeated observations. For
noise that is randomly distributed, the standard deviation of the average observation is
reduced by the square root of the number of readings made at each electrode position.
 How many repeated readings must be collected at each electrode spacing to reduce the
standard deviation of the average at each spacing to 1 ohm.m? **
 Briefly discuss your results.

1.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of Wenner and

Schlumberger Arrays
The following table lists some of the strengths and weaknesses of Schlumberger and Wenner
sounding methods.

Schlumberger Wenner
Advantage Disadvantage Advantage Disadvantage
Need to move the
two potential
electrodes only for
All four electrodes, two current
most readings. This
and two potential must be
can significantly
moved to acquire each reading.
decrease the time
required to acquire a
sounding.
Because the potential Potential
electrode spacing is electrode spacing
small compared to the increases as
current electrode current electrode
spacing, for large spacing increases.
current electrode Less sensitive
spacings very sensitive voltmeters are
voltmeters are required. required.
Because all electrodes are
Because the potential
moved for each reading, this
electrodes remain in
method can be more
fixed location, the
susceptible to near-surface,
effects of near-
lateral, variations in resistivity.
surface lateral
These near-surface lateral
variations in
variations could potentially be
resistivity are
misinterpreted in terms of
reduced.
depth variations in resistivity.
In general,
interpretations based on In general, interpretations
DC soundings will be based on DC soundings will be
limited to simple, limited to simple, horizontally
horizontally layered layered structures.
structures.
2. Gravity Survey:

2.1 Equipment:
Gravimeter

2.2 Working Principle Along with Explanation:

A gravimeter is simply a very
precise weighing machine used to find the weight of a certain lump of metal or other material at
a series of stations distributed over the area being surveyed. Since the weight of an object is its
response to the Earth's gravitational attraction, this weight will be slightly affected by the nature
of subsurface materials at the place of measurement.  It will be slightly larger, for example, at
stations where the subsurface material is of higher density or where dense material comes closer
to the surface. The changes in weight are so small that the weighing machine must be capable of
detecting changes of the order of one part in ten million.
Gravimeters must not only resolve small variations in the gravity field, but must also remain
stable over a
large range of
values and
environmental
conditions. It is
therefore required
that practical
instruments must
be highly precise,
portable, robust,
simple to use and
relatively
inexpensive. All
gravity meters
have inherent
limitations,
however, and
survey objectives
must be
Gravimeter used for gravity survey consistent with
the particular
equipment deployed. There are clear distinctions between making absolute measurements of
gravity and measuring relative gravity, or variation from place to place. 
Historically, absolute measurements of gravity have provided key data for global mapping
(geodetic) studies and tie points for linking independent exploration surveys. Absolute
determinations of gravity are now relatively rare, but can still be made using a variety of devices
based on the timing of a free-falling weight. Other methods, viz., the periodicity of a fixed
pendulum can be used to make absolute measurements of gravity. 
There is little benefit these days in obtaining absolute determinations of gravity. Detailed
exploration surveys almost always use relative determinations based on a simple spring balance.
The operating principle is simple. A small change in gravity varies the force acting on a constant
mass suspended from a spring. The external force required to hold the mass in its null position
provides a measure of the gravity at the station, relative to other stations.

2.3 Types of Gravity Meters

There are three main classes of gravity measuring instruments:

1.    Pendulums - where the period of the pendulum is inversely proportional to g

2.    Sensitive spring balances - where the spring extension is proportional to g

3.    Free falling bodies – where the time of free fall over a fixed distance is proportional to g

Within each class there are several variants. The spring balances are relative instruments, which
means that they can only be used to measure the difference in gravity between two or more
points. Pendulums can be used for relative and absolute measurements by calculating the ratio of
periods measured at two points or the exact period at a particular point. The falling body class
measures the absolute gravity.

1.     Pendulums

The pendulum method of measuring gravity was used all over the world up to the middle of the
20th Century and was the basis for the 1930 Potsdam Gravity Datum.  By the time pendulum
measurements were phased out in the 1950s the instruments had become quite sophisticated with
vacuum chambers, knife edge quartz pivots and precision chronometers. Mechanical
imperfections and wear of the pivot were the limiting factors in the accuracy of this class of
apparatus.

