CH 11

CHAPTER 11
Metal-Casting Processes
Kalpakjian • Schmid
Manufacturing Engineering and Technology © 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 11-1
TABLE 11.1
Process Advantages Limitations
S and Almos t any metal cas t; no l imit S ome finis hing r equi red;
to s i ze, s hape or weight; low s omewhat coars e finis h; wide
tooling cos t. tole rances .
S hel l mold Good dimens ional accuracy and Part s i ze l imited; expens ive
s urface finis h; high production patterns and equipment
rate . requi red.
Expendable pattern Mos t metals cas t with no limit Patterns have low s trength and
to s i ze; compl ex s hapes can be cos tly for low quantities
Plas ter mold Intri cate s hapes ; good Limited to nonferrous metals ;
Summary of dimens ional accuracy and

finis h; low poros ity.
l imited s ize and volume of
production; mold mak ing time
re latively long.
Casting Ceramic mold Intri cate s hapes ; c los e

tol erance parts ; good s urfac e
Limited s i ze.
Processes finis h.
Inves tment Intri cate s hapes ; excel lent Part s i ze l imited; expens ive
s urface finis h and accuracy; patterns , molds , and labor.
almos t any metal cas t .
Permanent mold Good s urface finis h and High mold cos t; l imited s hape
dimens ional accuracy; low and intri cacy; not s uitabl e for
poros ity; high production rate . high-melting-point metals .
Die Exce ll ent dimens ional ac curacy Di e cos t is high; part s i ze

and s urface finis h; high l imited; us ually limited to
production rate . nonferrous metals ; long lead
time.
Centrifugal Large cylindr ical parts with Equipment is expens ive; part
good qual ity; high production s hape l imited.
rate .
Die-Casting Examples
(a) (b)
Figure 11.1 (a) The Polaroid PDC-2000 digital camera with a AZ91D die-cast, high purity
magnesium case. (b) Two-piece Polaroid camera case made by the hot-chamber die casting
process. Source: Courtesy of Polaroid Corporation and Chicago White Metal Casting, Inc.
General Characteristics of Casting Processes
TABLE 11.2
Typical
Typical Weig ht (kg) surface Section thic kness (mm)
materials finish Shape Dimensional
Process cast Minimum Maximum (µm, R a) Porosity* complexity* accuracy* Minimum Maximum
Sand A ll 0.05 No limit 5-25 4 1-2 3 3 No limit
Shell A ll 0.05 100+ 1-3 4 2-3 2 2 --
Expendable
mold
pa ttern A ll 0.05 No limit 5-20 4 1 2 2 No limit
Nonferrous
Plas t er (A l, M g, Zn,
mold Cu) 0.05 50+ 1-2 3 1-2 2 1 --
A ll
(High melting
Inves tment pt.) 0.005 100+ 1-3 3 1 1 1 75
Permanent
mold A ll 0.5 300 2-3 2-3 3-4 1 2 50
Nonferrous
(A l, M g, Zn,
Die Cu) <0.05 50 1-2 1-2 3-4 1 0.5 12
Centrifuga l A ll -- 5000+ 2-10 1-2 3-4 3 2 100
*Rela tive rat ing:1 bes t, 5 wors t .
Note : Thes e ratings are only genera l; s ignificant varia tions can occur, depending on the methods us ed.
Casting Examples
Figure 11.2 Typical gray-

iron castings used in
automobiles, including
transmission valve body
(left) and hub rotor with
disk-brake cylinder (front).
Source: Courtesy of Central
Foundry Division of General
Motors Corporation.
Figure 11.3 A cast

transmission housing.
Sand Mold Features
Figure 11.4 Schematic illustration of a sand mold, showing various features.
Steps in Sand Casting
Figure 11.5 Outline of production steps in a typical sand-casting operation.
Pattern Material Characteristics
TABLE 11.3
Ratinga
Characteristic Wood Aluminum Steel Plastic Cast iron
Machinability E G F G G
Wear resistance P G E F E
Strength F G E G G
Weightb E G P G P
Repairability E P G F G
Resistance to:
Corrosionc E E P E P
Swellingc P E E E E
aE, Excellent; G, good; F, fair; P, poor.
bAs a factor in operator fatigue.
cBy water.
Source : D.C. Ekey and W.R. Winter, Introduction to Foundry Technology. New York.
McGraw-Hill, 1958.
Patterns for Sand Casting
Figure 11.6 A typical metal

