.

e
B N A S A SP-97

10
I
0

>
k (PAGES)
!
4

( N A S A C h O R T M X O R AD N U M B E R )

Particles and
Fields
1.9584964
GPO P R I C E $

CFSTI PRICE(S) $

Hard copy (HC)

Microfiche (MF) ~ ; v5>

ff 653 July 65
 ~~~

NASA SP-97

Particles and
Fields
1958-1964

Scientific ana’ Technicdl Information Division 1966

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION
Washington,D.C.
F O R SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT O F DOCUMENTS, U.S. OOVERNMENT PRINTING
OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D.C.. 20402 PRICE SO CENTS
Foreword

T HIS VOLUME IS ONE OF A SERIES which summarize

the progress made during the period 1958 through
1964 in discipline areas covered by the Space Science and
Applications Program of the United States. In this way,
the contribution made by the National Aeronautics and
Space Administration is highlighted against the back-
ground of overall progress in each discipline. Succeeding
issues will document the results from later years.
The initial issue of this series appears in 10 volumes
(NASA Special Publications 91 to 100) which describe
the achievements in the following areas: Astronomy,
Bioscience, Communications and Navigation, Geodesy,
Ionospheres and Radio Physics, Meteorology, Particles
and Fields, Planetary Atmospheres, Planetology, and
Solar Physics.
Although we do not here attempt to name those who
have contributed to our program during these first 6
years, both in the experimental and theoretical research
and in the analysis, compilation, and reporting of results,
nevertheless we wish to acknowledge all the contributions
to a very fruitful program in which this country may take
justifiable pride.
HOMERE. NEWELL
Associate Administrator for
Space Scieiiis end AFplicrrtions, NASA
Preface

T H E SPACE AGE began at a time when a number of

scientific investigations in geophysics had matured
considerably but were progressing only slowly. The meas-
urements possible with traditional methods were too in-
complete to lead to a theoretical understanding of many
phenomena. Specifically, solar radiations unobservable
from the ground were postulated. These were required to
explain observations in such diverse fields as geomagnet-
ism, auroral studies, cosmic rays, comets, and even long-
term weather trends. The ability to conduct continuous
measurements from above the Earth’s atmosphere or even
from outside the terrestrial magnetic field has generated
new interest in geophysics, thus contributing greatly to
our understanding of many new aspects of the Earth’s
environment.
The contributions of space science can be appreciated
properly only in the historical context of the pertinent sci-
entific fields. Records of the observations of northern
lights or aurorae go back 2000 years. Similarly, the dis-
covery of the Earth’s magnetic field cannot be dated with
certainty, but its existence was aiready known by A B .
1200. By 1722 Grahm had discovered rapid fluctuations
in the geomagnetic field; these were correlated with auroral
displays in 1741 by Hiorter, and further correlated with the
sunspot cycle by Sabin in 1852.
The number and quality of ground-based observations
continued to increase during the twentieth century and cul-
V
 PARTICLES AND FIELDS

minated in the 1958 International Geophysical Year. Var-

ious theoretical explanations of the geomagnetic fluctua-
tions were advanced by different investigators. Outstand-
ing among these explanations is the work of Chapman and
Ferraro, who postulated that streams of energetic plasma
from the Sun interact with the Earth’s magnetic field to
produce fluctuations. These were also presumed to be
responsible for the visual auroral display. Evidence of
the existence of solar plasma streams came independently
from Biermann’s analysis of the behavior of comet tails and
Parker’s demonstration in 1958, on theoretical grounds,
that such a plasma flow could be produced by the free ex-
pansion of the solar corona.
The energetic plasma stream from the Sun, generally
called the solar wind, has by now been observed with space
probes and satellites, and its detailed properties and time
fluctuations are under intensive investigation. Similarly,
we are observing the interaction of the solar wind with
the Earth’s magnetic field and are studying the manner in
which it causes aurorae. In the relatively few years of
the space age, all the problems which have puzzled sci-
entists for centuries have not been solved, but the keys to
their solution are now within reach. Measurements of the
various solar wind properties are planned not only near the
Earth but also up to hundreds of millions of miles away
from the Earth. As expected, certain properties of the
solar wind are influenced by phenomena occurring near the
surface of the Sun; for instance, a correlation appears to
exist between solar activity and the intensity of the solar
wind. Such relationships will be explored to understand
solar processes and their influence on the Earth.
Historically, the study of cosmic rays has been an entirely
different field of investigation. They were discovered in
the early 20th century and have been investigated since
with detectors at mountain locations or in balloons. Most
vi
 PREFACE

observations had to be confined to the energetic component

of the cosmic rays (greater than 1 BeV) because only these
could penetrate through the Earth’s magnetic field to bal-
loon altitudes. Forbush had found a rather surprising
modulation of the cosmic-ray flux by solar activity-a gen-
eral decrease of this flux during periods of maximum ac-
tivity of the Sun, which follows an 11-year cycle. He
also found short-term decreases, which lasted a few days,
after larger solar flares.
Space probe and satellite observations have produced
direct measurements of the mechanism by which the Sun
modulates the intensity of galactic cosmic rays. Solar-
wind plasma carries with it an embedded magnetic field,
I
the strength and direction of which are affected by the
frequency and size of the solar flares. Although this field
has only 1/10 000 of the strength of the magnetic field at
the Earth’s surface, it effectively prevents even very-high-
energy galactic particles from penetrating the solar system
to the Earth. The distances involved are large enough
(several hundred million miles) that minute changes in
direction accumulate to deflect particles with energies of
many thousands of BeV. Since cosmic rays are now be-
lieved to play a significant role in the dynamics of the uni-
verse, it will be of extreme importance to determine the
cosmic-ray flux in interstellar space. This determination
will become possible only when we understand quanti-
tatively this attenuation mechanism.
Space measurements are required for investigating the
low energy end of the cosmic-ray spectrum (especiaiiy
below 100 MeV) because of the interference of the geo-
magnetic field. Of particular interest in this energy
region are the solar cosmic rays which follow some solar
flares. Although cosmic rays were discovered before the
space age, only their general character could be investi-
gated until rocket and satellite observations became pos-

Uii
 PARTlCLES AND F l E w l S

sible. Since then, measurements have been made of the

energy spectra and composition of particle emissions from
small events which occurred during solar minimum, but
observations of really large solar proton events will not be
possible until the next solar maximum. Nearly continuous
records of these events are needed over a solar cycle, and
measurements should be made not only near the Earth
but also closer to and farther away from the Sun. The
objective is to explore the intensities and propagation of
solar protons. An understanding of solar proton events is
of immediate practical importance because they constitute
a radiation hazard to biological organisms.
Space flight has not only provided the means of solving
problems previously discovered in other scientific fields,
but it has also led to discoveries of entirely unexpected
phenomena. Outstanding among these was Van Allen’s
discovery of the radiation belts. Further investigations
have revealed a region extending from above the atmos-
phere out to roughly 35 000 miles in which energetic pro-
tons and electrons are trapped by the Earth’s magnetic
field. This region has been divided into “belts” de-
pending on the character of the dominant particles. Of
these, the inner proton belt, centered around an altitude
of 1500 miles, was discovered first; it consists of penetrat-
ing protons (energies above 30 MeV). Radiation belts
pose a problem to both civilian and military manned space
flight because of the radiation hazard from both natural
and artificial sources; for example, nuclear tests. There-
fore, an understanding of trapping mechanisms and ener-
getic-particle lifetimes is also of practical importance.
Studies of these phenomena will be based on continued
investigations of the energetic-particle population, of trap-
ping conditions, and of the effects of outside influences such
as changes in solar-wind velocity or direction. Experi-
mental measurements must be supplemented by theoretical
Uifi
 PREFACE

studies of collective plasma behavior which may lead to

the generation or loss of energetic particles.
It appears that the space age arrived at a most op-
portune time to contribute to human knowledge. Not only
had scientists arrived at a stage where space measurements
were required to confirm or disprove their theories but,
conversely, new discoveries such as the Van Allen belts
could be interpreted in a meaningful way on the basis of
physical laws already developed in other research. How-
ever, we have just barely begun to explore the phenomena
which became accessible through the new technology of
the space age. Considering past surprise discoveries, it
I would be presumptuous to try to predict the most impor-
~

tant future findings. We can predict, however, several

lines of research which will be fruitful. In addition to
the outstanding scientific problems already discussed, the
exploration of magnetic fields and trapped radiation belts
I
around other planets is another interesting area of research.
The investigation of Jupiter will be particularly interesting
because observed radio-noise bursts have been ascribed to
an intense radiation belt.
As space research progresses, a comprehensive under-
standing of the Earth-Sun relations and of the solar system
is emerging. This knowledge, in turn, will lead to new
insight into the structure of the universe and permit the
evolution of more realistic cosmological models. Beyond
the scientific aspects of space research are other practical
appiicarions besides the hazard posed by eIiei-geiicpartide
radiations. Energetic particles precipitated into the
atmosphere have a pronounced effect on the ionosphere
and upper atmosphere. The full implications of these
effects have yet to be understood; however, the influence
on radio communication is well established and is under
intensive investigation.

ix
 PARTICLES AND FIELDS

At this point it may be appropriate to consider the con-

tributions made by the different participants in the par-
ticles and fields area. Both the United States and the
Soviet Union have launched numerous satellites and space
probes. The U.S.S.R. program was apparently aimed
more toward feats such as first manned space flight or
first pictures of the far side of the Moon than toward a
systematic investigation of the space environment. Rus-
sian observations in this area have been confined to rela-
tively low altitudes, with only isolated observations from
space probes such as Lunik 11. On the other hand, NASA
launched satellites into highly eccentric orbits that reached
beyond 60 000 miles; these satellites were equipped
with specialized magnetometers and radiation detectors.
Thus, essentially all the recent scientific results on the solar
wind, interplanetary magnetic fields, the magnetosphere,
the outer radiation belts, and cosmic-ray energy spectra
below 100 MeV have resulted from the NASA program.
In the exploration of the inner Van Allen belts, both
NASA and the Department of Defense programs have
made important contributions. An example of coopera-
tion was the exploration of the artificial radiation belt pro-
duced by the July 9, 1962, nuclear test. The NASA
program was centered on equatorial measurements of the
belt, while the DOD observations were conducted with
polar orbiting spacecraft which measured primarily those
electrons with low mirror points.
This summary was written and compiled by W. Hess,
G. Mead, and M. P. Nakada of the Theoretical Division,
Goddard Space Flight Center, NASA. A. W. Schardt of
the Physics and Astronomy Division, Office of Space Sci-
ence and Applications, wrote the Preface.

X
Contents

chapter Page
INTRODUCTION ..................................
1
THE SOLAR WIND AND ITS EFFECT O N THE
EARTH ...........................................
7
RADIATION BELTS ................................
31
THE EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD ..................
57
SOLAR ENERGETIC PARTICLES AND GROUND
EFFECTS..........................................
63
COSMIC RAYS ....................................
73
NEUTRONS ........................................
77
CONCLUSIONS ....................................
79
REFERENCES .......................................
83

xi
 chapter 1
Introduction

B EFORE THE SATELLITE ERA, there was relatively little

I
I
knowledge of the Earth’s environment above 100 kil-
ometers. The ionosphere’s existencewas known originally
from a study of radio waves, and later from direct obser-
vations by balloons and rockets. Measurements of the
zodiacal light had indicated that there were electrons
through all space near the Sun, but their numbers and
motions were quite uncertain. From a knowledge of the
Earth’s surface magnetic field, it is possible to predict
the field some distance into space. From this information
a crude picture of near-Earth space developed which is
now known to be erroneous and incomplete. The first
U.S. satellite started a dramatic revision of our picture of
the environment.
The first indication of the existence of geomagnetically
trapped radiation came early in 1958 from Explmer I and
111. Van Allen observed an unexpectedly high counting
rate, followed by a period of zero count rate caused by
saturation of the Geiger counter as the satellite entered
the radiation belt. These first observations have been
followed by many others which have confirmed the exist-
_-#._-$ +L.,-V V U l.--..A ”,-,__”$,
U L U Q U LUIILJ U L
nn-n+*o+:m#v mq*+:#.lsh-qm
~ L I I L L I U L I I I S
~UALIb.l\ri.
;nnpr
a&&I I Y A U A

zone consisting mainly of protons and an outer zone

predominantly of electrons. The composition, energy
spectra, and temporal and spatial variation of these belts
have been extensively studied with satellites and space
probes. In addition, a series of U.S. and Soviet nuclear
explosions in space have shown that long-lived artificial
radiation belts can be produced.

1
 PARTICLES AND FIELDS

As the United States developed the ability to project

satellites into highly eccentric orbits (see table I and fig. 1) ,
a new phenomenon was discovered-the existence of an
outer boundary to the Earth’s magnetic field and the
trapping region. This boundary, termed the “magneto-
pause,” or outer edge of the magnetosphere, was located
at about 10 Earth radii from the center of the Earth in
the solar direction. The trapping region boundary is
closer in on the nightside, but the magnetic boundary
extends to much larger distances. United States and
U.S.S.R. space probes and satellites have made direct
observations of the solar plasma responsible for the exist-
ence of the boundary. The term “solar wind” has been
applied to stress its presence at all times.
Much of the electromagnetic radiation and most of the
particles emitted from the Sun in the direction of the
Earth never reach the Earth’s surface because of the pro-
tection of the Earth’s atmosphere and magnetic field.
This is also true of much of the cosmic radiation. Satel-
lites and space probes, particularly those which pass out-
side the magnetopause, have measured this radiation
directly and thus have greatly increased our knowledge of
solar and cosmic ray physics. Of special interest is the oc-
casional solar emission of energetic proton streams in
connection with certain solar flares.

2
INTRODUCTION

lttttttttttttt
IIIIIIIIIIIIII
c
a
ln

3
 PARTICLES AND FIELDS

.. .. .. .. .. ..
____~
.

f,
&a - C . ( - N N
d m - 8
N
- h
h
U

. .
. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..

4
 LN1 KCJUUCl I O N

. . . .

.. .. .. ..
. . . . . .

. .. .. .
N
m
Q,
d.
m m
d.m -
co plm
d.m
m
m
w "
.. .. ..
'
a
z :.. ..: ..:
.-
s . . .
m . . .

c,
k

. .
. .
. .
m- : :

.. .. .. ..

5
 chapter 2

T h e Solar Wind und Its Effect

on the Earth

THE SOLAR WIND AND INTERPLANETARY FIELD

B EFORE THE SATELLITE ERA, Biermann had conjectured

that the explanation of comet tails pointing away
from the Sun required more than just the pressure of
light and that energetic solar plasma accompanied by
magnetic fields was continually present (ref. 1 ) . Parker
) demonstrated theoretically that the solar corona was un-
stable and must be expanding continuously (refs. 2 and 3 ) .
He studied the hydrodynamic expansion of the solar corona
with a simple spherically symmetric model and thus de-
duced plasma velocities and densities from coronal prop-
erties. His studies also indicated that a continuous wind
should exist. He also estimated the strength and direction
of the interplanetary magnetic field on the assumption
that this field was of solar origin and was carried along by
the solar wind. Because of the Sun's rotation, the solar
field lines should have the form of an Archimedes spiral
I (fig. 2 ) . Interplanetary space probes have given striking
confirmation to the ideas and calculations of Biermann
and Parker.
I
Gringauz measured the interplanetary plasma fluxes en-
countered by Lunik I1 and I11 (ref. 4),but he did not
measure particle energies ; therefore, he could neither dif-
ferentiate between a light breeze and a solar wind, nor
determine the direction of flow. The fluxes measured
~

were a b u t 108 particles/cmz sec.

I 7
 PARTICLES AND PXELDS

. 4
.d
‘0
e
*8
4,

.
Y)
.

8
 THE SOLAR W l N D

A Faraday cup designed by Bridge’s group at MIT was

flown on Explorer X. I t confirmed the Lunik fluxes and
also indicated a definite wind that came approximately
from the Sun with a velocity of about 300 km/sec
(ref. 5).