2.     Spring Gravimeters

The practical implementation of a simple spring mechanism for gravity measurements is far
from trivial. The basic requirement for resolution exceeding one part in ten million demands
pure materials and precise engineering. Relative dimensions must remain stable through a range
of temperatures and pressures. Springs made of silica glass have become standard, along with
suitable suspension frames.  However, steel springs are also used.  Two types of spring
gravimeters are therefore in common use:
a)      Quartz spring gravimeters
The technique of crafting a ’zero-length’ spring out of fused quartz lies at the heart of quartz
spring gravimeters. The ’zero-length’ quartz coil (spring), in theory, exerts the same force
regardless of the extension; this implies that the meter has a constant scale factor over the
dial range (play of the spring).
The extension of the spring must be related to the gravitational force in a predictable, well-
behaved way (preferably linear) in order that the meter can be properly calibrated. The size
and play of the quartz springs is limited to ranges between 1400  and 2000 ums-2 and hence
these meters require a mechanical range resetting screw to enable them to cover the
worldwide range of 50000 ums-2.  Quartz meters first appeared on the market in the 1930s
and were soon generally used for gravity surveying. The early quartz meters were not
thermostatically controlled and tended to exhibit a diurnal drift curve. Examples of the quartz
spring meters are the Worden, Sharpe and Sodin meters. Scintrex have developed an
automatic gravimeter CG-3 (and higher accuracy variant CG-3M) in which tilt
compensation, resetting and drift correction is handled electronically; these meters have a
worldwide range. Scintrex has also developed the Heligrav system in which a CG-3 is
mounted on a tripod and suspended from a helicopter by a winch. The meter communicates
with the operator via an umbilical cord. Manoeuvring the helicopter with the meter dangling
below is a highly skilled and risk-prone operation.
b)      Steel spring gravimeters
Lucien LaCoste developed a gravimeter, known as the LaCoste & Romberg (LCR), with a
steel mechanism in the 1950s. This meter has a worldwide range and is less prone to drift
than the quartz meters. It is thermostatically controlled to about 50°C. The steel spring has a
slowly varying parabolic scale factor which is represented by a table of scale factors for
given dial readings. There is some evidence that these scale factors do vary slightly in a non-
linear way with age and depending on the way the meters are transported. There are three
main variants of the LCR meters, all of which are powered by a battery or plugged into a 12
volt power source. The original G meter had hand levelling screws, a mechanism locking
screw, an eyepice focusing on a graduated scale and a graduated reading dial and revolution
counter display. Later G meters were fitted with electronic readout but the nulling feedback
was not always reliable and optical reading still gave the best results. A high precision
model, the D meter, was developed in the 1980s. This had a fine and a coarse dial and was
capable of positive precision to 0.01 ums-2 rather than the eyeball interpolation with the G
meter. The fully electronic E meter was introduced in the 1990s.

3.     Free Falling Bodies

After failing to perfect a highly accurate pendulum and with the development of lasers and
atomic clocks, researchers in absolute gravimetry turned to the falling corner-cube method. The
corner cube is raised and dropped in a vacuum chamber. Mirrors on the corner cube reflect laser
light at particular points on the cube's fall, the distance is calculated by counting interference
fringes The corner cube is then raised by a mechanical cradle ready for the next drop. A set of
10 drops gives an average acceleration value. Several sets may be executed to obtain the desired
accuracy.
There have been various designs for this type of instrument; some prominent examples are the
JILAG, FG5 and A10 'portable' meter.

2.4 Positioning equipment

The dramatic improvement in the accuracy of gravity surveying over the last 20 years has been
due to the revolution in positioning technology. Positions and particularly heights had been the
limiting factors in calculating accurate gravity anomalies. Positioning for the first
reconnaissance gravity surveys was done without any equipment, it relied on the observer
marking a spot on a map or aerial photograph. Theodolites were used for positioning the more
detailed gravity surveys.

2.5 Global positioning system receivers

The introduction of the Global Positioning System (GPS) in the late 1980s enabled gravity to
take its place as a precision tool in mapping the fine detail of crustal structure. The GPS receiver
monitors time encoded signals being broadcast by a constellation of GPS satellites orbiting the
Earth, from 4 or more of these signals the position of the receiver can be calculated in reference
to the centre of the Geoid. The position values are referred to as the geocentric coordinates. The
geocentric geoid differs from the local geoid so local coordinates have to be obtained by
applying a geoid transformation and/or by tying the network to local spatial control points.

2.6 Pressure based height instruments

Atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude, so pressure measurements can be used to calculate
elevation. A rough estimate of the pressure decrease is 1 millibar for each 8.7 metre increase in
altitude. Theoretically it is possible to calculate an absolute height above sea level if one
assumes a standard atmosphere; however atmospheric conditions are constantly changing due to
movement of pressure systems and daily heating cycles (diurnals). Reasonably accurate height
differences can be measured in a local area (within the same pressure regime as the base) if base
pressure variations are recorded, the weather pattern is stable and repeat readings are made at the
base and selected field stations during the loop. Particular problems occur if a pressure front
travels through the area during a gravity survey as the base pressure may be out of step with the
field pressure during the transit. Pressure measuring apparatus that have been used in gravity
surveys are altimeters, precision micro-barometers and digital barometers.

