Chapter Four: Bond, Anchorage and Development Length 1

Chapter Five: Bond, Anchorage and Development length

5.1 Introduction

In reinforced concrete members, flexural compressive forces are resisted by concrete and the
flexural tensile forces by the reinforcement. For this process to exist, there must be a force
transfer, or bond between the two materials. One of the basic assumptions in the analysis and
design of reinforced concrete is that there is absolutely no slippage between concrete and
reinforcing steel. Whenever there is rate of change of stress in reinforcing bar, there must be
some interchange of stress or shear flow between the concrete and the reinforcement. The
resistance to slippage is termed bond. And the intensity of this bonding force is termed bond
stress.

Bond transfer is due to:

- Adhesion between the concrete and the reinforcing steels
- Frictional resistance and interlock between the bar deformations and the surrounding
concrete.
- Mechanical anchorage effect of the ends of the bars ( hook or bend)

5.2 Bond Stress Development

Bond stress in reinforced concrete embers arise from two distinct situations:
- From anchorage of bars (anchorage bond)
- From the change of bar force along its length due to change in bending moment along the
member (flexural bond).

Flexural Bond

Flexural bond stresses are the bond stresses developed between tension reinforcement and
concrete in flexural members. A short length of a beam is considered as a free body diagram as
shown below.

Due to change in bending moment along the axis of the member, a flexural bending stress U is
developed along the embedded reinforcement (Fig.C)
The change in bending moment dM produces a change in the bar force
dM
dT =
z
Where z is the internal lever arm between tensile and compressive force resultants. Since the
bar or bars must be in equilibrium, this change in bar force is resisted at the contact surface
between steel and concrete by an equal and opposite force produced by bond (see fig 5.C)

If u is the magnitude of the local average bond stress per unit of bar surface area, then by
summing horizontal forces

Reinforced Concrete I
 Chapter Four: Bond, Anchorage and Development Length 2

u ∑O dx = dT
Where ∑ O
is the sum of the perimeters of all the bars. Thus
dT
u=
∑ O
dx
Substituting Eq. (a) in to Eq. (5.1), the unit bond stress can be written as:
dM
u=
∑O zdx
dM
Since =V
dx
V
u= , this is the classic formula for computing the flexural bond
∑ O
z
stresses.
V
And u= ≤ f bd where fbd is the design bond strength (EBCS-2)
∑ O
z

In the computation of flexural bond stresses, due to the high stress gradient in the bar at a
crack location, local bond stress much higher than the one given by the formula does occur. How
ever, the procedure of computing bond stress can be replaced by providing adequate embedment
length past the location at which the bar is fully stressed.

Anchorage Bond

Assume Ld to be the length of the bar embedded in the concrete subjected to a net tensile
force dT (see Fig. 5.). If db is the diameter of the bar, μ is the average bond stress, and fs the
stress in the reinforcing bar in a beam, the anchorage force would be µπd bld and equal to the
tensile force dT on the bar cross section; that is
πdb2
dT = fs
4
πdb2
Hence µπdbld = fs
4
From which the average bond stress,
f s db
µ=
4ld
And the development length
f s db
ld =
4µ
Empirical data indicate that regardless what the flexural bond stresses in tension reinforcement
may be, if bars are sufficiently anchored or developed, there will be no slippage b/n the
concrete and the bars. Thus in order to ensure that a bar is securely anchored by bond to

Reinforced Concrete I
 Chapter Four: Bond, Anchorage and Development Length 3

develop its maximum usable strength, equations for the development length of bars with
different spacing is specified by Building Codes (refer EBCS 2, Art. ).

5.3 Ultimate Bond Strength and Development Length

For reinforcing bars in tension, two types of ultimate bond failure have been observed. The first
is direct pull out of the bar, which occurs when ample confinement is provided by the
surrounding concrete. This could be expected when relatively small diameter bars are used with
sufficiently large concrete cover distances and bar spacing. The second type of failure is
splitting of concrete along the bar when cover, confinement or bar spacing is insufficient to
resist the lateral concrete tension resulting from the wedging effect of the bar deformations.