More recent measurements by Neugebauer and Snyder
(refs. 6-8) with Mariner I1 and by the M I T (ref. 9)
and Ames (ref. 10) groups with Explorer XVIII (IMP I)
have extended over long enough periods to establish the
following facts:
( 1) A definite wind blows at all times with a velocity of
about 300-500 km/sec
( 2 ) The energy spread in the wind is narrow compared
with the average directed energy ( AE/E-O.Ol)
(3) The wind comes nearly radially from the Sun
(4) Protons and helium nuclei appear to be present
(fig. 3 1
(5) The wind is very gusty, showing fluctuations in
energy, energy spread, and density in times of
the order of hours
Longer term Manner I1 studies show a striking correla-
tion between geomagnetic activity and daily average solar
wind velocity (ref. 8). The correlation between solar-
wind velocity and the 27-day solar rotation as well as the
velocity fluctuations seem to indicate that the wind char-
acteristics depend more on local conditions in the corona
than on overall solar properties.
Even before the solar-wind properties were determined,
the interplanetary magnetic field was measured by Sonett
et al. (ref. 11) on Pioneer V. The field component per-
pendicular to the vehicle axis was measured by a search coil
and found to be about 3 gammas. At the time of a large
disturbance, the field went up to 40 gammas. More pre-
cise and longer term measurements have been made by
Mariner I1 (ref. 12) and I M P I (ref. 13). Since this in-

9
 PARTICLES AND PIELDS

E/Q,

E/Q, volts E/Q, volts

E/Q, volts E/Q, volts

Figure 3.-Typical energy spectra of the solar wind as measured

on Mariner I1 in 1962. The second peak sometimes present is
probably caused by He nuclei.

10
 THE SOLAR W I N D

terplanetary field has an energy density much smaller

(-0.01) than solar-wind energy densities, it is carried
along by the solar wind. Field values are usually between
2 and 7 gammas, and average near 5 gammas. The changes
in the field magnitude are relatively small compared with
its changes in direction. Although the field direction does
not always fit the simple picture of an Archimedean spiral
as predicted by Parker, average values tend to lie along
such a spiral.
Ness has found from I M P I data that the field has a
filamentary structure showing reversals in direction with
nulls between filaments.
Field measurements with Pioneer I showed a turbulent
field in the region of roughly 50 000 to 100 000 kilometers
(ref. 14), now known to be the transition zone inside the
bow shock wave. Sonett studied the magnetic shock wave
forms found in this region (ref. 15).
A collisionless shock wave was also found in interplane-
tary space by Mariner I1 (ref. 16). Shock waves should
result from high-speed solar wind interacting with slower
moving wind.
Thus far, space probes have sampled interplanetary
space only at about 1 AU and close to the ecliptic plane.
Present ideas of the solar wind hold that the velocity should
be independent of the distance from the Sun over a con-
siderable range of distances and that the density decreases
inversely proportional to the square of the distance. Meas-
urements by Snyder and Neugebauer with Mariner I1 in-
dicate with reasonable accuracy a decrease of dcnsi:~in-
versely proportional to the square of the distance.
Studies of comet tails can aid in understanding the solar
wind. What is known about type 1 comet tails indicates
that the solar wind is always present and is not confined
to the ecliptic plane, but extends also to high solar latitudes,
though possibly with a smaller flux.
11
 PARTICLES AND PIELDS

Using the solar-wind fluxes measured near the Earth

and assuming isotropic emission from the Sun, we can esti-
mate the loss of mass from the Sun resulting from the solar-
wind outflow as approximately of the solar mass in loe
years. Therefore the total mass loss because of solar wind
would be insignificant in the estimated lifetime of the Sun.
This loss rate is about 0.1 of the loss rate from thermonu-
clear reactions.
THE MAGNETOSPHERE
It has long been realized that plasmas and magnetic
fields tend to confine each other. In an experimental ma-
chine such as a stellarator, for example, a strong magnetic
field can compress and confine a hot dense plasma in a
small region of space without walls. Similarly, if a stream-
ing plasma encounters a magnetized object, the plasma
will confine the magnetic field to a limited region about the
object. The object, in turn, will tend to exclude the plasma,
creating a cavity. The cavity size is determined by the
energy density of the streaming plasma and the magnetic
field strength of the object.
I n addition, if the velocity of the plasma is highly super-
sonic in the magnetohydrodynamic sense (i.e., if the veloc-
ity is much higher than the AlfvEn velocity in that medi-
u m ) , a detached shock wave may be produced in the
region ahead of the cavity boundary. This process is anal-
ogous to the formation of a detached shock wave in front
of an object traveling at hypersonic speeds (i.e., above
Mach 5) through the atmosphere.
In 1931, Chapman and Ferrarro first predicted the con-
finement of the Earth’s magnetic field within an elongated
cavity during magnetic storms (ref. 1 7 ) . The constant
presence of such a cavity has been experimentally verified
by many satellite observations, including those of Explorer
X, XII, XIV, XVIII ( I M P I ) , and X X I ( I M P 11).
Figure 4 shows one radial pass of Explorer XII. Cahill’s

12
 T H E SOLAR WIND

I I I I I I I I
0 0 0
8 8
n 8 0 0

141

13
 PARTICLES AND FIELDS

magnetometer record (ref. 18) shows the expected radial

decrease up to a distance of 8.2 Earth radii, where the
field suddenly begins wandering in direction and strength.
At this same radial distance, the trapped radiation belt
flux suddenly falls to essentially zero. The region inside
the cavity is called the “magnetosphere” (ref. 19), and the
boundary is termed the “magnetopause.” In addition,
I M P I has verified the presence of a detached shock wave
(ref. 13). The region between the magnetopause and
the shock wave is usually referred to as the “transition
region.” Outside this transition region, i.e., beyond the
shock wave, conditions are characteristic of the inter-
planetary medium, and the Earth’s magnetic field has little
or no effect.
The cavity dimensions depend, of course, on the inten-
sity of the solar wind, although the dependence is rather
weak; that is, large changes in the solar-wind intensity
produce relatively small changes in cavity size. The dis-
tance from the center of the Earth to the magnetopause
in the solar direction is typically around 10 Earth radii,
although distances less than 8 Earth radii and more than
13 Earth radii have occasionally been observed. The
shock wave is located several Earth radii beyond this. At
90” to the solar direction, both the magnetopause and
shock wave flare out about 30 to 50 percent greater than
the subsolar distances. The cavity extends out away from
the Sun to very large distances, very likely as far as the
Moon or farther, that is, 60 Earth radii. No closure of the
magnetosphere tail has been yet observed with satellites.
Much progress has been made recently in our theoretical
understanding of the manner in which a streaming plasma,
such as the solar wind, interacts with a dipole field. One
of the basic problems has been to determine the shape of
the boundary (i.e., the magnetopause). Beard (ref. 20),
Midgley and Davis (ref. 21), and Mead and Beard

14
 T H E SOLAR W I N D

(ref. 22) have obtained numerical results for the shape

of the boundary between a field-free, zero-temperature
plasma. incident at right angles to a three-dimensional
dipole, assuming a pressure balance at each point between
the specularly reflected solar wind and the magnetic field.
The results of one study are shown in figure 5 . The sur-
face approximates a hemisphere on the day side, with a
characteristic “dimple” at the position of the null point in
the noon meridian plane. The null point is about 15”
to 20” from the pole, toward the Sun. On the side away
from the Sun, the surface becomes essentially cylindrical
in shape, the cylinder diameter being 35 to 40 Earth radii
(assuming a subsolar boundary distance of 10 Earth radii).
Because the plasma is assumed to be at zero temperature,
this theoretical magnetosphere cavity does not close off,
but extends to infinity in the direction away from the Sun.

Figure j.-Calculated shape of magnetopause for a theoretical

model of plasma-dipole interaction.

15
 PARTICLES AND FIELDS

Once the boundary surface has been obtained, the result-

ing distortions in the dipole field can be calculated.
These distortions can be expressed best as a spherical
harmonic expansion, with the coefficients determined by
analysis of the boundary surface currents. Using this
expansion, the topology of the field within the cavity can
be calculated everywhere. The results obtained by Mead
for the shape of the field lines in the noon-midnight merid-
ian are shown in figure 6 (ref. 23).
These calculations are based on assumptions which are
not entirely met. First, the solar wind is not field free but
contains an embedded field averaging about 5 gammas.
Since the solar wind is therefore supersonic in the mag-
netohydrodynamic sense, a shock wave is formed ahead of

Figure 6.-Theoretical shapes of pure dipole and. distorted geo-

magnetic field lines in the magnetosphere noon-midnight
meridian plane.

16
 T H E SOLAR W I N D

the boundary. In the transition region, the solar-wind

flow is no longer directional, but becomes disordered.
In addition, Dungey has suggested that if the inter-
planetary field has a southward component, some of the
Earth's field lines would connect with the interplanetary
field, thus modifying the field topology (ref. 24). Axford
and Petschek have suggested that dissipative forces near
the boundary would cause the polar field lines to be drawn
back into a very long magnetosphere tail, with the out-
ward-directed field lines separated from the inward-
directed ones by a neutral sheet (ref. 25), as shown in
figure 7. Ness has found evidence from IMP I data of
the existence of such a sheet (ref. 26). Dessler (refs. 27
and 28), Beard (ref. 29), Axford and Hines (ref. 30),
Spreiter and Jones (ref. 3 1 ) , and others have discussed
various modifications to the simple Chapman-Ferraro
model. Most of the discussion, however, has been quali-
tative rather than quantitative because of the great diffi-
culty in incorporating the newer ideas into a complete
mathematical theory.
The first definite observation of the magnetospheric
boundary was made with Explorer X, launched on March
25, 1961, into a highly elliptical orbit with an apogee of
47 Earth radii, in an approximately antisolar direction
(fig. 1 ) . Between distances of 22 Earth radii and apogee,
the satellite apparently crossed the boundary, or vice versa,
on six principal occasions. This was concluded after com-
paring the results of the rubidium vapor magnetometer
experiment of Heppner et al. at Goddard (ref. 32) with
the plasma probe experiment of Bridge et al. (ref. 5 )
at MIT. While inside the magnetosphere, the field mag-
nitude was comparatively strong (20 to 30 gammas) , and
there was usually no detectable plasma. Outside the
boundary the field changed directions and became weaker
( 10 to 15 gammas), and plasma was always observed.

17
 PARTICLES A N D FIELDS

18
 THE SOLAR W I N D

The position of the satellite when boundary crossings were

observed indicated that if the magnetosphere tail was
symmetric about the Sun-Earth line, the dimensions of the
cavity would be somewhat broader than current theories
had indicated; i.e., about 50 Earth radii in diameter, as
opposed to the predicted 35 to 40 Earth radii.
Since Explorer X was battery operated, it transmitted
during its first outbound pass only, and no further data
were received. Explorer XI1 was launched August 16,
1961, in a generally solar direction with an apogee of 13.1
Earth radii (fig. 1) . A three-element flux-gate magne-
tometer provided by Cahill at the University of New
Hampshire (ref. 18) was one of the experiments on board.
This instrument could detect the magnitude and direction
of fields between 10 and 1000 gammas. The satellite had
a period of 26yz hours and, while apogee remained within
about 60" of the solar direction, crossings of the magneto-
sphere boundary were observed twice during each orbit,
once on the outbound and once on the inbound pass. The
most obvious characteristic of the boundary was a sudden
change in magnetic field direction, with field direction and
magnitude much more variable outside the boundary.
Usually, but not always, this was accompanied by a de-
crease in the magnitude of the field outside the boundary.
An example of a typical pass is shown in figure 4. The
outer shock wave boundary was not observed, since it was
usually beyond apogee (fig. 1 ) .
I THE TRANSITION ZONE A N D SHOCK WAVE

I The IMP I satellite was launched in November 1963 into

l a highly eccentric orbit extending out to 30 Earth radii
(fig. 1) , with instruments on board designed to explore the
outer magnetosphere and interplanetary region. With this
satellite a new and interesting feature of the terrestrial
environment was discovered. Two instruments on IMP I

19
 PARTlCLES AND FlELLlS

showed the existence of a detached bow shock wave toward

the Sun from the magnetopause. The magnetometer
(capable of measuring fields with a sensitivity of 0.25 gam-
mas) by Ness (ref. 13) showed two transitions as it moved
radially away from the Earth. For example, during orbit
11 (fig. 8) at about 13.6 Earth radii, the satellite passed
out through the magnetopause into a disordered field re-
gion of from 0 to 15 gammas, with variable direction.
Then at 20 Earth radii a second transition occurred; be-
yond this the field became quite steady at about 4 gammas.
This second transition indicates a shock wave. The mag-
netic field in the solar wind outside the shock wave is rather
steady, but within the shock, in a few thousand kilometers,
the field changes character significantly and becomes tur-
bulent and disordered. The variance of the field (meas-
ured over 5-minute intervals) is very small outside the
transition and is relatively large inside the shock. That
there might be such a detached shock wave upstream of
the Earth was suggested, in analogy to supersonic aero-
dynamics, even before the I M P I results were obtained.
Figure 9 shows the detached shock wave of a sphere im-
mersed in a supersonic flow of gas. The analogy with the
magnetosphere, however, is quite imperfect. In aerody-
namics the shock wave results from collisions of particles
and is about one mean free path thick. I n the solar wind
a coulomb-collision mean free path ( A = l/nu=1014 cm)
is so large that collisions play no part in the observed shock
wave. This collisionless shock wave is produced by mag-
netic field action, and the characteristic dimension is the
cyclotron radius, not the mean free path. A 1-keV proton
in a field of 10 gammas has a cyclotron radius of 450
kilometers. Inside a detached supersonic aerodynamic
shock, the regime is turbulent ahead of the obstacle. This
also appears to be the case for the magnetospheric detached
collisionless shock wave.

20
 T H E SOLAR W l N D

0
s gv)
0
E
E
8
I
C-

I 21
I 207-624 0---&6---3
 PARTICLES A N D FIELDS

Figure 9.-A sphere in a supersonic wind tunnel showing a de-

tached shock wave upstream from the object.

The M I T plasma detector, a multigrid Faraday cup, on

IMP I also observed the shock wave (ref. 9 ) . Outside the
shock near apogee, the detector showed a narrow, well-
collimated beam of solar wind moving radially away from
the Sun. A typical measured proton flux was 1Os/cm3/sec.
The wind usually appeared all in one energy window ; for
example, from 220 to 640 eV. At the same place that the
magnetometer showed the change in character of the mag-
netic field, the solar wind also changed. Outside the shock
the plasma is unidirectional, flowing from the Sun (fig.
l o ) , while inside the shock near the subsolar point the
plasma is more nearly isotropic. O n the sides of the
magnetosphere the flow becomes more directed, flowing
backward along the sides. In addition to this direction

22
 THE SOLAR W I N D

m2
*
I

23
 PARTICLES AND FIELDS

change, the protons change in energy. In the transition

zone between the shock and the magnetopause, there are
protons with considerably higher and lower energies than
in the solar wind. All channels of the M I T detector
showed significant proton fluxes in the transition zone.
The Ames plasma detector (ref. l o ) , a multichannel
electrostatic analyzer, also showed proton-energy change
(fig. 11 ) . This detector indicates that the flow in the
transition region is somewhat anisotropic even near the
subsolar point. These two experiments show that in the
transition zone the proton energy spectrum extends from
0.1 < E < 5 keV. -4pparently the plasma has been thermal-
ized in this region as it is nearly monoenergetic outside
the shock and roughly Maxwellian in the transition zone.
Shock waves normally produce an entropy increase. The
change in both the proton energies and angular distribu-
tion indicates an increase in disorder, and therefore an
increase in entropy inside the bow shock.