2.7 Factors that Affect the Gravitational Acceleration

Temporal Based Variations

 Instrument Drift
 Tides
  A Correction Strategy for Instrument Drift and Tides
 Tidal and Drift Corrections: A Field Procedure
 Tidal and Drift Corrections: Data Reduction

Spatial Based Variations

 Latitude Dependent Changes in Gravitational Acceleration

 Correcting for Latitude Dependent Changes
 Variation in Gravitational Acceleration Due to Changes in Elevation
 Accounting for Elevation Variations: The Free-Air Correction
 Variations in Gravity Due to Excess Mass
 Correcting for Excess Mass: The Bouguer Slab Correction
 Variations in Gravity Due to Nearby Topography

2.8 Local/Regional Gravity Anomaly Separation Example

As an example of estimating the regional anomaly from the recorded data and
isolating the local anomaly with this estimate consider using a moving average operator. With
this technique, an estimate of the regional gravity anomaly at some point along a profile is
determined by averaging the recorded gravity values at several nearby points. The number of
points over which the average is calculated is referred to as the length of the operator and is
chosen by the data processor. Averaging gravity values over several observation points enhances
the long-wavelength contributions to the recorded gravity field while suppressing the shorter-
wavelength contributions. Consider the sample gravity data shown below.

(Terrain Corrected Bougher Anomaly)

Moving averages can be computed across this data set. To do this the data processor chooses the
length of the moving average operator. That is, the processor decides to compute the average
over 3, 5, 7, 15, or 51 adjacent points. As you would expect, the resulting estimate of the
regional gravity anomaly, and thus the local gravity anomaly, is critically dependent on this
choice. Shown below are two estimates of the regional gravity anomaly using moving average
operators of lengths 15 and 35.

(Moving Averages)
Depending on the features of the gravity profile the processor wishes to extract, either of these
operators may be appropriate. If we believe, for example, the gravity peak located at a distance
of about 30 on the profile is a feature related to a local gravity anomaly, notice that the 15 length
operator is not long enough. The average using this operator length almost tracks the raw data,
thus when we subtract the averages from the raw data to isolate the local gravity anomaly the
resulting value will be near zero. The 35 length operator, on the other hand, is long enough to
average out the anomaly of interest, thus isolating it when we subtract the moving average
estimate of the regional from the raw observations.

The residual gravity estimates computed for each moving average operator are shown below.

(Local Gravity Anomaly Estimates)

As expected, few interpretable anomalies exist after applying the 15 point operator. The peak at
a distance of 30 has been greatly reduced in amplitude and other short-wavelength anomalies
apparent in the original data have been effectively removed. Using the 35 length operator, the
peak at a distance of 30 has been successfully isolated and other short-wavelength anomalies
have been enhanced. Data processors and interpreters are free to choose the operator length they
wish to apply to the data. This choice is based solely on the features they believe represent the
local anomalies of interest. Thus, separation of the regional from the local gravity field is an
interpretive process.

3. Magnetic Survey:
3.1 Introduction
The magnetic method is a very popular and inexpensive approach for near-surface metal
detection. Engineering and environmental site characterization projects often begin with a
magnetometer survey as a means of rapidly providing a layer of information on where
utilities and other buried concerns are located The principal of operation is quite simple.
When a ferrous material is placed within the Earth's magnetic field, it develops an
induced magnetic field. The induced field is superimposed on the Earth's field at that
location creating a magnetic anomaly. Detection depends on the amount of magnetic
material present and its distance from the sensor. The anomalies are typically presented
on colour contour maps.

Common uses of magnetometers include:

3.1. locating buried tanks and drums

3.2. fault studies

3.3. mineral exploration

3.4. geothermal exploration

3.5. mapping buried utilities, pipelines

3.6. buried foundations, fire pits for archaeological studies

In geothermal application the main objective of the magnetic study is to contribute with
information about the relationship among the geothermal activity, the tectonic and
stratigraphy of the area by means of the anomalies interpretation of the underground
rocks’ magnetic properties (Escobar, 2005). Most of the rocks are not magnetic; however,
certain types of rocks contain enough minerals to originate significant magnetic
anomalies. The data interpretation that reflects differences in local abundance of
magnetization is especially useful to locate faults and geologic contacts (Blakely, 1995).
The magnetic anomalies can be originated from a series of changes in lithology,
variations in the magnetized bodies thickness, faulting, pleats and topographical relief. A
significant quantity of information can leave a qualitative revision of the residual
magnetic anomalies map of the total magnetic field. In this sense, we can say that the
value of the survey does not finish with the first interpretation, but rather it increases as
more geology is known.
 It is more important, at the beginning, to detect the presence of a fault or
intrusive body, than to determine their form or depth. Although, in some magnetic risings,
such determination cannot be made in a unique manner, the magnetic data has been
useful because the intrusive is more magnetic than the underlying lava flows. The faulting
creates spaces so that the warm fluids displace and therefore alter the guest rocks. The
hydrothermal system temperature and the oxygen volatility will determine the quantity of
present loadstone in the area of faults and therefore, their magnetic response.