Development Length

Development length is defined as the length of embedment necessary to develop the full tensile
strength of the bar, controlled by either pullout or splitting. With reference to fig 5.3 the
moment, and the steel stress, is maximum at point a and zero at the supports. If the bar stress
is fs at a, then the total tensile force Abfs must be transferred from the bar to the concrete in
the distance l by bond stress on the surface. To fully develop the strength of the bar, Abfy, the
distance l must be at least equal to the development length of the bar, established by tests. If
the actual length l is equal to or greater than the development length ld, no premature bond
failure will occur. That is, the beam will fail in bending or shear rather than by bond failure.
However, if the actual available length is in adequate for full development, special anchorage
such as Hooks must be provided.

Factors affecting the development length are bar size, bar spacing concrete cover, type of
concrete, spacing and amount of transverse reinforcement, effect of use of excess main
reinforcement, whether bars are coated, and the effect of bar splicing.

Generally, due to the weakening effect of tension cracks, bars in tension require larger
development length than bars in compression (see the equations of the development lengths of
tension and compression reinforcements, EBCS 2, Art.).

Anchorage

In the event that the desired tensile stress in a bar cannot be developed by bond alone, it is
necessary to provide special anchorage at the ends of the bar, usually by means of a 90 o or a
180 o hook. The dimensions and bend radii for such hooks have been standardized (see section
5.6).

5.4 Bar cutoff and bend points in beams

Bending stresses, concrete dimensions, and longitudinal bar areas are calculated based on critical
moments along the length. These critical moment sections are generally at the face of the
supports (negative bending) and near the middle of the span (positive bending).

Reinforced Concrete I
 Chapter Four: Bond, Anchorage and Development Length 4

The steel requirement on the other hand, is easily varied in accordance with requirements for
flexure, and it is common practice either to cut of bars where they are no longer needed to
resist stress or, some times in the case of continuous beams, to bend up the bottom steel
(usuallky at 45o) so that it provides tensile reinforcement at the top of the beam over the
supports.

The tensile force to be resisted by the reinforcement at any cross section is T = Asfs = M/z
where M is the value of bending moment at that section and z is the internal lever arm of the
resisting moment. The lever arm z varies only with in narrow limits and is never less than the
value at the maximum moment section. Consequently, the tensile force can be taken with good
accuracy directly proportional to the bending moment. Since it is desirable to design so that the
steel every where in the beam is as nearly fully stressed as possible, it follows that the required
steel area is very nearly proportional to the bending moment.

To illustrate, the moment diagram for a uniformly loaded simple span beam shown in Fig. 5.4 can
be used as a steel requirement diagram. At the maximum section, 100 percent of the steel is
theoretically required (0 percent can be discontinued or bent), while at the supports, 0 percent
of the steel is theoretically required (100 percent can be discontinued or bent). The percentage
of bars that could be discontinued elsewhere along the span is obtainable directly from the
moment diagram, drawn to scale.

To determine cutoff or bend points for continues beams, negative and positive moment envelops
are drawn (see fig. 5.3b). The location of the points at which 50% of the bottom and top steel
may theoretically be discontinued are shown

Actually, in no case should the tensile steel be discontinued exactly at the theoretically cutoff
points. It is necessary that the calculated stress in the steel at each section be developed by
adequate embedment length or end anchorage, or a combination of the two. For the usual case,
with no special end anchorage, this means that the full development length ld must be provided
beyond critical sections at which peak stress exists in the bars. These critical sections are
located at points of maximum moment and at points where adjacent terminated reinforcement is
no longer needed to resist bending.

Further more, an internal stress redistribution occurs in a beam due to the formation of
diagonal tension crack (see section). And hence, EBCS requires that every bar should be
continued for a distance of al (see EBCS 2 Art.) beyond the theoretical cutoff points to account
the effect of shear.

5.5 Splicing of Reinforcement

Reinforced Concrete I
 Chapter Four: Bond, Anchorage and Development Length 5

Reinforcing bars are produced in standard lengths controlled by transportability and weight
consideration. In general, 12m lengths are normally produced. It is also convenient to work with
shorter bar lengths. Thus it is normal to splice bars. The forces may be transferred from one
bar to another by a lapped joint or a mechanical joint or welded joint. When two reinforcing bars
are to be joined by lap splicing, it is necessary to overlap a length sufficient to develop its full
strength by bond round the surface so that it does not slip under the design stress.

Fig.5.3 shows a bar lap splice and the force and stress distribution along the splice length ls.
Failure of concrete at the splice region develops by a typical splitting mechanism (see Fig. 5.2b).
At failure, one bar slips relative to the other. The idealized stress distribution in the bars along
the splice length ls has a maximum value fy at the splice end and 1/2fy at ls/2 (see Fig. 5.2).