Electrons have not been observed in the solar wind,
although they must be there for the plasma to be elec-
trically neutral. If they have the same velocity as the
protons in the wind, they would have an energy of about
1 eV, and no instruments flown so far would have detected
them. The M I T plasma probe (ref. 9) was equipped
with a channel to count electrons of 65<E<210 eV. It
detected no electrons outside the shock, but inside the
shock an electron flux of about 10s/'cm2/secin this energy
range was usually found. These are apparently solar-
wind electrons accelerated in the transition zone. Freeman
earlier had detected a flux of -lo1' electrons/cm2/sec in
the range of 200 eV<E<500 keV outside the magneto-
sphere with a CdS detector aboard Explorer XI1 (ref. 3 3 ) .
This energetic electron flux extended out about 20 000
kilometers beyond the magnetopause to just about the
shock position. It seems obvious that these electrons are

24
 T H E SOLAR W I N D

10-14
-3740 V

c I I I I I I I
hi I

I I I t I I I I I I l l l l l l L U

Figure 11.-Solar-wind data from the Ames plasma detector on

IMP I. The inner boundary of the wind at 11 Earth radii is
approximately at the magnetopause. The sharp transition at
16 Earth radii is the bow shock wave iocation. in the transi-
tion region, protons of all energies are present. In the inter-
planetary medium, protons are present in one channel only.

the same population observed by the M I T plasma probe

on I M P I. The Goddard retarding potential analyzer on
IMP I also detected a substantial electron flux in the tran-
25
 PARTICLES A N D F I E L D S

sition zone (ref. 34). The flux measured was isotropic

-
and consisted of lo8electrons/cm2/sec of E> 100 eV.
The magnetopause may not really exclude all the plasma
striking it from outside. Serbu’s measurements with
I M P I indicate that the electron flux in the energy range
of 5 eV<E<100 eV does not show a discontinuity at the
magnetopause, while the solar-wind proton flux of Bridge
does fall off sharply inside this boundary. The boundary
seems to be semipermeable, allowing electrons but not
protons to flow inward. This would suggest certain mass-
sensitive instabilities at the boundary.
Higher energy electrons were observed with I M P I.
Simpson’s solid-state detector (ref. 35) and Anderson’s
Geiger counter (ref. 36) showed that fluxes of E>40
keV electrons were present intermittently. Anderson
found peak fluxes of about 1O6 electrons/cm*/sec, several
lasting the order of minutes (fig. 12 ) . These fluxes usually
occurred in the transition zone near the magnetopause,
though none were observed near apogee on early orbits.
Anderson suggested that these particles had been trapped
and then sloughed off from the magnetosphere. Simpson
suggested they were at the shock location and might have
been locally accelerated in the shock. Jokipii and Davis
(ref.37) showed that it is unlikely that the particles would
be observed at the shock location. Acceleration by a fac-
tor of 2 or 3 is possible at the shock, but this is clearly not
enough to produce 40-keV electrons. The particles should
be carried along with the bulk velocity of the solar wind
and should be observed at all places downstream of the
source location, not just at the shock. Jokipii suggests the
particles may be Fermi accelerated in the transition zone
and also that the magnetic field geometry may be such that
local trapping occurs, producing large local fluxes resem-
bling the observed spikes. There is no quantitative theory
of the origin of these energetic electrons.
26
 T H E SOLAR WZND

Magneto--
pause
LSEP
eo

L , 1 , 1 , 1 ,
C 8 6 4 2
Distance, Earth radii

Figure I2.-Flux of E>40-keV electrons detected on IMP I.

The radiation belt is present inside the magnetopause at 10
Earth radii, and outside this, occasional “islands” of particles
are observed. December 4, 1963, orbit 2 inbound.

All electron measurements described here were made at

small Sun-Earth-probe (SEP) angles. Data taken at
larger SEP angles show other features of the shock and
transition zone. Figure 13 shows the location of the mag-
netopause and shock as measured by the magnetometer
for the first 48 orbits of I M P I. The curve through the
magnetopause points is the theoretical shape of the bound-
ary as calculated by the single-particle reflection model.
The agreement is quite good at least to a 90” SEP angle.

27
 PARTlCLES AND F E m S

RE

Figure 13.-The location of the magnetopause and bow shock

as determined by the magnetometer on IMP I. The theoreti-
cally expected locations of the boundaries are indicated by the
solid curves.

At larger angles the magnetopause is observed to flare out

more than the single-particle theory predicts. The curve
through the shock-wave points is the theoretical curve for
an aerodynamic shock wave of Mach 8 for a gas with a
5/3 specific heat ratio. In this plasma situation the Mach
number is replaced by the AlfvCn number V W / V A .For
the interplanetary medium, the A l f v h velocity is roughly
V ~ = 5 0km/sec, so the Alfvkn number of the solar wind
is about 8.
The interplanetary field measured by I M P I was usually
quite steady at about 5 gammas. On orbit 5 the field was
unusually disturbed and rose to about 10 gammas for a day

28
 THE SOLAR W I N D

or more. On the first day of this disturbance, the Moon

nearly eclipsed the satellite, as shown in figure 14. Ness
has attributed this disturbed field to a wake of the Moon
(ref. 3 8 ) .
View on ecliptic plane

Figure 1 4 . 4 1 1 December 14 and 15, 1962, the interplanetary

magnetic field measured by IMP I was unusually disturbed.
This was the period of closest eclipse by the Moon and may indi-
cate a magnetic tail behind the Moon as shown here.

29
 chapter 3
Rudiation Belts

DISCOVERY OF THE BELTS

I N 1 9 5 8 A GEIGER COUNTER aboard Explorer I detected

a region of high count rate starting at an altitude of
about 1000 kilometers. This was so unexpected it was
suggested that the counter might have malfunctioned.
However, this effect was verified when Explorer I11 showed
the same results. Van Allen, who had conducted the ex-
periments on Explorer I and 111, realized very soon that
the high count rates resulted from charged particles
trapped in the Earth’s magnetic field (ref. 3 9 ) . Stormer
had worked extensively on this general subject and even
calculated orbits of trapped particles years earlier (ref.
40) , but the actual existence of trapped particles had not
been suggested in this work. Singer’s ideas about the ex-
istence of a terrestrial ring current had also essentially
included the idea of trapped particles (ref. 41 ) .
As these experiments were being conducted in space,
experiments with trapped particles were being conducted
in various laboratories. Project Sherwood is an attempt
by the AEC to make a controlled thermonuclear reaction
on a small scale by confining charged particles in a mag-
netic field. Christofilos, who was working on Sherwood,
extrapolated the laboratory idea to Earth scale and sug-
gested the possibility of trapping a large number of charged
particles in the magnetic field of the Earth by using a nu-
clear explosion to inject the particles (ref. 42). This idea
was carried out in the Argus experiment, which demon-

31
 PARTICLES AND FIELDS

strated experimentally that charged particles could be

trapped in the Earth’s field.
From a study of the Explorer I data, Van Allen showed
that the particles counted were geomagnetically trapped.
Data taken at different longitudes looked quite different
when plotted in geographic coordinates, but when re-
plotted in geomagnetic coordinates the different sets of data
agreed. Later McIlwain developed an especially useful
set of magnetic coordinates, the B-L system, which is now
normally used in plotting radiation-belt data (ref. 43 ) .
This system takes data collected in geographic coordinates
and combines data at different longitudes to make a two-
dimensional presentation of the data. I n a dipole field, L
is the geocentric distance to the equatorial crossing of a field
line in units of Earth radii, and B is the value of the mag-
netic field strength. For the Earth’s field the definition of
L is more complicated but fundamentally similar. Sputnik
I11 confirmed the existence of the trapped radiation in
May 1958 with measurements up to 1800 kilometers (ref.
44).
Explorer IV was launched in July 1958 with instru-
mentation for studying the natural radiation belt and the
artificial belt produced by the Argus nuclear tests. This
spacecraft obtained a map of the radiation-belt intensities
up to a 2200-kilometer altitude, as well as a range spectrum
of the charged particles (ref. 45 ) .
Isolated passes more or less radially outward through the
radiation belt were made by Pioneer I11 in December 1958
(ref. 46) and Pioneer I V in March 1959 (ref. 47) ,and also
the Soviet Space Rocket I in January 1959 and Space
Rocket I1 in September 1959 (ref. 4 4 ) .
The data from Explorer IV and Pioneer I11 enabled
Van Allen (ref. 46) to show the existence of two radiation
belts (fig. 15). This is really only the case for particles that
can penetrate 1 g/cm2, and we know now that the two

32
 .
RADIATZON BELTS

Figure 15.-Van Allen’s picture of the inner and outer zone of

the radiation belt made after Pioneer III.

zones are made up of different kinds of particles-protons

in the inner zone and electrons in the outer zone. A com-
parison of Pioneer I11 and IV data showed the time varia-
bility of the outer zone.
Data obtained by these various satellites before 1960
showed the general spatial limitations and time variability
of the radiation belt and something about the penetrating
nature of the radiation, but not the kind of particles
counted.
The general problem of charged-particle motion in a
dipole field is complicated. Fortunately, an approxima-
tion which simplifies the situation considerably can be used
for radiation belt particles. Alfv6n introduced the idea of
the guiding center of a particle. The particle motion
here is described in terms of ( 1) a rapid gyration about a
field line with a cyclotron period T,and radius of gyration
R,, and (2) motion of the guiding center of the particle
along the line of force. The motion along the line is pe-

33
 PARTICLES AND PlELDS

riodic, too. The particle is reflected by the converging

magnetic field near the Earth and bounces back and forth
in the exosphere with a bounce period TB. There is an-
other motion, a slow drift in longitude around the Earth
with a period of revolution ir,. Particles at 2000-kilo-
meter altitude near the Equator will have the characteris-
tics shown in table 11. Because the three periods are so dif-
ferent, the particle motion is separable into three com-
ponents. If the cyclotron radius of the particle R, becomes
comparable to the diameter of the Earth, the motion is not
separable, but even for 1-BeV protons this condition is not
attained.
Table 11.-Characteristics of Charged Particles in the Geomag-
netic Field

Particle R,, cm
I

50 keV electron. . . . . . 5 X 10 2. 5X10-6

I
0.25 690
1 MeV electron . . . . . . 3 . 2 X 10 7 x 10-6 .10 53
1 MeV proton . . . . . . . 1X 10 4x10-3 2.2 32
10 MeV proton. . . . . . 3 X 1 0 6 4 . 2 10-3
~ .65 3.2
500 MeV proton . . . . . 2 . 5 X 10 ’ 6X .ll .084

THE INNER RADIATION BELT

The first experiment in the radiation belt that unam-
biguously identified the particles counted was conducted
with a stack of nuclear emulsions on an Altas rocket in
April 1959 (ref. 48). The emulsion stack was recovered
and developed, and the nuclear tracks read. The range
and ionization of the particles were measured, the particles
identified, and their energies determined.
Protons of E>75 MeV and electrons of E>12 MeV
could penetrate the 6-g/cm2 shielding into the nuclear
emulsions. No electrons but a large number of protons

34
 .
RADIATION BELTS

29

Figure 16.-Energy spectrum of trapped protons in the inner

radiation zone as measured bv nuclear emulsions.

were found. The energy spectrum of protons measured by

Freden and White (ref. 49) on a later flight is shown in
figure 16. Other experiments have shown very similar

35
 jt PARTICLES AND H E W S

energy spectra and fluxes of protons, and have extended

the data down to lower energies (refs. 50 and 5 1) . Below
about 40 MeV the energy spectrum becomes quite flat
and shows a slight dip at about 20 MeV. The inner-belt
proton flux seems rather constant in time, varying by less
than a factor of 2 for several flights, and indicates that the
particle lifetime is quite long.
McIlwain used the spatial distribution of E>30 MeV
protons in the inner zone as measured on Explorer I V to
develop the B-L magnetic coordinate system. Figure 17
shows the B-L map of inner zone protons of E>30 MeV.
In geographic coordinates these data are extremely un-
wieldy.
There is now a quantitative interpretation of the high-
energy protons found by Freden and White. The protons

L, Earth radii

Figwe 17.-The spatial distribution of energetic protons ( E > 30

MeV) in the inner zone of the radiation belt (McIlwain’s B-L
coordinate system).

36
 RADL4TION BELTS

are made by the decay of neutrons leaking out of the

atmosphere of the Earth (refs. 44,52, and 5 3 ) . The neu-
trons are generated in the atmosphere by cosmic-ray pro-
tons colliding with 0 or N nuclei. When the escaping neu-
trons decay, protons are made, which can be trapped to
form part of the radiation belt. The trapped protons are
eventually lost by interacting with the thin atmosphere at
high altitudes. This model, when studied quantitatively,
supplies good agreement with the measured proton flux
and energy spectrum above 30 MeV (ref. 54). Solar-cycle
time changes in the inner edge of the energetic-proton belt
are expected because of the change in atmospheric density
with solar cycle and the resulting change in the loss rate
of the protons (ref. 5 5 ) . Changes observed on Explorer
VI1 for L<1.7 seem to agree with this theory (ref. 5 6 ) .
Naugle and KnifTen flew emulsions on the NERV ve-
hicle to study the energetic inner-zone protons (ref. 5 7 ) .
They found, besides the Freden-and-White-type protons, a
lower energy group (E<50 MeV) near the outer edge of
I the radiation belt for L> 1.7 (fig. 18). These protons may
very well come from decay of neutrons produced in the
polar atmosphere by solar protons (ref. 50). They would
have lower energy and be limited to high latitudes, as ob-
served. A study by Lenchek (ref. 58) gives reasonable
I agreement with the data.
I
Recently McIlwain, using Explorer XV data, has found
a second maximum at L=2.2 in the radial distribution of
energetic protons (ref. 59) of E>40 MeV (fig. 19). This
outer pariicie group was sic~biefor some months arid ihcn
changed suddenly in a substantial way at the time of a
large magnetic storm. At the outer edge of the distribution
D 2 . 3 , the flux decreased considerably (ref. 60). The
source of this second group of protons is uncertain. It
might be neutron decay injection modified by magnetic
disturbances. It might also be the result of L drift from

37
 PARTICLES A N D FIELDS

1o2

z 2
\
3
3 10
5
b
0
c
2 5
Q

X
-
LL

.5

.2

Kinetic energy, MeV

Figure 18.-The proton energy spectrum at dif-

ferent locations in the inner zone showing the
lower energy protons present in the outer parts
of the inner zone.

38
RADIATION BELTS

39
 PARTICLES AND FIELDS

the magnetopause inward-the same process invoked to

explain the low-energy outer zone protons observed by
Davis (ref. 61). I t is clear that some form of magnetic
disturbances are important in controlling the outer edge
of the energetic proton distribution.
It would seem that at least three sources are needed to
explain the spatial distribution and energy spectrum of
E > 10 MeV protons.
Little is known about the natural electrons in the inner
radiation zone. It appears that there are few if any elec-
trons of E> 1 MeV (ref. 62). By studying artificial radia-
tion belts, it is known that the electron lifetimes are as
long as years at the center of the inner zone. These two
facts support the thesis that neutron decay is an important
source for electrons as well as protons in the inner belt.
But there are large numbers of E<100 keV electrons in
the inner belt. These cannot be reasonably attributed to
neutron decay and imply that some other source is im-
portant, too.
On Injun I, Freeman found a large flux of low-energy
protons in the inner belt (ref. 63). Energy fluxes as large
as 100 ergs/cm’/sec were observed. These particles may
be the seat of the ring current. (See discussion in ch. 4.)
ARTIFICIAL RADIATION BELTS

Seven artificial radiation belts have been made by high-

altitude explosions of nuclear bombs since 1958. These
artificial belts resulted from the release of energetic
charged particles, mostly electrons, from the nuclear ex-
plosions (ref. 64). The seven explosions are listed in table
111. The Argus explosions were carried out to study the
trapping of particles in the Earth’s magnetic field. Chris-
tofilos had suggested that electrons from P decay of fission
fragments from a nuclear explosion should be able to make
an artificial radiation belt (ref. 4 2 ) . The Argus belts,

40
 RADIATION BELTS

Table III.-Nuclem Explosions Space

Explosion Locale
I Time

--
Yield, dtitude,
kt miles

Argus I . . . . . .South Atlantic. . . . . . . . 1958.. . . . . . . . . . 1 300

Argus 1 1 . . . . .South Atlantic. . . . . . . . 1958.. . . . . . . . . . 1 300
Argus 111.. . . . South Atlantic. . . . . . . . 1958.. . . . . . . . . . 1 300
Starfish. . . . . .Johnson Island, Pacific July 9, 1962. . . . 1400 250
Ocean.