3.2Basic theory
If two magnetic poles of strength m1 and m2 are separated by a distance r, a force, F,
exists between them. If the poles are of the same polarity, the force will push the poles
apart, and if they are of opposite polarity, the force is attractive and will draw the
poles together. The equation for F is the following:
m1m2
F = -------------------
4π μ2

where μ is the magnetic permeability of the medium separating the poles; m1 and m2
are pole strengths and r the distance between them.

3.3 Magnetic units

The magnetic flux lines between two poles per unit area, is the flux density B (and is
measured in Weber/m2 = Tesla). B, which is also called the “magnetic induction”, is a
vector quantity. The unit of Tesla are too large to be practical in geophysical work, so
a sub-unit called a nanotesla (1 nT = 10-9 T)
is used instead, where 1 nT is numerically equivalent to 1 gamma in c.g.s. units (1 nT
is equivalent to 10-5 gauss). The magnetic field can also be defined in terms of a force
field which is produced by electric currents. This magnetizing field strength H is
defined, following Biot-Savart’s Law, as being the field strength at the centre of a
loop of wire of radius r through which a current I is flowing such that H = I/2r.
Consequently the units of the magnetizing field strength H are amperes per meter
(A/m). The ratio of the flux density B to the magnetizing field strength H is a
constant called the absolute magnetic permeability (μ).

3.4 The Earth’s magnetic field

 The geomagnetic field at or near the surface of the Earth originates largely from
within and around the Earth’s core. The geomagnetic field can be described in terms
of the declination, D, inclination, I, and the total force vector F (Figure 6). The
vertical component of the magnetic intensity of the Earth’s magnetic field varies with
latitude, from a minimum of around 30,000 nT at the magnetic equator to 60,000 nT
at the magnetic poles.

3.5 Magnetics instruments

Magnetometers used specifically in geophysical exploration can be classified into
three groups: the torsion (and balance), fluxgate and resonance types, of which the
last two have now completely superseded the first. Torsion magnetometers are still in
use in 75% of geomagnetic observations,

particularly for measurements of declination. Magnetometers measure horizontal

and/or vertical components of the magnetic field or the total field.
There are two main types of resonance magnetometer: the proton free-precession
magnetometer, which is the best known, and the alkali vapour magnetometer. Both
types monitor the precession of atomic particles in an ambient magnetic field to
provide an absolute measure of the total magnetic field, F. The proton magnetometer
has a sensor which consists of a bottle containing a proton-rich liquid, usually water or
kerosene, around which a coil is wrapped, connected to the measuring apparatus. Each
proton has a magnetic moment M and, as it is always in motion, it also possesses an
angular momentum G, rather like a spinning top. Figure 7 shows examples of field
 measurements with a magnetometer model GEM-19T from GEM System, owned by
LaGeo in a survey in the Sa Vicente volcano area.

3.6 Magnetic surveying

Local variations, or anomalies, in the Earth’s magnetic field are the result of
disturbances caused mostly by variations in concentrations of ferromagnetic material
in the vicinity of the magnetometer’s sensor. Magnetic data can be acquired in two
configurations:
1) A rectangular grid pattern
2) Along a traverse

