PERCEPTION

TWO IMPORTANT CONCEPTS

Two basic processes make up our experience in this world:

Sensation- It is the stimulus detection process by which our sense

organs respond to and transmute environmental stimuli into nerve
impulses that are sent to the brain. (Information gathering process.)

Perception- It is the active process of organizing a stimulus input and

giving it meaning. (Information interpreting process.)

NATURE OF PERCEPTIONS

1. Perception is a process- Perception is essentially a process rather

than being a product or outcome of some psychological
phenomenon. If we talk in terms of systems approach than sensory
impressions gathered through a sensory organs may be termed as
input. The way in which we finally behave or react to this gathered
information may be taken as output. Perception provides the
necessary link in terms of process for converting input into output by
way of organizing and interpreting the sensory impressions.
2. Perception is the information extractor- Are sensory receptors are
bombarded continuously by various stimuli present in our
environment. It is difficult and rather impossible to react to a
stimulation. A selection process is therefore essential. Perception
performs this duty by extracting relevant information out of a jumble
of sensory impressions and converting them into some meaningful
pattern.
3. Perception is preparation to response- Perception is the first step
towards the active behavior of an organism. It is the preparatory
 stage that prepares an individual for action and response. Our
sensory receptors are just the receiving and transmitting centers of
sensory information. How we should react and respond is ordered by
a central nervous system through the involvement of some
mediating activity known as perception.
4. Perception involves Sensation- In a simple and straightforward wave
in a sense that sensation precedes perception. The relationship
between sensation and perception is always direct that is what we
do to have in sensation is always a part of perception. Perception
goes beyond sensation as it organizes, interpret and give meaning to
the result of sensation.
5. Perception provides organization- In addition to the help of
provided in deriving meaning to the sensory impressions perception
also helps in its proper arrangement and organization. 
6. Perception is highly individualized- Perception by all means is an
individual's affair. Different individuals do not perceive objects
events or relationships in much the same way. Even individual
perception of the same event may vary. For example, a hawker
selling the commodities in the open ground and a farmer standing
his farm are likely to perceive rain in quite different ways.

PERCEPTUAL PROCESSES

Schemas- Framework of basic ideas and preconceptions about

people, objects and events based on past experience and long term
memory.

Assimilation- How we incorporate new information into our existing

schemas.

Accommodation- How we modify our schemas to fit new

information. For example, when the child encounters a horse, they
might assimilate this information and immediately call the animal a
dog. The process of accommodation then allows the child to adapt
the existing schema to incorporate the knowledge that some four-
legged animals are horses.

TYPES OF PERCEPTUAL PROCESSES

Bottom- up processing- It is the processing of sensory information as

it enters the sensory structures and travels to the brain. For example,
if you see an image of an individual letter on your screen, your eyes
transmit the information to your brain, and your brain puts all of this
information together.

Top- down processing- It is the brain’s use of existing knowledge,

beliefs, and expectations to interpret the sensory stimulation.
For example, understanding difficult handwriting is easier when
reading complete sentences than when reading single and isolated
words. This is because the meanings of the surrounding words
provide a context to aid understanding.
 Top- Down Processing
BEHAVIOR
EXPECTATION
DECISION
MEMORY
PERCEPTION
ATTENTION
STIMULUS
Bottom- Up Processing

PERCEPTUAL ORGANISATION

Gestalt Psychology- As we have seen our senses react to patterns of

stimuli present in our environment. Perception organises the
stimulation, it interprets the patterns and give them meaning. The
question here arises how does this perceptual organization takes
place. This phenomenon was first studied properly by a group of
German psychologists known as the Gestaltists. Notable among
these psychologists were Max Wothemer, Kurt Kofka and Wolfgang
Kohler. The word gestalt coming from the German means
configuration, totality or whole. Gestalt psychologists tried to study
perception in terms of gestalts or wholes. They asserted that what
we perceive in terms of an object we perceive it in terms of its
totality or a whole and not merely a random collection of its
constituents or parts. They found that individuals tend to organise
environmental stimuli into some meaningful patterns or holes
according to certain principles. Below we would like to discuss some
of the important principles:

1. Principle of Figure Ground- According to this principle, a figure is

perceived in relationship to its background. It is a figure that appears
against the background of a sky. Similarly the words are figures that
 appear on the background of a page. We perceive a finger against a
background or background against a figure depending upon the
characteristics of the perceiver as well as the relative strength of the
figure or ground. Sensory experiences other than visual experiences
may also be perceived as figure and ground. A person who is eating a
meal that tastes too salty we will perceive salt as a figure on a
ground of chapattis and vegetables. A proper figure ground
relationship is quite important from the angle of perception of a
figure for the ground. In case where such relationship does not exist
we may witness ambiguity in terms of clear perception as may be
revealed through the following figure. The famous Rubin’s Vase,
depicting reversible figure-ground perception.

2. Law of Good Continuation- Lines tend to be seen as following the

smoothest path. It means that figures with edges that are smooth
are more likely seen continuous than edges that have abrupt or
sharp angles.