U.S.S.R. . . . . . Siberia.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oct. 22, 1962.. ' (8) (3
U.S.S.R. . . . . . Siberia.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oct. 28, 1962.. . (9 (?)
U.S.S.R. . . . . . Siberia.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nov. 1, 1962.. . ' (9 (?I

a Several hundred kilotons.

studied by Van Allen on Explorer I V (ref. 65) , decayed

in a week or so. During this time they did not move
radially a measurable amount.
The Starfish explosion made a much more extensive
belt than any of the Argus explosions. Electron fluxes of
10g/cmz/sec were produced. The belt was studied dur-
ing the first few weeks by detectors on Injun I (ref. 66) ,
TRAAC (ref. 67), Telstar I (ref. 68), Ariel I (ref. 69),
and Cosmos 5 (ref. 70). Early flux maps produced by
Injun I (ref. 66) and Telstar I (ref. 68) seemed to be in
disagreement as to the radical extent of the belt, but now
that the electron energy spectra at different locations in
the belt are understood, the differences are also under-
stood. The spectra were measured by West (ref. 71)
using an electron spectrometer on the Starad satellite
(fig. 20). West found the electrons at L= 1.25 corre-
sponded to roughly a fission energy distribution, but that
at L-1.5 the electrons were of appreciably lower energy.
These low-energy electrons would not be measured effi-
ciently by the Injun I detector. It is not understood why
the Starfish electrons extended as far away from the ex-
plosion site as they did, but there are untested ideas as to

41
 PARTICLES AND FIELDS

L=l .34 \
\
\
\

L=i. 57

I I I 1 I .- I
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Energy, MeV

Figure 20.-Energy spectra of electrons in the Starfish artificial

radiation belt as measured by the Starad satellite.

why the electron energies were different in different sec-

tions of the artificial belt.
Brown measured the decay of the Starfish electrons
with Telstar I (ref. 68) and found unusually rapid decay
above L= 1.7. For L< 1.5 the decay is quite slow and
obviously controlled by the atmosphere. Injun I and I11

42
 RADlATlON BELTS
1oOoo
E

B
0.190
0.200

0.210

0.220

0.230

‘ 1 0 1 000 2000
O 3000 4000 3

Time, hr

Figure 21 .-Decay of the Starfish artificial radiation belt electrons

at low altitudes as measured on Injun I and 111. 1.251L11.35.

(ref. 72) (fig. 2 1 ) and Alouette I (ref. 73) measurements

of the decay give lifetimes up to several years for low
altitudes, in agreement with calculations of Welch et al.
(ref. 74) and Walt (ref. 75) based on atmospheric scatter-
ing. Brown found a lifetime of less than a week at
L=2.5 (fig. 2 2 ) . Explorer XV was launched to study
artificial belts by following the decay of the Starfish M i .
In the fall of 1962, three Soviet artificial belts were made
in the region 1.7<L<3.0. Explorer XV observed these
belts and determined their histories. All of these-belts
decayed rapidly, as did the Starfish belt for L>1.7. The
short lifetime at high altitude is very probably due to some
type of electromagnetic waves interacting with the elec-

43
 PARTICLES AND FIELDS

Day of par. 1962

Figure 22.-Rapid decay of the Starfish electrons at high altitudes

as measured on Telstar I.

trons. Dungey (ref. 76) has suggested that whistlers,

circularly polarized waves that travel along field lines, can
interact resonantly with the electrons. As a result, the
electrons would be scattered and lost more rapidly. This
seems reasonable, but cannot be considered proven.
Electron lifetimes determined from measuring artificial
belt decay are the only reliable lifetimes we have. Using
these values, we can understand some of the characteristics
of the natural trapped electrons.
Yagoda (ref. 7 7 ) , studying protons with emulsions on
low-altitude polar satellites, found that the E> 55-MeV
protons in the Van Allen belt were disturbed by the Star-
fish test. Increased proton fluxes were found after the
explosion at altitudes of several hundred kilometers.
These fluxes decayed back to normal in a matter of
months.

44
 RADIATION BELTS

THE OUTER RADIATION BELT

Although there is no clear demarcation between an in-
ner and outer radiation belt for electrons, the separation is
very sharp for protons and occurs at about L=2. In the
inner zone, there are protons with energies up to hun-
dreds of MeV. In the outer zone, proton energies are
much lower, fluxes are much higher, and albedo neutrons
are inadequate by many orders of magnitude to explain
the observed fluxes.
These outer zone protons were discovered in 1962 by
Davis and Williamson (ref. 61) with equipment on
Explorer XII. Observations of these protons have also
been made on Explorer XIV and XV. A rather surpris-
ing result of measurements over a few years has been the
stability of the flux level, although fluxes are large and
proton lifetimes relatively short.
Because of this stability, it has been possible to obtain
relatively detailed information on the energy spectra and
directional fluxes. The detectors measured protons with
energies between 100 keV and 5 MeV. Most of the pro-
tons were near the lower energy limit. The data were
adequately ordered through the use of L and equatorial
pitch angle (EPA), as calculated with the Jensen and
Cain Earth's magnetic field (ref. 78) for L<5. For
L=3.5 and EPA=90", a peak intensity of 3.7x10' pro-
tons/cm2/sec/sr has been found, with a gradual falloff in
intensity at both larger and smaller L. At any L, the peak
intensity was found for EPA=90", with a smooth falloff
to zero at small EPA.
The energy spectra were found to have large but smooth
variations with both L and EPA (fig. 2 3 ) . More ener-
getic protons were found near the Earth and at large EPA.
The spectral data were well represented by eWEIEo, where
EOvaried as L-3for EPA =90" and varied less rapidly with
L for smaller EPA.
45
 PARTICLES A N D FIELDS

107r- - __t__

Y
mTtm_

? Ed20 keV Eo:64 keV

-
Ro.6 I

.-
104
~

l I I . I 1 l I

0 500 1000 1500 0 500 I( 0 500 1000

Energy, keV

Figure 2?.-Energy spectra of low-energy protons measured by

Explorer XI1 at several locations in the outer zone of the radia-
tion belt, August 26,1961.

Theoretical studies (ref. 79) indicate that these spectral

variations can be explained by a simple model that assumes
that the source of these protons is at or near the magneto-
pause. The protons are assumed to migrate rapidly in L
space through the violation of the third adiabatic invariant
for trapped particles, but with the preservation of the mag-
netic moment 1-1 and the line integral I invariants. AS
the protons drift inward they are accelerated, the expo-
nential spectrum becomes harder, and the value of EO
increases. For EPA=90" the fields B a L-" and EO"B E
L? are in agreement with the experimental data (fig. 24).
Other studies indicate that L-space motion through geo-
magnetic field changes, such as sudden commencements
and sudden impulses, may be adequate to explain the varia-
tions in fluxes with L, when loss processes are also con-
sidered (ref. 80 ) .

46
 RADIATION BELTS

500

200
Eo

100

50

2 3 4 5 6
L
Figure 24.-The dotted lines are theoretical curves for the varia-
tion of E,, with L, assuming the outer zone protons move
radially, conserving p and I . The solid lines are the experi-
mental values of E , from Explorer XI1 data.

Observations at L values between 5 and 8 indicate that

large time variations do occur for protons with energies
,qreater
- than 1 MeV, but that protons near 100 keV are
relatively more stable. As expected, the data at these
larger values of L are not well ordered by magnetic field
models that do not consider perturbing fields such as those
produced by the solar wind at the magnetopause.
Because of the large energy density of these outer belt
protons, the hope arose that these protons might be the
cause of the ring current. Calculations with measured

47
 PARTICLES A N D FIELDS

fluxes indicate, however, that these protons make only

about a 10-gamma disturbance field at the Earth's sur-
face (ref. 81 ).
In 1959 a rocket carrying an electron spectrometer
showed that the penetrating particles in the outer belt
were electrons (ref. 82). An outstanding difference be-
tween electrons and protons in the outer zone is the large
(factor of 100) variability in the electron fluxes in times of
the order of hours (ref. 83). Explorer VI detectors
showed that electron flux changes were large, especially at
the times of magnetic storms. The E > 1.5 MeV electrons
at about L =3 frequently decrease, sometimes nearly dis-

w -
w - :2-

d :

Jan. I, 1963
yx) 315 330
,
345
I
)60
1 I
375 Wl

Day of year, 1962

. Figure 25.-Time variations of electrons E > 5 MeV at A=O (BIB,,

=1.0) in the outer zone measured on Explorer XV.

48
 RADlATlO N BELTS

appearing, during a large storm, while the low energy

E>4O-keV flux may increase. McIlwain (ref. 59) showed
how the E>5-MeV electrons injected into the field by a
nuclear explosion behaved during storms (fig. 25 ) . Sev-
eral storms decreased the flux at L-4, but in December
1962 the flux increased by a factor of about 100. On the
basis of Lunik I1 data, it is not believed that there are
any E>5-MeV electrons present at quiet times in the
natural belt (ref. 3 ) . This increase, therefore, is indicative
of acceleration of lower energy particles to above 5 MeV,
although the possibility of injection of E>5-MeV parti-
cles cannot be excluded. The electron spectra also show
changes with time. Because of this variability, it is now
fairly certain that electrons from albedo neutrons are not
an important source of the outer belt.
If typical average values for electrons are compared with
those for protons, rather surprising similarities are found.
The electron energies extend to a few MeV, as do proton
energies. The spectra show grossly similar falloff with in-
creasing energy. The softening of spectra with increas-
ing L is also similar. Fluxes are also comparable, although
electron fluxes tend to be lower. Perhaps the similarities
point to common mechanisms operating on protons and
electrons. In fact, the magnetic field fluctuation mecha-
nism (ref. 79) that seems to be important for protons was
initially developed to explain the electrons in the outer
radiation belt.
O’Brien, with data from Injun I and 111, showed that
there were frequently large fluxes of precipitated eiec-
trons striking the upper atmosphere in the region of the
outer belt (refs. 84 and 85)= At the auroral zone there
is always preciptation. O’Brien also showed that outer-
belt-trapped fluxes increased when precipitation increased,
leading to the splash-catcher model of the outer belt. It
would appear that there might be a common source for

49
 PARTICLES AND FIELDS

the aurora, precipitated electrons, and outer-belt-trapped

particles.
Van Allen has shown that the outer limit of the radia-
tion belt is not symmetric (ref. 86) (fig. 26). The radial
limit of trapping is about 10 Earth radii at the subsolar
point and about 8 Earth radii on the night side. This
asymmetry agrees with the magnetic field model of
Mead (ref. 23), and is merely due to the effect-of the
solar wind on the field. In keeping with this asymmetry,
a day-night difference in the upper latitude limit of
trapping has been observed (refs. 87 and 88). Palmer
and Williams have found that during magnetically quiet
times, the day-night difference is about 2", as expected
from Mead's model, but for disturbed times the difference
is larger (ref. 89).
OTHER RADIATION BELTS

There is some knowledge about radiation belts on some

other planets. Decimeter radiation from Jupiter (ref.
90 ) has been identified as synchrotron radiation from
trapped electrons (ref. 91 ) . This radiation shows linear
polarization and the radio source is more than three times
the width of the planet (ref. 92) ; both facts are consonant
with a radiation-belt source. If the surface magnetic field
is about 10 gauss, as is suggested from other Jupiter radio
waves, then the belt should consist of about lo8 electrons/
cm2/sec of E>10 MeV at about 2 Jupiter radii to give
the observed synchrotron radiation (ref. 9 3 ) . This is a
very intense electron belt compared to the Earth's. The
synchrotron radiation from the terrestrial natural Van
Allen belt is too low to be measured. Synchrotron radia-
tion, however, was measured from the artificial belt
formed by the Starfish event.
The Mariner I1 probe passed about 40 000 kilometers
away from Venus on the sunward side. At this distance

50
RADIATION BELTS

51
 PARTZCLES A N D FIELDS

there was no evidence for a planetary magnetic field (ref.

12) or any evidence of trapped particles (refs. 94 and 95).
This does not eliminate the possibility of a radiation belt,
but only means that Mariner I1 stayed outside the
Venusian magnetosphere and that, therefore, the surface
field of Venus can be no greater than about 10 percent of
the Earth’s.
There is no evidence of the existence of any other radia-
tion belts. Lunik I1 showed that the Moon’s field is less
than 100 gammas, so that it can hardly have a radiation
belt (ref. 96). No other planets show significant synchro-
tron radiation.
THE AURORA
Despite the many fine experiments that have been
performed in the satellite era to investigate aurorae, their
explanation remains elusive. The elimination of theories
cannot usually be claimed as triumphs; but the virtuallv
complete elimination of two seemingly obvious ones ranks
as a significant accomplishment.
The older of these theories, due to Stormer, explained
aurorae as due to solar particles that entered the Earth’s
magnetic field directly near the auroral zones (ref. 40).
Both Russian (ref. 97) and U.S. deep space probes (ref.
98) have shown that sufficient fluxes of such energetic
solar particles do not exist in the interplanetary medium
away from the Earth.
The other unsuccessful auroral theory was born as
recently as the satellite era. Early low-altitude satellites
detected large fluxes of electrons with sufficient particle
energies to contribute to the production of aurorae. The
hope arose that fluxes large enough to explain aurorae
might exist at higher altitudes; then, some mechanism for
the dumping of the trapped electrons from the Van Allen
belts was all that was necessary for the explanation of
aurorae. Measurements by both Soviet (ref. 99) and

52
 RADIATION BELTS

U.S. scientists (ref. 100) indicated, however, that although

the higher altitude fluxes were larger, they were insuffi-
cient to account for aurorae. A flux tube of the Van Allen
belt would be drained in a matter of seconds by a strong
aurora; but such an aurora can last for hours. A most
significant finding from Injun I measurements was the
discovery by O’Brien (ref. 84) of the increase in the
trapped-particle population when large fluxes of electrons
entered the atmosphere (fig. 27). Thus the elimination

Invariant latitude. A
Figure 27.-Simultaneous observation of trapped electrons,
dumped electrons, and auroral light emission. These and other
studies indicate an increase in trapped radiation when aurorae
occur. Injun 111, 0705 UT, January 31, 1363.

53
207-621 0-66-5
 PARTICLES AND F I E L D S

of the auroral theory of the dumping of trapped particles

has given rise to the view that whatever causes aurorae
is also a major contributor to the radiation belts.
Besides these results that have eliminated theories, many
discoveries which limit new theories have been made.
O'Brien showed that electron fluxes of at least 104/cmz/sec
were being lost all the time in the auroral zone (fig. 28),
and that when this flux increased, visual aurorae occurred.
Invariant latitude, A
60" 65' 70" 7 5"
I

- . . ,.
. . :-• . . .

' I

. . .
IO'
2 4 6 e IO 12 14 16
L, Earth radii

Figure 28.-Sample of precipitated electrons EA40 keV, Jnjun

111. Note that near L = 6 , some precipitated flux is observed
at all times, since all observations show more than background
fluxes.

54
 RADIATION BELTS

The particles which contribute most to auroral emission

have been found to be electrons with energies below 25
keV. However, electrons with energies above 25 keV and
with energies as high as 100 keV are also associated with
aurorae. Most of the auroral light seems to be produced
by electrons near 10 keV. Certain aurorae are excited by
both electrons and protons, and others appear to be excited
predominantly by either electrons or protons.
McIlwain (ref. 101) , Davis ( ref. 102) ,and McDiarmid
(ref. 103) have flown rockets into active auroral displays,
and have found that electrons of a few keV are the com-
monly found particles. The narrowness of some auroral
arcs agrees with electrons as the active particles; the pro-
ton cyclotron radius would be larger. The common alti-
tude of visual aurorae, 100 kilometers, is what is expected
for electrons of about 5 keV. A spectrometer flown by
Bloom on a Discoverer satellite showed that electrons up
to 150 keV are frequently found in the auroral zone (ref.