Grid data consists

of readings taken
at the nodes of a
rectangular grid;
traverse data is
acquired at fixed
intervals along a
line. Each
configuration has
its advantages and
disadvan- tages,
which are
dependent upon
variables such as
the site onditions,
size and rientation
of the target, and
financial esources.
An example of a grid along lines is shown in Figure 8. This took place in the
hinameca
geothermal area in El Salvador.
In both traverse and grid configurations, the station spacing, or distance between
magnetic readings, is important. “Single-point” or erroneous anomalies are more
easily recognized on surveys that utilize small station spacing.Ground magnetic
measurements are usually made with portable instruments at regular intervals along
more or less straight and parallel lines that cover the survey area. Often the interval
between measurement locations (stations) along the lines is less than the spacing
between lines. It is important to establish a local base station in an area away from
suspected magnetic targets or magnetic noise and where the local field gradient is
relatively flat. The base-station memory magnetometer, when used, is set up every day
prior to the collection of the magnetic data. Ideally the base station is placed at least
100 m from any large metal objects or travelled roads and at least 500 m from any
power lines when feasible. The base station location must be very well described in
the field book, as others may have to later locate it based on the written description.
There are certain limitations in the magnetic method. One limitation is the problem of
“cultural noise” in certain areas. Man-made structures that are constructed using
ferrous material, such as steel, have a detrimental effect on the quality of the data.
Features to be avoided include steel structures, power lines, metal fences, steel
reinforced concrete, surface metal, pipelines and underground utilities. When
these features cannot be avoided, their locations should be noted in a field notebook
and on the site map.
The incorporation of computers and non-volatile memory in magnetometers has
greatly increased their ease of use and data handling capability. The instruments
typically will keep track of position; prompt for inputs, and internally store the data
for an entire day of work. Downloading the information to a personal computer is
straightforward, and plots of the day's work can be prepared each night.
To make accurate anomaly maps, temporal changes in the Earth's field during the
period of the survey must be considered. Normal changes during a day, sometimes
called diurnal drift, are a few tens of nT, but changes of hundreds or thousands of nT
may occur over a few hours during magnetic storms. During severe magnetic storms,
which occur infrequently, magnetic surveys should not be made. The correction for
diurnal drift can be made by repeating measurements of a base station at frequent
intervals. The measurements at field stations are then corrected for temporal variations
by assuming a linear change of the field between repeat base station readings.
Continuously recording magnetometers can also be used at fixed base sites to monitor
the temporal changes. If time is accurately recorded at both the base site and field the
location, the field data can be corrected by subtraction of the variations at the base
site.
Some QC/QA procedures require that several field-type stations be occupied at the
start and end of each day's work. This procedure indicates that the instrument is
operating consistently. Where it is important to be able to reproduce the actual
measurements on a site exactly (such as in certain forensic matters), an additional
procedure is required. The value of the magnetic field at the base station must
be asserted (usually a value close to its reading on the first day) and each day's data
corrected for the difference between the asserted value and the base value read at the
beginning of the day. As the base may vary by 10 to 25 nT or more from day to day,
this correction ensures that another person using the same base station and the same
 asserted value will get the same readings at a field point to within the accuracy of the
instrument. This procedure is always a good technique but is often neglected by
persons interested in only very large anomalies (> 500 nT, etc.).
Intense fields from man-made electromagnetic sources can be a problem in magnetic
surveys. Most magnetometers are designed to operate in fairly intense 60-Hz and
radio frequency fields. However, extremely low frequency fields caused by
equipment using direct current or the switching of large alternating currents can be a
problem. Pipelines carrying direct current for cathodic protection can be particularly
troublesome. Although some modern ground magnetometers have a sensitivity of 0.1
nT, sources of cultural and geologic noise usually prevent full use of this sensitivity in
ground measurements.

The magnetometer is operated by a single person. However, grid layout, surveying, or

the buddy system may require the use of another technician. If two magnetometers
are available, production is usually doubled as the ordinary operation of the
instrument itself is straightforward.

3.7 Data reduction and interpretation

The data should be corrected for diurnal variations, if necessary. If the diurnal does
not vary more than approximately 15 to 20 gammas over a one-hour period, correction
may not be necessary. However, this variation must be approximately linear over time
and should not show any extreme fluctuations.
The global magnetic field is calculated through a previous established model (IGRF-
International Geomagnetic Reference), Figure 9, and obtained analytically with the
help of field observations. Due to the fact that the global magnetic field is variable,
these maps are generated every 5 years.
There are filters used for highlighting the contrast of anomalies; these are:

• Derivatives of different order or gradients

• Upward or downward continuation regarding the anomaly
• Band pass or high pass filters
• Pole reduction

After all corrections have been made, magnetic survey data are usually displayed as
individual profiles or as contour maps. Identification of anomalies caused by cultural
features, such as railroads, pipelines, and bridges is commonly made using field
observations and maps showing such features.

3.8 Presentation of results

The final results are presented in profile and contour map form. Profiles are usually
presented in a north-south orientation, although this is not mandatory. The orientation
of the traverses must be indicated on the plots. A listing of the magnetic data,
including the diurnal monitor or looping data should be included in the report. The
report must also contain information pertinent to the instrumentation, field operations,
and data reduction and interpretation techniques used in the investigation.
4. Ground-penetrating radar

Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) is a geophysical method that uses radar pulses to image the
subsurface. This non-destructive method uses electromagnetic radiation in the microwave band
(UHF/VHF frequencies) of the radio spectrum, and detects the reflected signals from subsurface
structures. GPR can be used in a variety of media, including rock, soil, ice, fresh water,
pavements and structures. It can detect objects, changes in material, and voids and cracks.