match-plate pattern used in
sand casting.
Figure 11.7 Taper on patterns for

ease of removal from the sand mold.
Examples of Sand Cores and Chaplets
Figure 11.8 Examples of sand cores showing core prints and chaplets to support cores.
Squeeze Heads
Figure 11.9 Various designs
of squeeze heads for mold
making: (a) conventional
flat head; (b) profile head;
(c) equalizing squeeze
pistons; and (d) flexible
diaphragm. Source: ©
Institute of British
Foundrymen. Used with
permission.
Vertical Flaskless Molding
Figure 11.10 Vertical flaskless molding. (a) Sand is squeezed between two halves of the pattern. (b)
Assembled molds pass along an assembly line for pouring.
Sequence of Operations for Sand Casting
Figure 11.11 Schematic illustration of the sequence of operations for sand casting. Source: Steel
Founders' Society of America. (a) A mechanical drawing of the part is used to generate a design for the
pattern. Considerations such as part shrinkage and draft must be built into the drawing. (b-c) Patterns
have been mounted on plates equipped with pins for alignment. Note the presence of core prints designed
to hold the core in place. (d-e) Core boxes produce core halves, which are pasted together. The cores will
be used to produce the hollow area of the part shown in (a). (f) The cope half of the mold is assembled by
securing the cope pattern plate to the flask with aligning pins, and attaching inserts to form the sprue and
risers. (continued)
Sequence of Operations for Sand Casting (cont.)
Figure 11.11 (g) The flask is rammed with sand and the plate and inserts are removed. (g) The drag half is
produced in a similar manner, with the pattern inserted. A bottom board is placed below the drag and aligned
with pins. (i) The pattern, flask, and bottom board are inverted, and the pattern is withdrawn, leaving the
appropriate imprint. (j) The core is set in place within the drag cavity. (k) The mold is closed by placing the
cope on top of the drag and buoyant forces in the liquid, which might lift the cope. (l) After the metal solidifies,
the casting is removed from the mold. (m) The sprue and risers are cut off and recycled and the casting is
cleaned, inspected, and heat treated (when necessary).
Surface Roughness for Various Metalworking Processes
Figure 11.12 Surface roughness in casting and other metalworking processes. See also Figs. 22.14 and
26.4 for comparison with other manufacturing processes.
Dump-Box Technique
Figure 11.13 A common

method of making shell
molds. Called dump-box
technique, the limitations are
the formation of voids in the
shell and peelback (when
sections of the shell fall off
as the pattern is raised).
Source: ASM International.
Composite Molds
Figure 11.14 (a) Schematic illustration of a semipermanent composite mold. Source: Steel
Castings Handbook, 5th ed. Steel Founders' Society of America, 1980. (b) A composite
mold used in casting an aluminum-alloy torque converter. This part was previously cast in
an all-plaster mold. Source: Metals Handbook, vol. 5, 8th ed.
Expendable Pattern Casting
Figure 11.15
Schematic
illustration of the
expendable
pattern casting
process, also
known as lost
foam or
evaporative
casting.
Ceramic Molds
Figure 11.16 Sequence of operations in
making a ceramic mold. Source: Metals
Handbook, vol. 5, 8th ed.
Figure 11.17 A typical ceramic

mold (Shaw process) for casting
steel dies used in hot forging.
Source: Metals Handbook, vol.
5, 8th ed.
Figure 11.18
Schematic
illustration of
investment
casting, (lost-
wax process).
Castings by this
method can be
made with very
fine detail and
from a variety of
metals. Source:
Steel Founders'
Investment Society of
America.
Casting
Investment Casting of a Rotor
Figure 11.19 Investment casting of an integrally cast rotor for a gas turbine. (a) Wax pattern assembly.
(b) Ceramic shell around wax pattern. (c) Wax is melted out and the mold is filled, under a vacuum,
with molten superalloy. (d) The cast rotor, produced to net or near-net shape. Source: Howmet
Corporation.
Investment and Conventionally Cast Rotors
Figure 11.20 Cross-

section and
microstructure of two
rotors: (top)
investment-cast;
(bottom) conventionally
cast. Source: Advanced
Materials and
Processes, October
1990, p. 25 ASM
International
Vacuum-Casting Process
Figure 11.21 Schematic illustration of the vacuum-casting process. Note that the mold has a
bottom gate. (a) Before and (b) after immersion of the mold into the molten metal. Source:
From R. Blackburn, "Vacuum Casting Goes Commercial," Advanced Materials and Processes,
February 1990, p. 18. ASM International.
Pressure Casting
Figure 11.22 (a) The bottom-pressure casting process utilizes graphite molds for the production of
steel railroad wheels. Source: The Griffin Wheel Division of Amsted Industries Incorporated. (b)
Gravity-pouring method of casting a railroad wheel. Note that the pouring basin also serves as a riser.
Railroad wheels can also be manufactured by forging.
Hot- and Cold-Chamber Die-Casting
(a) (b)
Figure 11.23 (a) Schematic illustration of the hot-chamber die-casting process. (b) Schematic
illustration of the cold-chamber die-casting process. Source: Courtesy of Foundry Management and
Technology.
Cold-Chamber Die-Casting Machine
(a)
Figure 11.24 (a) Schematic illustration of a cold-chamber die-casting machine.