104). Brown (ref. 105) and Anderson (ref. 106) have
used detectors on balloons for observing X-rays from such
electrons. The more energetic electrons frequently enter
the atmosphere in short bursts, with repetition periods of
the order of seconds (ref. 107).
Recent experiments by Evans (ref. 108) on Air Force
satellites have measured the electron energies down to
80 eV. These experiments show that there are usually
fewer electrons at these very low energies than at 1 keV.
Bo& magnetic-fieid and trapped-particle IrieasuIeiiieiiis
have made it possible to follow field lines from where
aurorae occur. These studies show that many aurorae
occur on field lines that contain trapped particles and that
connect directly to the opposite hemisphere. However,
many aurorae appear to occur near the outer limit of trap-
ping field lines.

55
 PARTICLES A N D FIELDS

Satellite measurements of very-low-frequency (VLF )

intensities in the magnetosphere at the time of aurorae
and on the same field lines indicate that VLF intensities
are insufficient to energize auroral particles, and that if
there is a causal relationship, that which produces aurorae
also produces VLF (ref. 109).
Satellites have been equipped with sensitive optical
sensors to observe aurorae from above (ref. 110).
Although these satellites do not stay very long in the
auroral regions, they have the advantages of freedom from
cloud interference and the ability to scan large areas.
These sensors have shown that in over some 5" of latitude
in the auroral zones, aurorae were detected at all times;
in the 5" latitude strips bordering the main auroral zone,
auroral emissions were detected a large part of the time.
Because of the elimination of several lines of approach,
promising areas for experimentation and study are reason-
ably obvious and include phenomena in the tail of the
magnetosphere and electric fields. As yet, there is no
satisfactory explanation of the source of aurorae.

56
 chapter 4
The Earth’s Magnetic Field

, A CCURATE KNOWLEDGE of the Earth’s magnetic field is

desirable for many reasons. Reliable charts have,
of course, always been needed for nautical and aeronautical
navigation. Also, a detailed knowledge of the main field
and its time history is a necessary prelude to a fundamental
understanding of the origin of the field and its secular varia-
tions. In addition, the space age has brought its own
peculiar needs, particularly in describing the region be-
tween the Earth’s surface and the magnetospheric bound-
ary. First, an accurate main field reference is needed for
rocket and satellite magnetic field measurements designed
to locate and identify current sources external to the Earth.
Second, the motion and distribution of trapped particles
and the trajectories of solar particles and cosmic rays as
they approach the Earth are determined by the Earth‘s
magnetic field. Finally, knowledge of the detailed ge-
ometry of field lines is necessary for locating conjugate
points; for ionospheric research ; and for understanding
aurorae, whistlers, and other geomagnetically controlled
phenomena.
L~---
At present, the a c c u-- -c~ C-IJ
L Lul -__-
llL1u Jocpvintinnc
uL-I -i s limited
_____..
by
the availability of up-to-date worldwide magnetic data.
However, the distribution of available data over the Earth’s
surface is extremely nonuniform. More than enough data
are available over North America and Europe, for ex-
I ample, but data are essentially nonexistent over vast parts
I
of the Pacific Ocean and in the Antarctic region. I n addi-
1
, tion, the data that do exist for some of these poorly mapped

I 57
 PARTICLES A N D FIELDS

regions were obtained, in many cases, more than 50 years

ago. The secular changes in the Earth’s field which are
continually taking place make many of these data useless
for describing the field as it now exists. And finally, the
older mathematical techniques required that values of the
field be taken at regular grid intervals in order to determine
the spherical harmonic coefficients for a mathematical de-
scription of the Earth’s field. Thus the basic data could
not be used, but a finding had to depend upon the ability of
the chartmaker to draw accurate contours and determine
the values at the grid intervals. In the past, two or more
workers who began with essentially the same data have
arrived at sets of coefficients which differ significantly.
Much progress has been made on the latter problem.
The availability of high-speed computers has made it POS-
sible to use raw data directly in determining coefficients,
thus eliminating the intermediate contour maps. Much
data have been digitized and transferred onto cards and
tape for use in computers.
Satellites appear to be particularly suitable as a basic
source of up-to-date worldwide magnetic data. All parts
of the world are accessible to a polar-orbiting satellite, and
extensive data can be obtained over a short period, in which
secular changes are negligible. So far, however, there has
not been a truly worldwide survey of this type. The Van-
guard I11 satellite, launched in September 1959, made
measurements of the total field at altitudes of 510 to 3753
kilometers over certain sections of North and South Amer-
ica, Australia, and southern Africa (ref. 1 1 1 ) . Since these
regions covered only a small fraction of the Earth’s sur-
face, the spherical harmonic coefficients which were ob-
tained as a best fit to the data were not judged to be useful
as an accurate description of the entire Earth’s field. How-
ever, these data have been included along with other
ground-based data in obtaining the Jensen and Cain co-

58
 EARTH’S MAGNETlC FlELD

efficients for epoch 1960 (ref. 78). Some magnetic data

over North America have also been obtained from Alouette
I by analyzing the ionograms for multiples of the electron
cyclotron frequency. A major flight project for accurate
determination of the Earth’s field is an experiment on
POGO, which is to be launched into a polar orbit (ref.
1 1 2 ) . It is hoped that data from this experiment will
increase the accuracy with which the Earth’s field is de-
scribed by almost an order of magnitude.
The World Magnetic Survey (WMS) (ref. 112), a co-
operative effort involving personnel and equipment from
over 30 nations, will produce much additional ground-
based and satellite data, concentrating on the present pe-
riod of the Quiet Sun. As part of this effort, data are pres-
ently being obtained by the Russian nonmagnetic ship, the
Zarya, in the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans; and by
Project Magnet, a U.S. effort in which a specially equipped
airplane flies over selected land and sea masses. Estab-
lished magnetic observatories (the United States operates
11) continue to provide up-to-date data for the regions in
which they are located.
Due to the distortion of the Earth’s field by the solar
wind and the presence of charged particles in the mag-
netosphere, the ordinary spherical harmonic expansion of
the Earth’s field is not accurate at large distances from
the Earth. Explorer VI (ref. 14), X (ref. 22), XI1 (ref.
18), XIV (ref. 113), and XVIII ( I M P I ) (ref. 13) all
contained magnetometers which observed these effects.
i n general, they have foiiiii: that :he measured field is
usually stronger in the equatorial regions than that which
one would expect on the basis of a simple extension of the
Earth’s surface field. In addition, the direction of the
field is often significantly altered. As a result, field lines
emerging from the Earth at high geomagnetic latitudes
become grossly distorted. The effects depend strongly on

59
 PARTICLES A N D FIELDS

the relative position of the Sun, indicating the importance

of the solar wind. Since there are large temporal changes
in the strength of the solar wind and the distribution of
charged particles in the magnetosphere, it is difficult to
obtain an accurate mathematical description of the field
at every point in space. So far, most of our understanding
of the topology of the field in the magnetosphere is qualita-
tive in nature. Our present picture, however, is vastly
different from that which was generally accepted 6 or 8
years ago, before information from satellites and space
probes forced us to reexamine the basic concepts. The
effects of the solar wind on the Earth’s magnetic field
were considered in greater detail on chapter 2.
Much effort has been expended in exploring and at-
tempting to understand magnetic field variations. Many
types of variations are closely related to solar activity and
must therefore be caused, directly or indirectly, by cor-
puscular or electromagnetic emissions from the Sun. A
magnetic storm, for example, typically, has several clearly
distinguishable phases, which are best seen in the records
of the horizontal component of the Earth’s field. The
sudden increase in the magnitude of this component, re-
ferred to as a sudden commencement, is now known to be
due to the arrival at the Earth of an additional burst of
plasma from the Sun. This provides an additional com-
pression of the magnetosphere, thus increasing the field.
This increase usually lasts for several hours (the initial
phase) and is generally followed by a much larger de-
crease in the horizontal component, lasting for several
days (main phase). This decrease is still not well
understood.
Singer postulated that the main phase was caused by
the longitudinal drift of trapped particles in the Earth’s
field, producing effectively a ring current (ref. 41 ) . The
whole question of ring currents and main phase of mag-

60
 EARTH’S MAGNETIC FIELD

netic storms has been reviewed recently by Akasofu (ref.

114) and Smith (ref. 115). Attempts have been made
with Explorer VI data (ref. 116) and Explorer X data
(ref. 32) to relate magnetometer measurements with
possible ring currents. Up to the present time, however,
no satellite magnetometer measurements have definitely
located the postulated ring current. None of the trapped
particle fluxes, either electrons or protons, are intense
enough to produce the observed main-phase decrease.
The low-energy protons observed by Davis and William-
son (ref. 61 ) produce only about 10-Yreduction (ref. 81 ) ,
much less than that actually observed during storms. The
existence and location of the ring current is still a major
unsolved question.
Often the horizontal component is observed to increase
suddenly, but without a subsequent main phase. Such
increases are called sudden impluses if they are observed
worldwide. Nishida and Cahill have shown these im-
pulses to be related to similar magnetic changes observed
by Explorer XI1 at large distances from the Earth, and
have related them to shifts in the magnetopause boundary
caused by increased solar-wind pressure (ref. 1 1 7 ) . Fur-
ther evidence for the correlation of solar-wind properties
with magnetic activity comes from the Mariner I1 space
probe (ref. 8), which has shown that the velocity of the
solar wind is strongly correlated with the k, index (an
index of magnetic activity in midlatitudes) .

61
 chapter 5

Solar Energetic Particles and

Ground Effects

B EFORE SATELLITES, measurements had been made that

indicated that energetic particles occasionally arrive
at the Earth from the Sun. Even before the IGY, sea-
level cosmic-ray neutron monitors had observed a few
events (ref. 118). In February 1956 a rare white-light
flare occurred that produced protons of over 1 BeV, which
could be detected by sea-level neutron monitors (ref. 119).
The first direct evidence that the Sun produces large
fluxes of low-energy protons (around several hundred
MeV) was obtained by chance 01kMarch 26, 1958, when
a balloon was flown by Winckler’s group at Minneapolis
during the main phase of a moderate geomagnetic storm
(ref. 120). Counters on the balloon showed a steadily
increasing count rate during the flight. Nuclear emulsions
recovered from the flight showed large numbers of pro-
tons of E-100 MeV. A large east-limb flare on March
23, 1958, had produced a radio blackout in the polar
regions. This blackout was caused by absorption in the
D-layer of the ionosphere due to increased ionization pro-
duced by the incident protons. Since this event, riometers,
which measure the absorption of galactic radio noise in
the ionosphere, have been used to give warnings that solar
protons are incident on the polar atmosphere. Several of
the polar cap absorption (PCA) events have been studied
by launching balloons and rockets when PCA events were
detected. Charakhchian in the U.S.S.R. also studied solar

63
 PARTICLES AND F I E L D S

proton events since July 1958 by twice-daily routine bal-

loon flights (ref. 121). Winckler (ref. 122), by studying
the ascent and descent records of balloons and assuming
an isotropic incident proton flux and correcting for atmos-
pheric loss, was able to deduce an energy spectrum for the
solar protons. He also showed that geomagnetic cutoffs
were changed during some solar proton events at the time
when the magnetic storm started on Earth ; this was some
time after the start of the PCA event. Protons down to
80 MeV or even less have been found at Minneapolis,
where normally the cutoff is about 700 MeV. Obviously,
the geomagnetic field must have been considerably dis-
turbed at the time.
Emulsions flown on balloons have been used to measure
proton energy spectra; they have also shown that besides
protons there were (Y particles present. The a/proton
ratios vary widely, from 1 : 1 to 1:30 for different events.
Emulsions flown by Fichtel (ref. 123) on sounding rockets
from Fort Churchill during the September 3, 1960, and
November 12 and 15, 1960, PCA events gave data on the
abundance (relative to carbon) of nuclei up to 2 = 8 in
cosmic rays, as shown in table IV.
Table IV.-Relatiue Abundance of Elements in the Sun and
Cosmic Rays

Nuclei
Source Protons -

Be, B C N 0
-~
Galactic cosmic rays (same
rigidity interval) . . . . . . . 2. 6X lo3 5 10 5 6
Sun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20x 1 0 3 10-5 10 2 18
Solar cosmic rays (same
rigidity interval) . . . . . . , (2.6-5O)X lo3 5 10 6 19
___

64
 S O L A R ENERGETIC PARTICLES

The interesting observation here of a relatively high

abundance of B and Be shows a considerable difference
from solar composition. These elements enter into ther-
monuclear reactions and are easily burned. Any pro-
posed source mechanism must explain the existence of
these light elements.
Satellite observations of solar protons (ref. 45) began
with Explorer I V in August 1958. Detectors on Explorer
VI1 (ref. 124) observed several events in 1960, and Injun I
studied events in July 1961 (ref. 125). Rough energy
spectra and time histories of events from 1958 to 1961
have been constructed by using data from neutron moni-
tors; counters on satellites, balloons, and rockets; and from
riometers (ref. 126) . McDonald’s group flew instruments
on Explorer XI1 which permitted detailed energy spectra
as a function of time to be measured for the first time, for
most of the solar proton event of September 28, 1961
(ref. 127). Because Explorer XI1 was outside the geo-
magnetic field part of the time, it could give unequivocal
measurements of proton fluxes down to about 3 MeV.
These measured flux-time histories have provided infor-
mation about the mode of propagation of the particles
from the Sun. If they moved in an orderly way outward
from the Sun, they would arrive at the Earth from pre-
ferred directions. This is not the usual situation; the solar
protons are generally isotropic at the Earth. They diffuse
to the Earth, as can be demonstrated directly from the
experimental data. Isotropic diffusion from a point
source gives a flux distribution which should obey a law
of the following form:
Const. 3r2/4vXt
J(r7 0=t3/2 e

A test of this law is shown in figure 29 which shows that

after an initial period of an hour or so, isotropic diffusion

65
 PARTlCLES A N D FIELDS

Protons
200-300 MeV
Intensity ‘

/* \
/ \

I
; I
maximum

/
I
‘
1 */I.

/’
Protons
I
I

I
/
/
/
-
~ 6 0 0MeV
/ /

‘ /

// CalcuIat e d
/
/’ .I
1

0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 IO 20

Time, hr
Figure 29.-A test of diffusion theory applied to solar protons.
After about 1 hour, the data agree with the model.

seems to apply (ref. 128). This is really too simple a

model. The presence of the magnetic field means the
diffusion cannot be really isotropic. The solar magnetic
field is apparently disturbed enough so that the protons
are frequently scattered with an effective mean free
path of about 0.04 AU. The diffusion problem can be

66
 SOLAR ENERGETIC PARTICLES

worked backward to determine the source-energy spec-

trum at the Sun. This source spectrum can be described
by a power law in kinetic energy from a few MeV to
several hundred MeV (ref. 128).
Another interesting observation made on Explorer XI1
and XIV is that there are periodic fluctuations in intensity,
simultaneous at all energies, with periods of the order of
1 hour. These seem to be local, Le., close to the magneto-
pause, because they occur at all energies simultaneously
and are perhaps caused by periodic oscillations of some
type in the transition zone (ref. 129).
The high-energy solar protons that arrive early in an
event do sometimes come preferentially from about 45 O

west of the Sun (ref. 129). This is what is expected if

the particles are guided by the spiral solar magnetic field.
This directionality does not last long and is present only
for events that occur near the west limb of the Sun. The
west limb is rather well connected magnetically to the
Earth due to the spiral-shaped solar field. Protons from
east-limb flares take longer to get to the Earth and are
isotropic, probably because the particles have to diffuse
across the magnetic field. A sketch of the history of a
solar proton event (ref. 126) is shown in figure 30.