We perceive this pattern as continuous interwoven strands because

of law of good continuation.
3. Law of Simplicity- Also called Law of Good Figure or Pragnanz.
According to the Gestaltian principle we tend to interpret our
sensory stimulation so that we perceive the simplest possible
pattern. Thus the characteristic like symmetry, unbroken lines and
curves, compact areas and the perceiver’s familiarity with figure all
may contribute to figure simplicity because they enable the perceiver
to perceive the whole from some of its parts.

In the diagram given we perceive the image on the right as shapes

shown on the left and not as a complex irregular figure.

4. Law of Similarity- According to this law, similar things appear

grouped together.

a) b)

(a) The display is more likely perceived as rows of white circle

alternating with row of black circles. While in (b) it can be perceived
as vertical columns or horizontal rows.

5. Law of Familiarity- Things are more likely to form groups if the

groups appear familiar or meaningful.
 Our brain perceives the given figure as a paw instead of an irregular
pattern of colored and uncolored dots as our brain is already familiar
with paws of animals.

6. Law of Proximity- According to this law, things near each other

appear grouped together.

Our perception organizes the figure into a meaningful form using

grouping rules.

7. Law of Common Fate- Things moving in the same direction appear to

be grouped together.
8. Principle of Closure- Another important principle of perceptual
organization is that of closure. According to this principle while
confronting an incomplete pattern one tends to complete or close a
pattern of fill in sensory gaps and perceive it as a meaningful whole.

9. Principle of Grouping- Principle of grouping-principle of grouping

refers to the tendency to perceive stimuli in some organised
meaningful pattern by grouping them on some solid basis like
similarity, proximity and continuity.
(i) On the basis of similarity, objects or stimuli that look alike are
usually perceived as a unit. 

(ii) On proximity basis objects or stimuli that appear close to one

another are likely to be perceived as belonging to the same
group.
 (iii) On continuity basis the objects or stimuli are perceived as a
unit or group on the basis of their continuity.

(iv) On the basis of connectedness the objects or stimuli that are

connected to one another are likely to be perceived as
belonging to one group.

Heuristics and Algorithm

Heuristics are the ‘rule of thumb’
 Provides best guess solution to a problem
 Fast
 Often correct
Algorithm is a procedure guaranteed to solve a problem
 Slow
  Definite result

DEPTH PERCEPTION
Monocular Cues- Visual monocular cues are those cues that have
been derived from vision with one eye, or monocular vision i.e. they
are visible even if one eye is closed.
 Interposition- A phenomenon in which one object partially blocks
another object lying in the same line of vision. As a result the first
object that cuts off the view of the other is perceived as closer and
other one seems farther away.

 Relative Size- If we are familiar two objects of the same size, the one
what looks smaller is perceived to be farther away.

 Relative Clarity- Our assumption that hazy objects are farther away
 Texture Gradient- The more densely packed and finer textures give
the perception of distance, the spaced, detailed or rough texture give
the perception of nearness.

 Relative Height- The things that are higher in our field of vision, the
look farther away.

 Relative Motion- In case we move our heads from side to side, the
objects close to us are perceived as moving very quickly and those
farther away are perceived as much more slowly.
 Linear Perspective- This cue is based on the principle that straight
lines appear to merge in the distance and the more the lines
converge the greater is our impression of its distance.

 Light and Shadows- Dimmer objects appear farther away because

they reflect less light.
 Binocular Cues- Visual binocular cues are those that have been
derived from vision of both the eyes or binocular vision i.e. it
requires both the eyes.
 Retinal Disparity- If we look at an object first with one eye and then
with the other, we do not see an identical image. This disparity in
images is known as retinal disparity. Our eyes are set approximately
1
2 2 inches apart in our head. Yet, when we perceive an object with
both our eyes a single fused image is perceived.

 Convergence- A binocular cue for perceiving depth, the extent to

which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object. The
greater the inward strain, the closer the object.
 PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCY
Perceptual constancy refers to the tendency to perceive the stimuli
present in our environment as relatively stable and unchanging even
though in reality there maybe alterations in sensory information by
the way of shape, size, color, brightness or other characteristics. It is
possible on account of our previous experiences, knowledge and
familiarity with a particular sensory stimulus. For example Red Fort is
perceived as a Red fort by day or night and from any distance or
angle. We tend to perceive it as the same fort despite the changes in
sensory information reaching the retina on account of alterations in
distance direction or illumination.
1. Shape Constancy- The phenomenon of your perceiving the real
shapes of objects regardless of their retinal projections is called
shape constancy.

For example we tend to perceive the door of a classroom as

rectangular no matter from which angle it is viewed. Actually the
rectangular door of the classroom project select angular image on a
retina only when it is viewed directly from the front at other angles
the image will be trapezoidal.

