PASSIVE MEASUREMENTS

NATURAL GAMMA

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Radioactivity Theory
Gamma rays are the most important in petrophysical logging
because they have the highest penetration of all the radiations
except neutrons. Their penetration ability means that they can be
detected through several centimetres of cement casing. Alpha and
beta particles have very limited penetration ability, being stopped
immediately by any solid material.
Most isotopes found naturally in rocks are either stable, present
in insignificant amounts, or generate insignificant amounts of
radiation. There are, however, a few which are significant. These
are:
• The potassium isotope K40 (the stable forms are K39 and
K41).
• The Thorium series isotopes.
• The Uranium-Radium series isotopes.
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NATURAL GR PRINCIPLE
Probability of Emission per Disintegration
 Cause
– Unstable isotopes in formation
– Isotopes decay
– Emit GR’s (various energies)
 Three main contributors
– K40 with half-life 1.3x109 yrs
– Th232 with half-life 1.4x1010 yrs
– U238 with half-life 4.4x109 yrs
 Sources
– K40 feldspar, mica, illite
– Th232 heavy minerals, clays
– U238 organic material

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SOURCES OF PASSIVE GAMMA RAYS
1. Clays
– Kaolinite (very little K [potassium])
– Illite (4-8% K)
– Montmorillonite (<1% K)

2. Sand and Silt

– Potassium (K) feldspar
– Heavy minerals
– Volcanoclastics

3. Natural Cements
– Fracture-filling

4. Uranium Ores

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Gamma radiation from common minerals and lithologies (after
Pirson, 1963).

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Gamma ray values from common lithologies

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Scattering and Attenuation
Once the gamma rays have been emitted they travel through
materials (formation, fluids, mud cake and drilling mud) and
interact with them. There are three processes that occur, and each
is applicable to gamma rays with a given energy range.

Gamma rays with energy >3 MeV. These interact with the
nucleus of the materials that they are travelling through and are
converted into an electron and a positron in the process (pair
production). The efficiency of the process is low, so these gamma
rays may be measured by a sensor. However, they contribute only
small amounts to the overall signal.

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Scattering and Attenuation
Gamma rays with energy 0.5 to 3 MeV. These gamma rays
undergo compton scattering, where a gamma ray interacts with the
electrons of the atoms through which they are passing, ejecting
the electron from the atom, and losing energy in the process. A
gamma ray in this range may undergo several of these collisions
reducing its energy from its initial value to an energy of less than
0.5 MeV in a stepwise fashion.
Gamma rays with energy <0.5 MeV. These gamma rays collide
with electrons of the atoms through which they are passing, and re
adsorbed. The gamma ray energy is either used to promote the
electron to a higher energy level or to eject it from the atom. This
process is called photo-electric adsorption, and is important in the
Litho-Density tool.

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Processes of gamma ray scattering and absorption.

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GAMMA RAY LOGS Rock Formations

 Uses
– Correlation
– Lithology indicator; exploration for
radioactive materials
– Mineral identification
– Open or cased hole; any fluids
– Evaluation of shale content
– Paleoenvironmental indicator
– Fracture detection
 Properties
– Measures natural gamma
radiation
– Random fluctuations

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GAMMA RAY TOOLS

1. The gamma ray tool records the natural radioactivity of the

formation without regard to the source (three elements
combined)
2. The spectral gamma ray tool identifies the source and gives the
contribution of each elements (potassium, uranium, and
thorium) to the overall spectrum. Also, it is useful in identifying
fractures

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 API: (1/200) OF THE DIFFERENCE IN LOG
READING BETWEEN A HOT AND A COLD ZONE

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 GAMMA CALIBRATION
HOT AND COLD ZONES
• The Gamma tool is placed in the hot zone (200 API) and the
gamma counts are recorded.
• It is then placed in the cold zone and the gamma counts are
recorded. The difference in counts is converted by a gain
factor to represent 200 API.
• API UNIT: (1/200) OF THE DIFFERENCE IN LOG
READING BETWEEN A HOT ZONE AND A COLD ZONE

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THEORY DETECTION GAMMA RAY
The tool consists simply
of a highly sensitive
gamma ray detector in
the form of a scintillation
counter.
It is amplified by a
photomultiplier which
consists of a photocathode
and a series of anodes
held at progressively
higher electrical
potentials, all of which are
arranged serially in a
high vacuum.
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This counter is composed of
a activated single sodium
iodide crystal backed by a
photomultiplier
When a GR
strikes the
crystal a small
flash of light is
produced.
This flash is too small to be
measured using conventional
electronics
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SCINTILLATION DETECTORS

1. Gamma rays interact with scintillation crystal

2. Electrons excite phosphor atoms, which in turn decay by
emission of light
3. These photons interact with the photocathode of the p.m tube
producing electrons
4. Ejected electrons are focused into photomultiplier string
5. Electrons are accelerated through successive dynodes
producing multiplication at anode (1e = 106 e)

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SCINTILLATION DETECTORS

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Depth of investigation :
- The depth from which radiations can be detected by the simple
gamma ray tool is generally small but difficult to be precise
about.
- One experiment fount that 75% of radiations detected came
from a 14cm radius and 25cm vertically above and below the
detector.
- The volume of investigation can be considered to be
approximately 20 cm vertically above and below the detector
(Along the borehole ) and 10 cm radially.