Data from Explorer XI1 by McDonald (ref. 130) and
from I M P I by Simpson have shown that certain solar
proton events return with a 27-day period, the rotation
period of the Sun (fig. 3 1 ) . This very interesting observa-
tion suggests that certain magnetic-field configurations
periodicaiiy enguif the Earth as the Sun rotates and that
there is either energetic-particle production or particle
storage for a month or more (fig. 2 ) .
We know relatively little about the mechanism of pro-
duction of energetic solar protons. It seems that the
energy for solar flares must come from the conversion of
magnetic-field energy to particle energy and light. This

67
 PARTICLES A N D F I E L D S

SUkEt T/ Sun
Plasma ejected by
solar flare carries
with it the magnetic
flux that linked it
Plasma7 while in vicinity of sun.
disturbance

0
Earth

E$h plasma disturbance.

Start of magnetic
storm

Galactic cosmic
rays screened away
by magnetic fields
transported by plasma

Figare 30.-History of a solar proton event. (a) 6 hours after

flare; (b) about 24 hours after flare; ( c ) about 48 hours after
flare.

68
 SOLAR ENERGETIC PARTICLES

to8

10' 1

\
L
c
0

106
E
\

-tn
Q)

.-
0
c
L - \
g lo5
-x-
3
LL

10'

lo3
301 2 3 4 5 6 7 4 u i e t t i m e - 26 27 28
October 1961
Figure ?1 ,-A recurrent solar proton event measured on Explorer
XI1 in October 1961.

may occur in an electrical discharge at a magnetic null

point (refs. 131 and 1 3 2 ) . Severny has observed that the
magnetic fields before and after a flare are different, in
agreement with this idea (ref. 133). While the picture
appears to be reasonable, there is no satisfactory quanti-
tative theory of the process (ref. 134 j .
Detectors on IMP I and OGO I have not observed any
large solar proton events during 1964. As might be
expected, there appear to be few such events near solar
minimum.
The solar proton events are important not only in them-
selves but because they constitute a radiation hazard for

69
207-624 0 - 6 L - G
 PARTICLES AND FIELDS

space flight. Webber has summarized the energy spectra

from several events (fig. 32) and the doses that would
have been received under different shield thicknesses from
the large events of the last solar cycle (ref. 135).
Under a shield thickness of 1 g/cm', the three July 1959
events produced 885 rad. Because events like these are
so large and infrequent, it is of interest to try to predict
them in advance. In the absence of a fundamental under-
standing of the origin of the energetic particles, empirical

t
t --i
1720 July 18, 1961
4
i

May 12, 1959 \ 4

t

.01
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
Rigidity, B V
Figure ?2.-Proton energy spectra from several solar proton
events.

70
 SOLAR ENERGETlC PARTlCLES

schemes have been tried. Various ideas involving the

area, magnetic character, and number of solar rotations
of the sunspot groups have been used (ref. 136). The
best prediction system may be that of Severny, who uses
a measure of the gradient of the magnetic field as an index
of probable occurrence.

71
.
chapter 6
Cosmic Rays

I N THE LAST 2 0 YEARS it has been well established that

the Sun occasionally emits energetic particles (erro-
neously called cosmic rays). Here we will deal with galac-
tic cosmic rays coming to the Earth from outside the solar
system. The cosmic rays observed at sea level are essen-
tially all secondaries produced by the interaction of pri-
mary cosmic rays with the Earth’s atmosphere. Mesons
resulting from these interactions were first identified in
cosmic-ray experiments before they were made in labora-
tory accelerators. To study the primary cosmic rays, it
is necessary to get above most, if not all, of the atmosphere.
Balloon studies have shown that primary cosmic rays are
about 94 percent H, 5 percent He, and percent
heavier nuclei. Considerable effort has been devoted
recently to determining the composition of the heavy nu-
clei by balloon measurements. In these studies care must
be taken to correct for the fragmentation of the incoming
nuclei by the few grams per square centimeter of air above
the balloon. The results of this work (ref. 137) are sum-
marized in table V. The relatively large number of nuclei
having 2 from 3 to 5 is interesting. These nuclei enter into
thermonuclear reactions easily and are burned. There-
fore, they are rare in stellar atmospheres. . There is also an
interesting excess of heavy cosmic-ray nuclei, which must
be explained by any satisfactory theory of the origin of
cosmic rays. Recent work by Earl (ref. 138) , Meyer ( ref.
139), and others has identified electrons in the primary
radiation. The electron/proton ratio is only about 0.01,

73
 PARTICLES AND FIELDS

Table V.-Cosmic and Cosmic-Ray Abundances

Particles/cm*/sec/sr of Ratio of CR abun-

Nuclear charge E>2.4 BeV/nucleon dance/cosmic abun-
dance (H=l)

3- 5 2. 0 (")
6-9 5. 6 2. 5
10-19 1 . 80 9. 0
20-28 .6Y 63. 0

* Very large.

so the electron flux is not very large. McDonald ( I M P I )

has found 3- to 12-MeV electrons in space (ref. 140,).
These may be of galactic origin. There are two models for
production of the electrons: ( u ) collision of a cosmic-ray
proton and an atom to generate 7r mesons which decay to
electrons, and ( b ) acceleration of low-energy electrons by
something like the Fermi process. A recent measurement
of the positron-electron ratio ( e + / e - )as about 0.3 helps
confuse this problem (ref. 141) . From acceleration, es-
sentially no e+ are expected; from collisions (ref. 142),
e + / e - >1. The experiment suggests that both sources are
required, but this matter cannot be considered settled.
McDonald and Ludwig (ref. 143) using data from IMP
I have measured the energy spectra of low-energy protons
and alpha particles well away from the Earth's field.
Ground-based studies of extensive air showers of recent
years have shown that cosmic rays up to 10l9eV exist. It
seems improbable that these particles can be stored in the
galaxy; the radius of curvature is too large. We have the
probability then that there are intergalactic cosmic rays.
Parker pointed out the possibility that, if the cosmic-ray
flux outside the solar system is about 10 times that at the
Earth, the energy density in cosmic rays should exceed the

74
 COSMIC RAYS

energy density in magnetic fields there and the cosmic rays

should then flow freely into intergalactic space. This
theory, that intergalactic space is filled with cosmic rays,
is a novel one and would pose a problem for cosmologists.
A measurement of the cosmic-ray gradient away from the
Sun would help answer this problem.
From Pioneer V data, Simpson et al. (ref. 144) observed
a Forbush decrease in cosmic rays a long way from Earth,
demonstrating that the Forbush-decrease process operat-
ing on cosmic rays is not geocentric but heliocentric, and
quite obviously associated with a strong blast of solar wind.

75
 chapter 7
Nezltrons

T H E NEUTRON FLUX produced by galactic cosmic rays

interacting with the Earth's atmosphere is of interest
not only in itself but because we know that neutron decay
is an important source of inner-zone trapped protons and
probably also electrons. This neutron flux was measured
from an Atlas rocket by Hess (ref. 145) and more recently
from several satellites by Lockwood (ref. 146), Martin
(ref. 147), and Bostrom and Williams (ref. 148). It is
known for quiet times to probably 50 percent accuracy
and is 0.2/cm2/sec at latitude 0" and 1.5/cm2/sec at lati-
tude 90".
The energy spectrum of the neutrons has not been meas-
ured in space, but it has been measured in the atmosphere
(ref. 149) and calculated for free space (ref. 150). Cal-
culations using these data show quantitative agreement
with the measured inner-zone protons. There is no reason
to doubt that neutron decay produces the energetic inner-
zone protons. Galactic cosmic rays colliding with atmos-
pheric 0 or N nuclei are the source of these neutrons.
There are other sources of neutrons. Solar protons pro-
duced in connection with solar flares undoubtedly produce
neutrons when they strike the polar atmosphere (ref. 151 ) .
I t is commonly thought that these neutrons produce the
low-energy proton component for L> 1.7 observed by
Naugle and Kniffen (ref. 57) on the NERV rocket, but
no direct measurements of these solar proton-produced
neutrons have been made.
The Sun is also probably an important source of neu-
trons. Measurements by Hess (ref. 152) on OS0 I of

77
 PARTICLES A N D FIELDS

the diurnal variation of neutrons observed near the Earth

showed that less than I percent of them can be of solar
origin. Solar flares should be able to produce neutrons,
but no measurements have detected them.

78
 chapter 8

Conclusions

B ECAUSE OF DISCOVERIES made in recent years, a new

picture has emerged of our immediate environment,
and more generally of processes in the solar system.
Plasma, both thermal and superthermal, plays a dominant
role in our new understanding. Interactions between the
magnetic field and charged particles in the plasma of the
outer Sun are believed to be responsible for solar activity
such as sunspots and solar flares. These, in turn, govern
many aspects of Earth-Sun relations, partially through
electromagnetic radiation such as the solar ultraviolet and
X-radiation and partially through the solar-wind plasma.
Plasma properties near the Sun are determined pri-
marily by the magnetic field. As the coronal plasma
expands into the solar wind, the kinetic energy of the par-
ticles assumes a dominant role. The magnetic field,
however, continues to act as the coupling agent between
individual charged particles and produces collective
motions. Of great interest for future explorations is the
transition region between these two domains. The exist-
er?ce of M-regions suggests that azimuthal asymmetries
exist in the solar wind as observed in the plane of the
ecliptic. The latter phenomenon is to be investigated with
Pioneer space probes ; the solution of other outstanding
problems will require probes which approach the Sun
within 0.2 or even 0.1 AU, or leave the plane of the ecliptic
to measure the character of the solar plasma there. It is
anticipated that technological developments will make
most of these investigations possible within the next decade.

79
 PARTICLES A N D FZELDS

O n occasion there are large solar flares, some of which

emit energetic protons into space. The particles are
guided by and diffused along and across the macgnetic field
to reach the Earth. Flares also produce enhanced solar-
wind fluxes, which reach the Earth a day or so later, pro-
ducing magnetic storms. Observations near the Earth of
the flux of solar protons at different times after a flare
have been explained in terms of a diffusion model. This
model breaks down at several AU and does not consider
azimuthal asymmetries. Observations to be made during
the next solar maximum with Pioneer and Earth-orbital
spacecraft should go far toward refining our present
theories.
The interaction mechanisms of a collisionless plasma,
such as the solar wind, with a magnetic field, such as the
magnetosphere, present in themselves challenging scientific
problems. For the Earth, this interaction produces a col-
lisionless shock wave and is apparently responsible for
certain geomagnetic disturbances, the auroral displays,
and the outer part of the Van Allen belts. O n the basis
of the investigations conducted so far, we can now appre-
ciate some of the qualitative aspects of these phenomena,
but a quantitative theory will have to wait for the results
from future work. The interaction of the solar wind with
the Moon and other planets exhibits many different aspects
of plasma physics. For instance, any magnetic field the
Moon may have is less than 1/200 as strong as that of the
Earth, and there are probably periods when the solar wind
penetrates to the lunar surface. If so, this may alter the
optical properties of the lunar surface, and X-rays may be
produced in the process. A comprehensive investigation
of these phenomena at other planets is one of the objectives
of the Voyager program planned for the 1970 decade.
However, an investigation of the interaction of the solar

80
 CONCLUSIONS

wind with the Moon is considerably simpler and can be

conducted as part of the planned lunar exploration,
The inner part of the Van Allen radiation belts is ap-
parently populated mostly by protons and electrons from
the decay of neutrons that have been made in the atmos-
phere of the Earth by galactic cosmic rays. The outer parts
of the radiation belts may be thought of as a superthermal
plasma in which the magnetic field is the dominant factor.
We find here primarily electrons and protons with energies
between 10 eV and several hundred keV. Collective in-
teraction of the individual charges with the terrestrial mag-
netic field permits various modes of hydromagnetic waves
to propagate through this region. A special example of
these waves is the well-known whistlers. Other plasma
waves are yet to be investigated and measurements are
needed of their intensities and frequency spectra. It is be-
lieved that these waves, by interaction with the plasma,
determine in turn the energy spectrum and lifetime of the
energetic charged particles in the outer belts and in the
geomagnetic tail. Indications are that at least some of
the waves are generated at the interface between the solar
wind and magnetosphere and then travel not only through
the trapping region but also through the tail of the mag-
netosphere.
We are reasonably sure that Jupiter has a radiation belt
as does the Earth. Future space exploration will probably
show that some other planets also have them. Undoubt-
edly, these belts will show some similarities to, and many
fiSWiii, ijie '"Tail &Ieii lueI&* If ilie ubseiv-ed
radio-noise bursts from Jupiter originate in its radiation
belt, then plasma instabilities must exist in these belts which
have not been observed in the terrestrial belts.
The solar wind extends out from the Sun considerably
beyond the Earth. It impedes the influx of galactic cosmic
rays to the solar system, and its variability produces the
81
 PARTICLES A N D FIELDS

Forbush decreases and the 1 1-year solar-cycle variation of

cosmic rays.
One of the most fundamental questions to be answered
by future exploration of interplanetary space is the mag-
nitude of galactic cosmic-ray flux in interstellar space. It
is now believed that cosmic rays play a significant role in
the dynamics of the universe, and a knowledge of their flux
is required before a realistic cosmological model can be
constructed. Galactic probes, going beyond the orbit of
Jupiter, will be required to obtain answers to this ques-
tion. Such an investigation will be technically feasible
during the next decade.

82
 ,

References

1. BIERMANN, L. : Kometenschweife und solare Korpuskularstrah-

lung. Z. Astrophys., Bd. 29, 1951, pp. 274-286.
2. PARKER, E. N.: Dynamics of the Interplanetary Gas and Mag-
netic Fields. Astrophys. J., vol. 128, 1958, pp. 664-676.
3. PARKER, E. N. : The Hydrodynamic Theory of Solar Corpuscular
Radiation and Stellar Winds. Astrophys. J., vol. 132, 1960,
pp. 82 1-866.
4. GRINGAUZ,. K. I.; BEZRUKIKH,V. V.; OZEROV, V. D.; AND
RYBCHINSKII, R. E.: A Study of the Interplanetary Ionized
Gas, High-Energy Electrons, and Corpuscular Radiation From
the Sun by Means of the Three Electrode Trap for Charged
Particles on the Second Cosmic Rocket. Dokl. Akad. Nauk
SSSR, vol. 131, p. 1301; Soviet Phys.-Dokl., vol. 5 , 1960, pp.
361-364.
5. BONETTI,A.; BRIDGE,H. S.; LAZARUS, A. J.; ROSSI, B.; AND
SCHERB, F. : Explorer 10 Plasma Measurements. J. Geophys.
.Res., vol. 68, 1963, pp. 4017-4063.
6. NEUGEBAUER, M.; A N D SNYDER, C. W.: Solar Plasma Experi-
ment : Preliminary Mariner I1 Observations. Science, vol.
138,1962, pp. 1095-1097.
7. SNYDER, C. W.; AND NEUGEBAUER, M.: Interplanetary Solar
Wind Measurements by Mariner 11. In: Space Research IV,
P. Muller, ed., North-Holland Pub. Co. (Amsterdam), 1964,
pp. 89-1 13.
8. SN Y u k x , 2.V i .; NEUGEBAUER, ivi. ; A N D RAO,U. X.: The Soiar
Wind Velocity and Its Correlation With Cosmic Ray Varia-
tions and With Solar and Geomagnetic Activity. J. Geophys.
Res.,vol. 68, 1963, pp.6361-6370.
9. BRIDGE,H.; EGIDI,A.; LAZARUS, A.; LYON,E.; A N D JACOB-
SON, L.: Preliminary Results of Plasma Measurements on
IMP-A. In: Space Research V (D. G. King-Hele et al., eds.) ,
North-Holland Pub. Co. (Amsterdam), 1965, pp. 969-978.

83
 PARTICLES A N D FIELDS

10. I.G. BULLETINNo. 84: Initial Results From the First Inter-
planetry Monitoring Platform (IMP I ) . Trans. Am. Geo-
phys. Union, vol. 45, 1964, p. 501.
11. COLEMAN, P. J., JR.; DAVIS,L., JR.; A N D SONETT, C. P.: Steady
Component of the Interplanetary Magnetic Field: Pioneer V.