2. Size Constancy- Size constancy refers to the type of perceptual

constancy where the objects tend to retain that familiar size
irrespective of their viewing distance. In actuality the size of the
retinal image of the object goes on decreasing as distance from the
object increases but on account of the phenomena of size constancy
the object is not perceive as shrinking in its size.
3. Brightness and Color constancy- Brightness of color constancy refers
to the tendency of perceiving the brightness, darkness or color of
familiar objects as fairly constant or unchanged even if there has
been a great change in the intensity of light reflected from it at
different times in different places. It is only on account of this
perceptual constancy that we happened to perceive a white volt to
be the same shade of wide in broad daylight as in pale or dim light of
the evening.

ILLUSIONS
1. Illusion of Size- Illusion of this type provides a false perception of the
size of object. A larger background always makes the objects, in its
 frame of reference, look smaller in comparison to a smaller
background where they will be perceived as larger.

2. Illusion of Length- In the given figure both these lines are identical
yet the bottom line is perceived as longer. This is the famous Muller-
Lyre illusion. It is caused on account of our interpretation of angles at
the ends of the lines as perspective cues.

3. Illusion of Perspective- The Ponzo illusion is a geometrical-optical

illusion that was first demonstrated by the Italian psychologist Mario
Ponzo (1882–1960) in 1911. He suggested that the human mind
judges an object's size based on its background. He showed this by
drawing two identical lines across a pair of converging lines, similar
to railway tracks. The upper line looks longer because we interpret
the converging sides according to linear perspective as parallel lines
receding into the distance. In this context, we interpret the upper
line as though it were farther away, so we see it as longer – a farther
object would have to be longer than a nearer one for both to
produce retinal images of the same size.
4. Illusion of Curvature- Although the lines in the center of the figure
are straight and parallel yet they appear to be bowed.

5. Horizontal and Vertical Illusion- Although both the vertical and

horizontal lines are equal in length, the vertical is more often
perceived longer.

6. Illusion of Movement- Quite often we perceive movement when the

objects we are looking at actually not moving at all. Such a faulty
perception is called illusions of movement.
 Autokinetic illusion- Illusion where the faulty perception of
movement is created by single stationary object. If we enter a
room that is completely dark except for small spot of stationary
light and stare at the slide for a few seconds the spot of light is
perceived to move around.
 Induced motion- Induced motion in the framework of sky the
clouds are perceived as the ground and the sun as the figure on
account of the figure ground relationship and apparent motion
is induced we get faulty perception that sun is moving through
the clouds.

 Stroboscopic motion it is a kind of apparent or false motion

usually perceived in movies and television. On the screen of
movie and television still pictures in a series are projected
separately in rapid succession. On the account of this rapid
presentation we perceive a smooth flowing movement instead
of the series of discrete still pictures.
 Stroboscopic in motion is also responsible for an illusory
phenomenon called phi phenomena. This phenomenon was
first discovered and successfully demonstrated in 1912 by a
German Gestalt psychologist Max Wertheimer. In this
phenomenon stationary object like light bulbs are placed side
by side and illuminated rapidly one after another. It seems as if
the light is moving. The effect is frequently used on theatre
marquees to give the impression of moving lights.

7. Poggendorff Illusion- When there are lines passing from behind and
oblique object BLACK LINE seems to continue to BLUE LINE but
actually it is continuing to RED LINE.

8. Zoellner Illusion- In this figure the black lines seem to be unparallel

but in reality they are parallel. The short lines are on an angle to the
longer lines this angle helps to create the impression that the one
end of longer lines is near to us than the other end.
 PERCEPTUAL SET

Perceptual set it refers to a predisposition to perceive things in a

certain way. In other words we often tend to notice only certain
aspects of an object or situation while ignoring other details.
Individual factors such as motivation, personal expectations and
culture can also influence the way in which we interact the world
around us. Our tendency to pay attention to certain things and
ignore others in the face of new information is called perceptual set.

INFLUENCES ON PERCEPTION
1.Biological Influences-
 Entry level sensory analysis
 Unlearned visual phenomena
 Critical period for sensory development
2.Psychological Influences-
 Needs- People will perceive only those items which suit their
wishful thinking or their needs.
 Self-concept- It indicates how we perceive ourselves which then
influences how we perceive others and the situation we are in.
The more we understand ourselves, the more we are able to
perceive others accurately. For example, secure people tend to
see others as warm and friendly. Less secure people often find
fault with others. 
  Past Experience- Our perceptions are often guided by our past
experiences and what we expect to see. A person’s past
experiences mould the way he perceives the current situation.
 Current psychological state- The psychological and emotional
states of an individual are likely to influence how things are
perceived. If a person is depressed, he is likely to perceive the
same situation differently than if he is elated.
 Beliefs- A person’s beliefs influence his perception to a great
extent. Thus, a fact is conceived not on what it is but what a
person believes it to be. The individual normally censors
stimulus inputs to avoid disturbance of his existing beliefs.
3.Socio- cultural Influences-
 Physical context effects
 Cultural assumptions and expectations- A person’s ethics,
values and his cultural upbringing also play an important role in
his perception about others. It is difficult to perceive the
personality of a person raised in another culture because our
judgment is based upon our own values.

_______________________

Shreya Arora

BA (prog) 1st year (Eng+Psych)

Form No. - 20150619