These machines are large compared to the size of the casting because large forces are
required to keep the two halves of the dies closed.
Hot-Chamber Die-Casting Machine
(b)
Figure 11.24 (b) 800-ton hot-chamber die-casting machine, DAM 8005 (made
in Germany in 1998). This is the largest hot-chamber machine in the world
and costs about $1.25 million.
Die-Casting Die Cavities
Figure 11.25 Various types of cavities in a die-casting die. Source: Courtesy of

American Die Casting Institute.
Figure 11.26 Examples of

cast-in- place inserts in die
casting. (a) Knurled
bushings. (b) Grooved
threaded rod.
Properties and Typical Applications of
Common Die-Casting Alloys
TABLE 11.4
Ultimate
tensile Yield Elongation
strength strength in 50 mm
Alloy (MPa) (MPa) (%) Applications
Aluminum 380 (3.5 Cu-8.5 Si) 320 160 2.5 Appliances , automotive components ,
ele ctr ical motor frames and hous ings
13 (12 Si) 300 150 2.5 Compl ex shapes with thin walls, parts
requir ing s tr ength at elevated
tempe ratures
Brass 858 (60 Cu) 380 200 15 Plumbing fiztures , lock hardware,
bushings , ornamental cas tings
Magnes ium AZ91 B (9 Al-0.7 Zn) 230 160 3 Power tools , automotive parts , sporting
goods
Zinc No. 3 (4 Al) 280 -- 10 Automotive parts, office equipment,
hous ehold utens i ls , building hardware ,
toys
5 (4 Al-1 Cu) 320 -- 7 Appliances , automotive parts , building
hardware ,busines s equipment
Sourc e : Data from Amer ican Di e Cas ting Ins titute
Centrifugal Casting Process
Figure 11.27 Schematic

illustration of the centrifugal
casting process. Pipes,
cylinder liners, and similarly
shaped parts can be cast with
this process.
Semicentrifugal Casting
Figure 11.28 (a) Schematic illustration of the semicentrifugal casting process. Wheels with spokes can
be cast by this process. (b) Schematic illustration of casting by centrifuging. The molds are placed at
the periphery of the machine, and the molten metal is forced into the molds by centrifugal force.
Squeeze-Casting
Figure 11.29 Sequence of operations in the squeeze-casting process. This process combines the
advantages of casting and forging.
Single Crystal Casting of Turbine Blades
Figure 11.30 Methods of casting turbine blades: (a) directional solidification; (b) method to produce
a single-crystal blade; and (c) a single-crystal blade with the constriction portion still attached.
Source: (a) and (b) B. H. Kear, Scientific American, October 1986; (c) Advanced Materials and
Processes, October 1990, p. 29, ASM International.
(c)
Single Crystal Casting
Figure 11.31 Two methods of

crystal growing: (a) crystal
pulling (Czochralski process)
and (b) the floating-zone
method. Crystal growing is
especially important in the
semiconductor industry.
Source: L. H. Van Vlack,
Materials for Engineering.
Addison-Wesley Publishing
Co., Inc., 1982.
Melt Spinning
Figure 11.32 Schematic

illustration of melt-spinning to
produce thin strips of
amorphous metal.
Types of Melting Furnaces
Figure 11.33 Two types of melting furnaces used in foundries: (a) crucible, and (b) cupola.

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CHAPTER 11

Summary of dimens ional accu- racy and

Casting Ceramic mold Intri cate s hapes ; c los e

Die Exce ll ent dimens ional ac curacy Di e cos t is high; part s i ze

Figure 11.2 Typical gray-

Figure 11.3 A cast

Figure 11.4 Schematic illustration of a sand mold, showing various features.

Figure 11.5 Outline of production steps in a typical sand-casting operation.

Figure 11.6 A typical metal

Figure 11.7 Taper on patterns for

Figure 11.13 A common

Figure 11.17 A typical ceramic

Figure 11.20 Cross-

Figure 11.24 (a) Schematic illustration of a cold-chamber die-casting machine.

Figure 11.25 Various types of cavities in a die-casting die. Source: Courtesy of

Figure 11.26 Examples of

Figure 11.27 Schematic

Figure 11.31 Two methods of

Figure 11.32 Schematic

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