Phys. Rev. Letters, wl. 5, 1960, pp. 43-46.
12. COLEMAN, P. J.; DAVIS,L.; SMITH,E. J.; AND SONETT, C. P. :
The Mission of Manner I1 Preliminary Observations-Inter-
planetary Magnetic Fields. Science, vol. 138, 1962, p. 1099.
13. NESS,N. F.; SCEARCE, C. S.; A N D SEEK,J. B. : Initial Results of
the IMP I Magnetic Field Experiment. J. Geophys. Res.,
vol. 69,1964, pp. 3531-3569.
14. SONETT, C. P.; SMITH,E. J.; AND SIMS,A. R.: Surveys of the
Distant Geomagnetic Field: Pioneer I and Explorer VI. In:
Space Research (H. K. Bijl, ed.), North-Holland Pub. Co.
(Amsterdam), 1960, p. 921.
15. SONETT, C . P.; ET AL.: The Distant Geomagnetic Field. Parts
I to V. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 67, 1962; vol. 68, 1963.
16. SONETT, C. P.; COLBURN, D. S.; DAVIS,L., JR.; SMITH,E. J.;
A N D COLEMAN, P. J., JR. : Evidence for a Collision-Free Mag-
netohydrodynamic Shock in Interplanetary Space. Phys.
Rev. Letters, vol. 13, 1964, pp. 153-156.
17. CHAPMAN, S. ; and FERRARO, V. C . A, : A New Theory of Mag-
netic Storms. Terrest. Magnetism and Atmospheric Elec.,
V O ~ . 36, 1931, pp. 77-97, 171-186; V O ~ 37,
. 1932, pp. 147-156,
421-429; vol. 38, 1933, pp. 79-96.
18. CAHILL, L. J.; A N D AMAZEEN, P. J.: The Boundary of the Geo-
magnetic Field. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 68, 1963, pp. 1835-
1843.
19. JOHNSON, F. S.: The Gross Character of the Geomagnetic Field
in the Solar Wind. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 65, 1960, p. 3049.
20. BEARD, D. B. : The Interaction of the Terrestrial Magnetic Field
With the Solar Corpuscular Radiation. J. Geophys. Res.,
vol. 65,1960, pp. 3559-3568.
21. MIDGLEY, J. E,; AND DAVIS,L., JR.: Calculation by a Moment
Technique of the Perturbation of the Geomagnetic Field by
the Solar Wind. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 68, 1963, pp. 5111-
5123.
22. MEAD,G. D. ;A N D BEARD, D. B. : Shape of the Geomagnetic Field
Solar Wind Boundary. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 69, 1964, pp.
1163-1 179.

84
 REFERENCES

23. MEAD,G. D.: Deformation of the Geomagnetic Field by the

Solar Wind. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 69, 1964, pp. 1181-1195.
24. DUNGEY, J. W. : Interplanetary Magnetic Field and the Auroral
Zones. Phys. Rev. Letters, vol. 6, 1961, p. 47.
25. AXFORD, W. I.; PETSCHEK, H. E.; AND SISCOE,G. L.: Tail of
the Magnetosphere. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 70, 1965, pp.
1231-1 236.
26. NESS, N. F.: The Earth's Magnetic Tail. J. Geophys. Res.,
VO~ 70,1965,
. pp. 2989-3005.
27. DESSLER,A. J.; A N D JUDAY, R. D.: Configuration of Auroral
Radiation in Space. Planetary Space Sci., ~ o l 13, . 1965, pp.
63-72.
28. DESSLER, A. J.: Length of Magnetospheric Tail. J. Geophys.
Res.,vol. 69, 1964, pp. 3913-3918.
29. BEARD,D. B.: The Effect of an Interplanetary Magnetic Field
on the Solar Wind. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 69, 1964, pp.
1159-1 168.
30. AXFORD, W. I.; AND HINES,C. 0.: Unifying Theory of High
Latitude Geophysical Phenomena and Geomagnetic Storms.
Can. J. Phys., vol. 39, pp. 1433-1464.
31. SPREITER, J. R.; AND JONES,W. P.: O n the Effect of a Weak
Interplanetary Magnetic Field on the Interaction Between the
Solar Wind and the Geomagnetic Field. J. Geophys. Res.,
V O ~ .68,1963, pp. 3555-3565.
32. HEPPNER, J. P.; NESS,N. F.; SKILLMAN, T. L.; A N D SCEARCE,
C. S.: Explorer X Magnetic Field Measurements. J.
Geophys. Res., vol. 68, 1963, pp. 1-46.
33. FREEMAN, J. W., JR.: The Morphology of the Electron Distribu-
tion in the Outer Radiation Zone and Near the Magneto-
spheric Boundary as Observed by Explorer XII. J. Geophys.
Res., vol. 69, pp. 1691-1724.
34. SERBU,G. P.: Results From the IMP I Retarding Potential
Analyzer. In: Space Research V (D. G. King-Hele et al.,
eds.) North-Holland Pub. Co. (Amsterdam ) , 196.5, pp. 564-
~

574.
35. FAN,C. Y . ; GLOECKLER, G.; AND SIMPSON,J. A.: Evidence
for >30 keV Electrons Accelerated in the Shock Transition
Region Beyond the Earth's Magnetospheric Boundary. Phys.
Rev. Letters, vol. 13, 1964, pp. 149-153.
36. ANDERSON, K. A.; HARRIS,H. K.; AND PAOLI,R. J. : Energetic
Electron Fluxes in and Beyond the Earth's Outer Magneto-
sphere. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 70, 1965, pp. 1039-1050.

85
207-624 0-60-7
 PARTICLES A N D FIELDS

37. JOKIPII,J. R.; AND DAVIS, L., JR.: Acceleration of Electrons

Near the Earth’s Bow Shock. Phys. Rev. Letters, vol. 13,
1964, pp. 739-741.
38. NESS,N. F.: The Magnetohydrodynamic Wake of the Moon.
J. Geophys. Res., vol. 70, 1965, pp. 517-534.
39. VANALLEN,J. A . : First Public Lecture on the Discovery of the
Geomagnetically Trapped Radiation. Report SUI 60-13,
State Univ. of Iowa, 1960.
40. STORMER, C. : The Polar Aurora. Clarendon Press (Oxford),
1955.
41. SINGER, S. F.: A New Model of Magnetic Storms. Trans Am.
Geophys. Union, vol. 38, 1957, p. 175.
42. CHRISTOFILOS, N. C.: The Argus Experiment. J. Geophys.
Res., vol. 64, 1959, p. 869.
43. MCILWAIN, C. E. : Coordinates for Mapping the Distribution of
Magnetically Trapped Particles. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 66,
1961, p. 3681.
44. VERNOV, S. N.; A N D CHUDAKOV, A. E.: Terrestrial Corpuscular
Radiation and Cosmic Rays. In: Space Research, H. K. Bijl,
ed., North-Holland Pub. Co. (Amsterdam), 1960, p. 151.
45. VANALLEN,J. A,; MCILWAIN, C. E.; A N D LUDWIG,G. H.:
Radiation Observations With Satellite 1958 C. J. Geophys.
Res., vol. 64, 1 9 5 9 , ~271.
.
46. VANALLEN,J. A.; A N D FRANK,L. A.: Radiation Around the
Earth to a Radial Distance of 107 400 km. Nature, vol. 183,
1959, p. 430.
47. VANALLEN,J. A,; A N D FRANK, L. A. : Radiation Measurements
to 658 300 km With Pioneer IV. Nature, vol. 184, 1959, p.
219.
48. FREDEN, S. C.; A N D WHITE,R. S.: Protons in the Earth’s Mag-
netic Field. Phys. Rev. Letters, vol. 3, 1959, p. 9.
49. FREDEN, S. C.; A N D WHITE,R. S.: Trapped Protons and Cosmic
Ray Albedo Neutron Fluxes. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 67, 1962,
p. 25.
50. ARMSTRONG, A. H.; A N D HARRISON, F. B. : Charged Particles in
the Inner Van Allen Radiation Belt. J. Geophys. Res., v01.
66, 1961, p. 351.
51. HECKMAN, H . ; A N D ARMSTRONG, A. H.: Energy Spectrum of
Geomagnetically Trapped Protons. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 67,
1962, p. 1255.

86
 REFERENCES

52. KELLOGG, P. J. : Possible Explanation of the Radiation Observed

by Van Allen at High Altitudes in Satellites. Nuovo Cimento,
vol. 11, 1959, p. 48.
53. SINGER,S. F.: Trapped Albedo Theory of the Radiation Belt.
Phys. Rev. Letters, vol. 1, 1958, p. 181.
54. FREDEN, S. C.; AND WHITE,R. S . : Particle Fluxes in the Inner
Radiation Belt. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 65, 1960, p. 1377.
55. BLANCHARD, R. C.; AND HESS,W. N.: Solar Cycle Changes in
Inner Zone Protons. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 69, 1964, p. 3927.
56. PIZZELLA, G.; MCILWAIN, C. E. ; A N D VANALLEN,J. A.: Time
Variations of Intensity in the Earth’s Inner Radiation Zone
October 1959 Through December 1960. J. Geophys. Res.,
vol. 67, 1962, p. 1235.
57. NAUGLE, J. E.; AND KNIFFEN,D. A.: Variations of the Proton
Energy ( 1963) Spectrum With Position in the Inner Van Allen
Belt. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 67, 1962, p. M65.
58. LENCHEK,A. M.: On the Anomalous Component of Low-
Energy Geomagnetically Trapped Protons. J. Geophys. Res.,
vol. 67, 1962, p. 2145.
59. MCILWAIN, C . E.: The Radiation Belts, Natural and Artificial.
Science, vol. 142, 1963, pp. 355-361.
60. MCILWAIN, C. E.: Redistribution of Trapped Protons During
a Magnetic Storm. In: Space Research V (D. G . King-Hele
et al., eds.) ,North-Holland Pub. Co. (Amsterdam), 1965, pp.
374-39 1.
61. DAVIS,L. R.; A N D WILLIAMSON, J. M.: Low Energy Trapped
Protons. I n : Space Research I11 (W. Pricster, ed.), North-
Holland Pub. Co. (Amsterdam), 1963, p. 365.
62. HOLLY,F. E.; ALLEN,L.; AND JOHNSON, R. G.: Radiation
Measurements to 1500 Kilometers Altitude at Equatorial
Latitudes. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 66, 1961, p. 1627.
63. FREEMAN, J. W.: Detection of an Intense Flux of Low Energy
Protons or Ions Trapped in the Inner Radiation Zone. J.
Geophys. Res., vol. 67, 1962, p. 921.
64. HESS, W. N.: The Effects of High-Altitude Explosions. In:
Space Physics (D. P. LeGalley and A. Rosen, eds.) , 1964, pp.
573-610.
65. VANALLEN,J. A.; MCILWAIN, C. E.; AND LUDWIG, G. H.:
Satellite Observations of Electrons Artificially Injected Into
the Geomagnetic Field. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 64, 1959, p.
877.

87
 PARTICLES AND F I E L D S

66. O’BRIEN,B. J.; LAUGHLIN, C. D.; AND VAN ALLEN, J. A.:

Geomagnetically Trapped Radiation by a High Altitude Nu-
clear Explosion on July 9, 1962. Nature, vol. 195, 1962, p.
939.
67. PIEPER,G. F.; WILLIAMS, D. J.; A N D FRANK,L. A.: TRAAC
Observations of the Artificial Radiation Belt From the July 9,
1962, Nuclear Detonation. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 68, 1963,
p. 635.
68. BROWN, W. L.; AND GABBE, J. D.: The Electron Distribution in
the Earth’s Radiation Belts During July 1962 as Measured by
Telstar. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 68, 1963, p. 607.
69. DURNEY, A. C . ; ELLIOT,H.; HYNES,R. J.; AND QUENBY, J. J.:
Satellite Observations of the Energetic Particle Flux Produced
by the High Altitude Nuclear Explosions of July 9, 1962.
Nature, vol. 195, 1962, p. 1245.
70. GALPERIN, I.; A N D BOLIVNOVA, A. D.: Study of the Drastic
Changes of the Radiation in the Upper Atmosphere in July,
1962. In: Space Research V (D. G. King-Hele et al., eds.),
North-Holland Pub. Co. (Amsterdam), 1965, pp. 446457.
7 1. WEST,H. I., JR.; MANN,L. G.; A N D BLOOM, S. D. : The Electron
Spectra in the Radiation Belts in the Fall of 1962. In: Space
Research V (D. G. King-Hele et al., eds.) ,North-Holland Pub.
Co. (Amsterdam), 1965, pp. 423-445.
72. VANALLEN,J. A.; FRANK, L. A.; A N D OBRIEN,B. J.: Satellite
Observations of the Artificial Radiation Belt of July 1962.
J. Geophys. Res., vol. 68, 1963, pp. 619-627.
73. MCDIARMID, I.; BURROW, J.; BUDZINSKI, E.; AND ROSE,D.:
Satellite Measurements in the Starfish Artificial Radiation
Zone. Can. J. Phys., vol. 41, 1963, p. 1332.
74. WELCH,J. A.; KAUFMANN, R. L.; A N D HESS,W. N.: Trapped
Electron Time Histories for L= 1.18 to L= 1.30. J. Geophys.
Res., vol. 68, 1963, p. 685.
75. WALT,M.: The Effects of Atmospheric Collisions on Geomag-
netically Trapped Electrons. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 69, 1964,
p. 3997.
76. DUNGEY, J. W.: Loss of Van Allen Electrons Due to Whistlers.
Planetary Space Sci., vol. 11, 1963, p. 591.
77. FILZ, R.; YAGODA, H.; AND HOLEMAN, E.: Observations on
Trapped Protons in Emulsions Recovered From Satellite Or-
bits. In: Space Research IV (P. Muller, ed.) ,North-Holland
Pub. Co. (Amsterdam), 1964, p. 642.

88
 REFERENCES

78. JENSEN,D. C. ; A N D CAIN,J. C. : An Interim Geomagnetic Field

Abstract. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 67, 1962, p. 3568.
79. DUNGEY, J. W. ;HESS,W. N.; AND NAKADA, M. P.: Theoretical
Studies of Protons in the Outer Radiation Belts. In: Space
Research V (D. G. King-Hele et al., eds.), North-Holland
Pub. Co. (Amsterdam), 1965, pp. 393-403.
80. NAKADA, M. P.; AND MEAD,G. D.: Diffusion of Protons in the
Outer Radiation Belt. J. Geophys. Res., Oct. 1, 1965.
81. HOFFMAN, R. A.; AND BRACKEN, P. A.: Magnetic Effects of the
Quiet Time Proton Belt. J. Geophys. Res., Aug. 1, 1965.
82. CLADIS, J. B. ;CHASE,L. F. ;IMHOF, W. L.; AND KNECHT, D. J.:
Energy Spectrum and Angular Distributions of Electrons
Trapped in the Geomagnetic Field. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 66,
1961, p. 2297.
83. FORBUSH, S. E.; PIZZELLA, G.; AND VENKATESON, D.: The
Morphology and Temporal Variations of the Van Allen Radi-
ation Belt October 1959 to December 1960. J. Geophys. Res.,
vol. 67, 1962, p. 3651.
84. OBRIEN,B. J.: Lifetimes of Outer Zone Electrons and Their
Precipitation Into the Atmosphere. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 67,
1962, p. 3687.
85. O’BRIEN,B. J. : High-Latitude Geophysical Studies With Satel-
lite Injun 3. Part 3. Precipitation of Electrons Into the
Atmosphere. J. Geophys. Res., wl. 69, 1964, p. 13.
86. FRANK, L. A,; VANALLEN,J. A,; AND MACAGNO, E.: Charged
Particle Observations in the Earth’s Outer Magnetosphere.
J. Geophys. Res., vol. 68, 1963, p. 3543.
87. O’BRIEN,B. J.: A Large Diurnal Variation of the Geomagneti-
cally Trapped Radiation. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 68, 1963,
p. 989.
88. MCDIARMID, I. B.; AND BURROWS,J. R.: Diurnal Intensity
Variations in the Outer Radiation Zone at 1000 km. Can. J.