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STATISTICAL ISSUES
 Measurement problem
– GR emissions random
– Tool moving
 Results
– Imprecise measurement
– Details smeared out
 Procedures
– New tools better
detectors
– Limit logging speed
• Old tools 1800 fph
• New tools 3600 fph
– Exercise care interpreting
boundaries

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Logging Speed

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STATISTICAL ISSUES
EFFECTS OF LOGGING
SPEED AND FILTER
LENGTH ON GAMMA RAY
LOG

High-resolution logging
for thin bed, .i.e. coal, is usually
done at low speed to
better define bed boundaries
and partings

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Mud Type

Effect of KCl drilling mud on the gamma ray log in an on-gauge

borehole

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Borehole Quality

Effect of caving on the gamma ray log

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Borehole Quality

Gamma ray log correction chart for a 3.75 inch tool in an 8 inch hole
with a KCl-free drilling mud with a mud weight
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GR RESPONSE IN COMMON FORMATIONS
• Shales often radioactive
– Clays
– Trace and heavy minerals
• Sandstones may be radio-
active
– Non-clay minerals, e.g., mica, feldspar
– Clays
• See Appendix B, Chart Book
• Units
– GR calibrated to standard
– Response in “mid-continent shale”
equals 200 API units
– Calibration pits

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WHAT IS Vshale?
• Fraction of rock made up of
shale
• Why calculate Vsh in
Sandstone?
– Delimit reservoir quality rock
– Shale = clays in FE
– Clays reduce perm and porosity
– Estimates of Sw too large
– Shales reduce net pay
• Vsh definition
matrix (silt + dry clay)
+
fluid (bound water)

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VOLUME OF SHALE

Gamma Ray Index

RELATIONSHIP EQUATION
Linear Vsh = Ish

Clavier Vsh= 1.7-(3.38-(Ish+0.7)2 )1/2

Steiber Vsh= 0.5*(Ish/(1.5-Ish))

Bateman Vsh= Ish(Ish +GRFactor)

GRFactor = 1.2 – 1.7

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CALCULATING CLAY CONTENT (VSHALE)
Shale Index

Calculating Vsh
– Numerous models
– Always have Vsh < Ish
– May only apply locally

Some Models:
Vsh  I sh
Vsh  I sh /(2  I sh )
Vsh  I sh /(4  3I sh )
Vsh  0.33(2 2I sh 1)

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EXAMPLE PROBLEM

Choose value for GRmax

and GRmin and compute
Vsh in sand “C” using
linear, Clavier, and
Steiber methods

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EXAMPLE PROBLEM

GRmin = 10API

Grlog = 50 API

GRmax =132

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EXAMPLE PROBLEM

SOLUTION
GRmin = 10 API
GRmax = 132 API
Choosing a depth in SAND C ,
say GR = 50 API
Linear Vsh = 0.327
Clavier Vsh = 0.175
Steiber Vsh = 0.139

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SPECTRAL GR ANALYSIS

 Gives the individual quantities of uranium, potassium,

and thorium
 Good fracture detector, because uranium tends to
precipitate with fracture-filling mineralss
 A sharp uranium peak may indicate fractures
 Good for mineral identification

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SOME GR APPLICATIONS - VERSATILE TOOL
 Lithology indicator
 Reservoir descrimination
– Vsh cutoff
 Correlation
– Well-to-well
– Open hole to cased hole
– Core-to-log
 Depth control
 Depositional Environment
– Uses curve shape, log responses, and characteristis of bedding
contacts to infer grain sizes and sedimentary processes and
environments
 Exploration for radioactive rocks
– Uranium, potassium chloride
 Fracture detection
– Some fracture-filling mineral deposits are “hot”

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SOME GR APPLICATIONS - VERSATILE TOOL

 Depositional
Environment

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EXERCISE
The enclosed pseudo-log sheet shows the lithologies in a pseudo-well.
(a) Draw in the log as a schematic representation of the total gamma ray that you
might expect from each of the 100% shale and clean sandstone lithologies. Assume
that all 100% shales have the same GR value, which is 120 API. Make the sandstone
with an API value of 40 API. These are your relative points.
(b) Indicate the effect on the gamma ray log of the caving in the shale.
(c) Extend the log to include the sandy shale (Vsh=0.75) and shaly sandstone
(Vsh=0.375).
(d) Add the additional effect that is to be expected from:
· The heavy mineral glauconite band, that is represented by *.
· The presence of feldspars in the arkose sandstone.
· The presence of significant mica in the micaceous sandstone.
(e) Draw in the shale line and sand lines.
(f) Extend the log to the bottom including typical values for the remaining
lithologies.
(g) Draw in a possible shape for the GR log in the finning-upwards shaly sandstone.

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