GPR uses transmitting and receiving antennas or only one containing both functions. The
transmitting antenna radiates short pulses of the high-frequency (usually polarized) radio waves
into the ground. When the wave hits a buried object or a boundary with different dielectric
constants, the receiving antenna records variations in the reflected return signal. The principles
involved are similar to reflection seismology, except that electromagnetic energy is used instead
of acoustic energy, and reflections appear at boundaries with different dielectric constants
instead of acoustic impedances.The depth range of GPR is limited by the electrical conductivity
of the ground, the transmitted center frequency and the radiated power. As conductivity
increases, the penetration depth decreases. This is because the electromagnetic energy is more
quickly dissipated into heat, causing a loss in signal strength at depth. Higher frequencies do not
penetrate as far as lower frequencies, but give better resolution. Optimal depth penetration is
achieved in ice where the depth of penetration can achieve several hundred meters. Good
penetration is also achieved in dry sandy soils or massive dry materials such as granite,
limestone, and concrete where the depth of penetration could be up to 15 m. In moist and/or
clay-laden soils and soils with high electrical conductivity, penetration is sometimes only a few
centimetres.

Ground-penetrating radar antennas are generally in contact with the ground for the
strongest signal strength; however, GPR air launched antennas can be used above the
ground.Cross borehole GPR has developed within the field of hydrogeophysics to be a valuable
means of assessing the presence and amount of soil water.

4.1 Applications
GPR has
many

Ground Penetrating Radar

 applications in a number of fields. In the Earth sciences it is used to study
bedrock, soils, groundwater, and ice. Engineering applications include
nondestructive testing (NDT) of structures and pavements, locating buried
structures and utility lines, and studying soils and bedrock. In
environmental remediation, GPR is used to define landfills, contaminant
plumes, and other remediation sites, while in archaeology it is used for and
cemeteries. GPR is used in

law enforcement for locating clandestine graves and buried evidence. Military uses include
detection of mines, unexploded ordnance, and tunnels.

In the early 1970's several different teams of scientists began to develop radars for viewing into
the earth. Radars of this type were first developed for military applications-such as locating
tunnels under the DMZ between North and South Korea. GPR use in locating and mapping
utility lines has been the subject of much on-going research conducted by both military and
commercial organizations.

GPR's usually operate in the VHF-UHF region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The frequency
used is a compromise. One desires to use the lowest possible frequency because low frequencies
give reasonably high penetration depths into the earth. But a sufficiently high frequency must be
selected so that the radar wavelength is short, allowing detection and resolution of small objects
such as pipes. For cart mounted radars, 150 MHz is a typical center frequency, however 300 and
500 MHz are sometimes used for shallow, high-resolution probing, and frequencies as low as 20
MHz are used for locating deep caves or mine tunnels.

GPR's are also known as "impulse radars" because the transmitted pulse is very short and is
ordinarily generated by the transient voltage pulse generated from an overloaded avalanche
transistor. Resistively-loaded antennas are employed because one can not tolerate antenna
ringing. The distances in the ground where such radars look is measured from inches to tens of
feet. This corresponds to travel times measured in nanoseconds, that is, billionths of a second.
Short transmitted pulses imply wide radar bandwidths, so a GPR operating at a center frequency
of 150 MHz actually radiates substantial energy from 75 to 300 MHz.

The performance capability of this type of radar is strongly dependent on the soil electrical
conductivity at the site. If the soil conductivity is high, attenuation of the radar signal in the soil
can severely restrict the maximum penetration depth of the radar signal. In California where
soils in many areas are often high in clay content the soil absorptive losses can be quite high.
Whereas maximum penetration depth achievable with these radars can be tens of feet in
favorable environments, these numbers are reduced to a few feet or less at many sites in
California.

GPR surveys should be performed in the dry season if at all possible, especially at California
sites. Soil moisture, especially in high-clay soils, only increases the radar attenuation rates,
further limiting the radar performance.
Spurious radar echoes (known as "clutter") can also be expected in many test areas because of
buried debris such as old rails, wire scraps, boulders, and small metal objects. Usually a trained
operator can interpret the desired radar signatures in the midst of a moderate amount of such
clutter.

It is not possible to built GPR antennas so that the antenna beamwidth is narrow. The wide
antenna beamwidth of cart-mounted ground-penetrating radars makes it difficult to resolve
closely spaced objects, such as two parallel pipes in a common trench. In some cases the fill in
the trench or the trench walls may be detected on the radar, but the pipes in the trench may not
be radar discernible. Interpretation of GPR records is an art as well as a science, even with the
best available state of the art radars.