Phys., voi. 4’2, 1964, p. 1 1 35.
89. WILLIAMS,D. W.; AND PALMER, W. F.: Distortions in the Radia-
tion Cavity as Measured by an 1100 km Polar Orbiting
Satellite. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 70, 1965, pp. 557-568.
90. SLOANAKER, R. M. : Apparent Temperature of Jupiter at a Wave
Length of 10 cm. Astron. J., vol. 64, 1959, p. 346.
91. DRAKE, F. D. ;A N D HVATUM, H. : Nonthermal Microwave Radia-
tion From Jupiter. Astron. J., vol. 64, 1959, p. 329.

89
 PARTICLES A N D FIELDS

92. RADHAKRISHMAN, V.; A N D ROBERTS, J. A.: Polarization and

Angular Extent of the 960 Mc/s Radiation From Jupiter.
Phys. Rev. Letters, vol. 4, 1960, p. 493.
93. CHANG,D. B.; A N D DAVIS,L.: Synchrotron Radiation as the
Source of Jupiter’s Polarized Decimeter Radiation. Astro-
phys. J., vol. 136, 1962, p. 657.
94. ANDERSON,H. R.: Energetic Particles Measured Near Venus
by Mariner 2. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 69, 1964, p. 2651.
95. VANALLEN,J. A.; A N D FRANK, L. A.: The Mission of Mariner
2 Preliminary Observations : The Iowa Radiation .Experi-
ment. Science, vol. 138, 1962, p. 1097.
96. DOLGINOV, S. SH.; EVOSHENKO, E. G.; ZHUZGOV, L. N.;
PUSHKOV, N. V . ; A N D TYURMINA, L. 0.: Measuring the
Magnetic Fields of the Earth and Moon by Means of Sputnik
I11 and Space Rockets I and 11. In: Space Research ( H . K.
Bijl, ed.) , North-Holland Pub. Co. (Amsterdam), 1960, p.
863.
97. GRINGAUZ, K. I.: Some Results of Experiments in Interplane-
tary Space by Means of Charged Particle Traps on Soviet
Space Probes. In: Space Research I1 (H. C. van de Hulst,
C. deJager, and A. F. Moore, eds.), North-Holland Pub. CO.
(Amsterdam), 1961, p. 539.
98. FRANK, L. A.; VANALLEN,J. A.; AND HILLS,H. K.: Mariner
2: Preliminary Reports on Measurements of Venus; Charged
Particles. Science, vol. 139, Mar. 1963, pp. 905-910.
99. GRINGAUZ, K. I.; KURT,V. G.; MOROG, V. I.; A N D SKLOVSKIY,
I. C. : Iskusstvennye Sputniki Zemli. Izd. AN SSSR, vol. 6,
1961, p. 108.
100. OBRIEN,B. J.; VAN ALLEN,J. A.; LAUGHLIN, C. D.; AND
FRANK, L. A . : Absolute Electron Intensities in the Heart of
the Earth’s Outer Radiation Zone. J. Geophys. Res., vol.
67,1962, pp. 397-403.
101. MCILWAIN, C. E.: Direct Measurements of Particles Producing
Visible Auroras. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 65, 1960, pp. 2727-
2747.
102. DAVIS,L. R.; BERG,0. E.; A N D MEREDITH, L. H.: Direct
Measurements of Particle Fluxes in and Near Auroras. In:
Space Research (H. K. Bijl, ed.), North-Holland Pub. GO.
(Amsterdam), 1960, pp. 721-735.

90
 REFERENCES

103. MCDIARMID, I . B.; ROSE,D. C.; AND BUDZINSKI, E.: Direct

Measurements of Charged Particles Associated With Auroral
Zone Radio Absorption. Can. J. Phys., vol. 39, 1961, pp.
1888-1900.
104. MANN,L. G.; BLOOM, S. D.; A N D WEST,H. I., JR.: The Elec-
tron Spectrum From 90 to 1200 keV as Observed on Dis-
coverer Satellites 29 and 31. In: Space Research I11 (W.
Priester, ed.) , North-Holland Pub. Go. (Amsterdam), 1963,
pp. 447-462.
105. BROWN, R. R. : Balloon Observations of Auroral Zone X-Rays.
Proc. Intern. Conf. on Cosmic Rays and the Earth Storm,
Kyoto, Sept. 1961, Part I, Earth Storm, 1962, p. 236.
106. ANDERSON, K. A.: Balloon Observations of X-Rays in the
Auroral Zone I and 11. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 65, 1960,
pp. 52 1 and 55 1.
107. ANDERSON, K. A.; AND MILTON,D. W.: Balloon Observations
of X-Rays in the Auroral Zone. Part 3. High Time Resolu-
tion Studies. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 69, 1964, pp. 4457-4479.
108. SHARP,R. D.; EVANS, J. E.; IMHOF, W. L.; JOHNSON, R. G.;
REGAN, J. B.; AND SMITH,R. V.: Satellite Measurements of
Low Energy Electrons in the Northern Auroral Zone. J.
Geophys. Res., vol. 69,1964, p. 2721.
109. GURNETT, D. A.; AND OBRIEN,B. J.: High-Latitude Geophysi-
cal Studies With Satellite Injun 3. Part 5. Very-Low-Fre-
quency Electromagnetic Radiation. J. Geophys. Res., vol.
69,1964, pp. 65-90.
110. O’BRIEN,B. J.; A N D TAYLOR, H. : High-Latitude Geophysical
Studies With Satellite Injun 3. Part 4. Auroras and Their
Excitation. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 69, 1964, pp. 45-64.
111. CAIN,J. C. ; SHAPIRO, I. R. ; STOLARIK, J. D.; AND HEPPNER,
J. P.: Vanguard 3 Magnetic Field Observations. J. Geo-
phys. Res., vol. 67, 1962, pp. 5055-5069.
112. HEPPNER,J. P.: The World Magnetic Survey. Space Sei.
Rev., vol. 2, 1963, pp. 315-354.
113. CAHILL,L. J., JR.: Preliminary Results of Magnetic Field
Measurements in the Tail of the Geomagnetic Cavity. I.G.
Bulletin No. 79, Trans. Am. Geophys. Union, vol. 45, 1964,
pp. 231-235.
114. AKASOFU, S. I.: The Main Phase of Magnetic Storms and the
Ring Current. Space Sci. Rev., vol. 2, 1963, pp. 91-135.

91
 PARTICLES A N D FIELDS

115. SMITH,E. J.: Theoretical and Experimental Aspects of Ring

Current. In: Space Science (Le Galley, ed.), 1963, pp. 316-
373.
116. SMITH,E. J.; SONETT,C. P.; A N D DUNGEY, J. W.: Satellite
Observations of the Geomagnetic Field During Magnetic
Storms. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 69, 1964, pp. 2669-2688.
117. NISHIDA,A.; AND CAHILL,L. J., JR.: Sudden Impulses in the
Magnetosphere Observed by Explorer 12. J. Geophys. Res.,
vol. 69,1964, pp. 2243-2255.
118. FORBUSH, S. E. : Three Unusual Cosmic-Ray Increases Pos-
sibly Due to Charged Particles From the Sun. Phys. Rev.,
V O ~ .70,1946, pp. 771-772.

119. MEYER,P.; PARKER, E. N.; AND SIMPSON, J. A.: Solar Cosmic

Rays of February 1956 and Their Propagation Through
Interplanetary Space. Phys. Rev., vol. 104, 1956, pp. 768-
783.
120. WINCKLER, J. R.: The Production and Propagation of Ener-
getic Particles From the Sun. In: Space Science (Le Galley,
ed.), 1963, pp. 427484.
12 1. CHARAKHCHIAN, A. N. ; TULINOV, V. F. ;A N D CHARAKHCHIAN,
T . N.: Cosmic Rays Emitted by the Sun. In: Space Re-
search (H. K. Bijl, ed.), North-Holland Pub. Co. (Amster-
dam), 1960, pp. 649-661.
122. WINCKLER, J. R. : Geomagnetic and Interplanetary Effects on
Solar Cosmic Rays. Proc. Intern. Conf. on Cosmic Rays
and the Earth Storm, Kyoto, Sept. 1961, Part 11, Joint
Sessions, 1962, pp. 353-360; Japan, vol. 17, Suppl. A-11,
1962, p. 353.
123. FICHTEL, C. E.; A N D GUSS,D. E. : Heavy Nuclei in Solar Cosmic
Rays. Phys. Rev. Letters, vol. 6, 1961, p. 495.
124. LIN, W. C.: Observation of Galactic and Solar Cosmic Rays
From October 13, 1959 to February 17, 1961, With Explorer
VII. Rept. 61-16, State Univ. of Iowa, 1961.
125. PIEPER,G. F.; ZMUDA, A. J.; BOSTROM, C. A.; A N D OBRIEN,
B. J. Solar Protons and Magnetic Storms in July 1961.
J. Geophys. Res., vol. 67, 1962, p. 4959.
126. MCDONALD, F. B., ED.: Solar Proton Manual. NASA T R
R-169,1963.

92
8 REFERENCES

127. BRYANT,D. A.; CLINE,T. L.; DESAI,U. D.; AND MCDONALD,

F. B.: Explorer XI1 Observations of Solar Cosmic Rays and
Energetic Storm Particles After the Solar Flare of September
28, 1961. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 67, 1962, pp. 4983-5000.
128. BRYANT, D. A.; CLINE,T. L.; DESAI,U. D.; AND MCDONALD,
F. B. : Studies of Solar Protons With Explorers XI1 and XIV.
Astrophys. J., vol. 141, 1965, pp. 478-499.
129. MCCRACKEN, K. G.: The Cosmic-Ray Flare Effect: Part I.
Some New Methods of Analysis. J. Geophys. Res., wl. 67,
1962,423-434.
130. BRYANT,D. A.; CLINE,T. L.; DESAI,U. D.; AND MCDONALD,
F. B. : New Evidence for Long-Lived Solar Streams in Inter-
planetary Space. Phys. Rev. Letters, vol. 11, 1963, pp. 144-
146.
131. PARKER, E. N.: Acceleration of Cosmic Rays in Solal Flares.
Phys. Rev., vol. 107, 1957, pp. 830-836.
132. PETSCHEK, H. E.: Magnetic Field Annihilation. Proc. of the
AAS-NASA Symposium on the Physics of Solar Flares,
NASA SP-50,1964, pp. 425-439.
133. SEVERNY, A. B.: Generation of Flares During the Change of
Solar Magnetic Fields. Astron. Zh., vol. 38, 1961, pp. 403-
408.
134. HESS,W. N., ED.: Proceedings of the AAS-NASA Symposium
on the Physics of Solar Flares. NASA SP-50, 1964.
135. FRIER,P.; AND WEBBER, W. R.: Radiation Hazard in Space
From Solar Particles. Science, vol. 142, 1963, p. 1587.
136. ANDERSON, K. A. : Preliminary Study of Prediction Aspects of
Solar Cosmic Ray Events. NASA T N D-700,1961.
137. WADDINGTON, C. J. : Composition of the Primary Cosmic Radia-
tion. Progr. Nucl. Phys., vol. 8, 1960, p. l .
138. EARL,J. A. : Cloud-Chamber Observations of Primary Cosmic
Ray Electrons. Phys. Rev. Letters, vol. 6, 1961, pp. 125-128.
139. MEYER,P. ; AND VOGT,R. : Electrons in the Primary Cosmic
Radiation. Phys. Rev. Letters, vol. 6, 1961, pp. 193-196.
140. CLINE,T. L.; LUDWIG, G. H.; AND MCDONALD, F. B.: Detec-
tion of Interplanetary 3- to 12-MeV Electrons. Phys. Rev.
Letters, vol. 13, 1964, pp. 786-789.
141. DESHONG, J. A.; HILDERBRAND, R. H.; AND MEYER,P.: Ratio
of Electrons to Positrons in the Primary Cosmic Radiation.
Phys. Rev. Letters, vol. 12, 1964, p. 3.

93
 PARTICLES AND FIELDS

142. HA~AKAWA, S.; AND OKUDA, H.: Electronic Components in

Galactic Cosmic Rays. Progr. Theoret. Phys., vol. 28, 1962,
pp. 517-528.
143. MCDONALD, F. B.; AND LUDWIG, G. H.: Measurement of Low-
Energy Primary Cosmic-Ray Protons on IMP I Satellite.
Phys. Rev. Letters, vol. 13, 1964, pp. 783-785.
144. FAN,C. Y.; MEYER,P.; AND SIMPSON, J. A.: The Rapid Re-
duction of Cosmic Radiation Intensity Measured in Inter-
planetary Space. Phys. Rev. Letters, vol. 5, 1960, p. 43.
145. HESS,W. N.; A N D STARNES, A. J.: Measurement of the Neutron
Flux in Space. Phys. Rev. Letters, vol. 5, 1960, pp. 48-50.
146. TRAINOR, J. H.; A N D LOCKWOOD, J. A. : Neutron Albedo Meas-
urements on Polar Orbiting Satellites. J. Geophys. Res., vol.
69,1964, pp. 3115-3123.
147. MARTIN,J. P.; WITTEN,L.; AND KATZ,L.: Measurement of
Cosmic Ray Albedo Neutron Flux Above the Atmosphere.
J. Geophys. Res., vol. 68, 1963, pp. 2613-2618.
148. WILLIAMS, D. J.; AND BOSTROM, C. 0.: Albedo Neutrons in
Space. J. Geophys. Res., vol. 69, 1964, pp. 377-391.
149. HESS, W. N.; PATTERSON, H. W.; WALLACE, R.; A N D CHUPP,
E. L.: Cosmic-Ray Neutron Energy Spectrum. Phys. Rev.,
voI. 116, 1959, pp. 445-457.
150. LINGENFELTER, R. E. : The Cosmic-Ray Neutron Leakage Flux.
J. Geophys. Res., vol. 68, 1963, p. 5633.
151. LINGENFELTER, R. E.; AND FLAMM, E. J.: Neutron Leakage
Flux From Interactions of Solar Protons in the Atmosphere.
J. Geophys. Res., vol. 69, 1964, pp. 2199-2207.
152. HESS,W. N.: Neutrons in Space. NASA TN D-1696, 1963.

U S . GOERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1% 0--207+24

94
 4

“ T h e aeronautical and spare artiuities of the United Stdes shall be

conducted so ai 10 coiitribzrte . . . to the expaiz.rion of haman know[-
edge of pherzomeira it2 the atnzosphere atid Jpace. T h e ~ l ~ ~ ~ r l l r / . r / r a ~ i / ~ i z
shall provide f o r the widest practicable and appropriate J I re)iiinntioti
~
o f i?rformatioti cotirernirig I I I artir itres and the results thrrro f.”
-NATIONALAERONAUTICS
AXD SPACE ACT OF 1938

NASA SCIENTIFIC A N D TECHNICAL PUBLICATIONS

TECHNICAL REPORTS: Scientific and technical information considered

important, complete, and a lasting contribution t o existing knowledge.

TECHNICAL NOTES: Information less broad in scope but nevertheless of

importance as a contribution to existing knowledge.

TECHNICAL MEMORANDUMS: Information receiving limited distribu-

tion because of preliminary data, security classification, or other reasons.

CONTRACTOR REPORTS: Technical information generated in connection

with a NASA contract or grant and released under NASA auspices.

TECHNICAL TRANSLATIONS: Information published in a foreign

language considered to merit NASA distribution in English.

SPFCiiii PUBLiCATiiiNS: information derived from o r of vaiue to N A S A

. ..
activities. Publications iochde conference procredingc, monographs, data
compiiarions, handbook,, sourcrbu&, aid specid b;b:iogrdpllie,.

TECHNOLOGY UTILIZATION PUBLICATIONS: information on tech-

nology used by NASA that may be of particular interest in commercial and other
nonaerospace applications. Publications include Tech Briefs: Technology
LJtilization Reports and Notes; and Technology Surveys.

Details on the availability o f there publicafions may be obfoined from:

SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL INFORMATION DIVISION

NATION A L A E R 0 N A U T I C S AND SPACE A D M I N I STRATI 0 N

Washington, D.C. PO546