Ground-penetrating radars in principal are capable of locating plastic pipes as easily as metallic
pipes since the radar signal reflection from the pipe depends on contrasting dielectric properties
of the soil and pipe, not just a high electrical conductivity for the pipe. In actual practice (1) soil
attenuation may restrict the use of GPR to shallow depths. (2) The GPR antenna beamwidth is
broad making it difficult for radar to discriminate between closely-spaced pipes. (3) In disturbed
ground the radar may detect the walls of a trench but not the pipe it contains. Nevertheless GPR
can be very useful when a thorough search of the site is required. GPR normally has an accuracy
of several feet or less when measuring the depth of a buried object.

Cart GPR's rely on motion of the cart to generate a continuous radar record of traverse distance
vs. depth in the earth. GPR data is ordinarily recorded on video tape with voice comments for
archive purposes, and printed out on thermal printer paper on site for immediate analysis. The
successful interpretation of GPR records is an art as well as a science requiring considerable
operator experience for good results.

GPR's are also used in boreholes, and for point-to-point exploration in either a monostatic or
bistatic mode. Monostatic sounding means the transmitter and receiver are located in the same
borehole, bistatic sounding implies the transmitter and receiver are emplaced in separate
boreholes.

4.2 Three-dimensional imaging

Individual lines of GPR data represent a sectional (profile) view of the subsurface. Multiple lines
of data systematically collected over an area may be used to construct three-dimensional or
tomographic images. Data may be presented as three-dimensional blocks, or as horizontal or
vertical slices. Horizontal slices (known as "depth slices" or "time slices") are essentially
planview maps isolating specific depths. Time-slicing has become standard practice in
archaeological applications, because horizontal patterning is often the most important indicator
of cultural activities.

4.3 Limitations
The most significant performance limitation of GPR is in high-conductivity materials such as
clay soils and soils that are salt contaminated. Performance is also limited by signal scattering in
heterogeneous conditions (e.g. rocky soils).

Other disadvantages of currently available GPR systems include:

 Interpretation of radargrams is generally non-intuitive to the novice.

 Considerable expertise is necessary to effectively design, conduct, and interpret GPR
surveys.
 Relatively high energy consumption can be problematic for extensive field surveys.

Recent advances in GPR hardware and software have done much to ameliorate these
disadvantages, and further improvement can be expected with ongoing development.

4.4 Survey Methodology

Firstly using Radiodetection, a survey is carried out of the services that we can identify from
the presence of inspection covers on and around the area of interest. Secondly using
Radiodetection, we would carry out a scan of the survey area searching for passive signals
that may exist in buried cables. Finally we would carry out a GPR Survey with 5m cross
sections using a 500mhz antenna in order to locate services up to a depth of 2m. A further
scan using a 250mhz antenna would be carried out on a 10m grid in order to locate services
up to 3.5m deep. GPR is an echo sounding method where a transducer (transmitter/receiver)
is passed over the ground. The transmitter sends out low powered radio energy and
reflections from material boundaries and embedded features such as metal, voids or buried
cables are picked up by the receiver. The results are viewed on-screen and recorded onto
disk for later analysis in the office. Radar is effective on rough surfaces and through multi-
layered media, but penetration and resolution is hampered when "looking" through highly
conductive materials such as multi-layered reinforcement, ash or clinker, saline saturated
material and wet clay.

4.5 Survey Effectiveness

The material surrounding, and particularly above buried services can affect whether the
service can be resolved by GPR. Reinforced concrete, buried metallic objects, the presence
of moisture or clay and changes in the material construction can lead to poor data resolution.

Depth results using GPR are typically accurate to within +/- 10% with a horizontal accuracy
of +/- 150mm. Radiodetection is able to penetrate far deeper than GPR and has an accuracy
of +/- 10% of depth for positional accuracy.

The effectiveness of GPR is reduced on slopes of greater than 1:3 and in woodland areas
where the signal is denigrated by tree roots.
 It is imperative that the area to be surveyed is reasonably level as it is not possible to scan
deep vehicle ruts, etc.

It is not possible to carry out a GPR survey in the areas of shrubbery, undergrowth and
flowerbed unless the site is cleared.

5. Seismic survey

Fig. 1.  Schematic of overall field setup for a seismic survey.

The seismic survey is one form of geophysical survey that aims at measuring the earth’s
(geo-) properties by means of physical (-physics) principles such as magnetic, electric,
gravitational, thermal, and elastic theories.  It is based on the theory of elasticity and
therefore tries to deduce elastic properties of materials by measuring their response to elastic
disturbances called seismic (or elastic) waves.   

5.1 What Are Seismic Waves?

A seismic source-such as sledgehammer-is used to generate seismic waves, sensed
by receivers deployed along a preset geometry (called receiver array), and then recorded
 Fig. 2.  Major types of seismic waves based on propagation characteristics.

by a digital device called seismograph (Fig. 1).  Based on a typical propagation mechanism used
in a seismic survey, seismic waves are grouped primarily into direct, reflected, refracted, and
surface waves (Fig. 2). There are three major types of seismic surveys: refraction, reflection, and
surface-wave, depending on the specific type of waves being utilized.  Each type of seismic
survey utilizes a specific type of wave (for example, reflected waves for reflection survey) and
its specific arrival pattern on a multichannel record (Fig. 3).  Seismic waves for the survey
can be generated in two ways: actively or passively.  They can be generated actively by using an
impact source like a sledgehammer or passively by natural (for example, tidal motion and under)
and cultural (for example, traffic) activities.  Most of the seismic surveys istorically
implemented have been the active type.  Seismic waves propagating within the vertical plane
holding both source and receivers are also called inline waves, whereas those coming off the
plane are called offline waves (Fig. 4).

Refraction Survey     Reflection Survey     Surface-Wave Survey

 Fig. 3.  (Right) A field record and interpretation of different seismic events based on
the arrival pattern

.
Fi
g.
4.

Illustration of active versus passive waves and

inline versus offline waves
5.2 Refraction Survey Method
A refraction survey uses refracted (or head) waves to deduce velocities of the layered-earth
model.  So-called first arrival information is used for the analysis (Fig. 3).  More
generalized methods based on the turning waves from an arbitrary velocity model have also
been used in recent days.  This is called seismic refraction tomography.  Historically
the refraction method has been commonly used to map depth and velocity of bedrock.  

5.3 Reflection Survey Method

Reflected waves from the interfaces between materials of significant different
elastic properties (density and seismic velocity) are used for this type of survey.  
More specifically, a special acquisition and processing method called the “CDP
(common-depth-point) method” is used and the final product from this survey is a
section that depicts a cross-sectional image of the subsurface below the surveyed
line (Fig. 5).  This method was invented and has been used traditionally in
exploration for natural resources (oil, coal, etc.).  Since the early 1980s, it has been
used mostly for shallow geotechnical engineering projects (Fig. 5).  Comparing
these types of reflection surveys together, they are different in dimensions surveyed
and resolution achieved.  Field acquisition and data processing procedures are
normally much more costly than with the other types of seismic survey.
 Fig. 5

5.4 Surface Wave Survey Method

When seismic waves are generated, there is a special type of wave propagating along the free
surface called surface waves whose penetration depth is wavelength-
dependent; the longer wavelength influences the deeper portion of the earth (Fig. 1).  Because of
this property, surface waves are usually dispersive (Fig. 2), meaning different
frequencies have different propagation velocities, whereas body waves (refraction, reflection,
head, etc., waves) rarely take such property to a noticeable extent.  Two types of
surface waves are generally known: Rayleigh and Love waves.  The disturbance (vibration)
 direction of the former is mainly perpendicular to the surface, whereas it is parallel
F for the latter.  Theoretically, the dispersion property of surface waves is determined by several
i
elastic properties including density (rho), and depth-variation of S- and P-wave
g
. velocities (Vs and Vp).  Among these parameters, the depth-variation of Vs is the most
influencing factor.  Because of this, surface waves are often used to deduce Vs
1 properties of near-surface earth materials.  In comparison to using conventional body-wave
. methods to achieve similar Vs information (for example, S-wave refraction,
reflection, down-hole, cross-hole surveys), the surface-wave method has several advantages:

Field data acquisition is very simple and tolerant because surface waves always take the
strongest energy.
The data processing procedure is relatively simple and easy even for the non-experienced. A
large area can be covered within a relatively short time period. Because of all above reasons,
it is highly cost effective and time efficient.
Utilization of surface waves for geotechnical engineering purposes has a history dating back
to the early 1950s.  Since the early 2000s a multichannel approach called the
MASW (multichannel analysis of surface waves) method has been widely used.

Fig. 1.
 Fig. 2.  With seismic velocity increasing with depth, longer wavelengths (lower
frequencies) of surface waves penetrating deeper depths travel with faster
velocity than shorter wavelengths (higher frequencies) do.  As a result, different
frequencies arrive at different times on a seismic record, making a dispersive
seismic event.

5.5 Applications
Reflection seismology is extensively used in exploration for hydrocarbons (i.e., petroleum,
natural gas) and such other resources as coal, ores, minerals, and geothermal energy.
Reflection seismology is also used for basic research into the nature and origin of the rocks
making up the Earth's crust. Reflection Seismology is also used in shallow application for
engineering, groundwater and environmental surveying. A method similar to reflection
seismology which uses electromagnetic instead of elastic waves is known as Ground-
penetrating radar or GPR. GPR is widely used for mapping shallow subsurface (up to a few
meters deep).