The required length of lap for tension splices, established by test, may be stated in terms of the
development length ld (EBSC 2, Art. ). The connection or the splicing should be as far as possible
away from the section of high stress and where several parallel bars are to be joined, the joints
should be staggered. It is recommended that splices in flexural members should not be provided
at sections where the bending moment is more than 50% of the moment of resistance; and more
than 50% of the total bars should not be joined at one section.

Reinforcing bars in compression are spliced mainly in columns, where bars are normally
terminated just above each floor or every other floor. This is done partly for construction
convenience, to avoid handling and supporting very long column bars, but it is also done to permit
column steel area to be reduced in steeps, as loads become lighter at higher floors.

5.6 Detailing Provision as per EBCS-2, 1995

Bending of Bars

1) the minimum diameter to which a bar is bent shall be such as to avoid crushing or
splitting of concrete inside the bend of the bar, and to avoid bending cracks in the bar
2) For bars or wires, the minimum diameter of the mandrel used should be not less than the
values given in the following Table.

Table 5.1 Minimum diameter of bend

Bar size Main reinforcement Stirrups and ties
Ø ≤ 16 5Ø 4Ø
16 < Ø ≤ 25 6Ø 6Ø
25 < Ø ≤ 32 8Ø -
Ø > 32 10Ø -

Reinforced Concrete I
 Chapter Four: Bond, Anchorage and Development Length 6

Concrete Cover to reinforcement

1) The concrete cover is the distance between the outer surface of the reinforcement
(including links and stirrups) and the nearest concrete surface.
2) A minimum concrete cover shall be provided in order to ensure:
o the safe transmission of bond forces
o that spalling will not occur
o an adequate fire resistance
o the protection of steel against corrosion
3) to transmit bond forces safely, and to ensure adequate compaction , the concrete cover,
to the bar or tendon being considered, should never be less than:
a) Ø or Øn ( ≤ 40mm), or
b) (Ø + 5mm) or (Øn + 5mm) if dg> 32mm
Where Ø is the diameter of the bar
Øn is the equivalent diameter of a bundle
dg is the largest nominal maximum aggregate size
4) The minimum concrete cover to all reinforcement including links and stirrups should not
be less than the appropriate values given in the following table.

Table 5.2 Minimum Cover Requirements for Concrete Members

Type of Dry environment: Humid environment: Sea water and/or
Exposure Interior buildings of Interior components aggressive chemical
normal habitation or (e.g. laundries); environment: Components
offices exterior components; completely or partially
components in non submerged in sea water;
(Mild) aggressive soil and/or components in saturated
water salt air; aggressive
industrial atmospheres
(Moderate) (Sever)
Minimum
cover 15 25 50
(mm)

5) The allowance (Δh) for tolerance will usually be in the range of 0 mm < Δh < 5 mm, for
pre-cast elements, if production control can guarantee these values and if this is verified
by quality control. The allowance will be in the range of 5 mm < Δh < 10 mm, for insitu
reinforced concrete construction.
6) For concrete cast against uneven surfaces, the minimum covers given in the above table
should generally be increased by larger allowances for tolerances. For example, for
concrete cast directly against the earth, the minimum cover should be greater than 75
mm; for concrete cast against prepared ground (including blinding) the minimum cover
should be greater than 40mm. surfaces having designed features, such as ribbed finishes
or exposed aggregate, also require increased cover.

Reinforced Concrete I
 Chapter Four: Bond, Anchorage and Development Length 7

7) The nominal cover shall always be at least equal to the diameter of the bar Ø and incase
of bundles to the size of a single bar of equivalent area by the following equation
φ e = φb n
Where Øe is the effective diameter of the bundle
Øb is the diameter of bars forming the bundle
n is the number of bars in the bundle

8) The required minimum covers given in the above table, as modified to allow for
tolerances, may be insufficient for fire protection and particular requirements shall be
referred.

Spacing of reinforcement

1) The spacing of bars shall be suitable for the proper compaction of concrete and when an
internal vibrator is likely to be used, sufficient space shall be left between
reinforcement to enable the vibrator to be inserted
2) The maximum aggregate size dg should be chosen to permit adequate compaction of the
concrete round the bars
3) The clear horizontal and vertical distance between bars shall be at least equal to the
largest of the following values:
a. 20mm
b. The diameter of the largest bar or effective diameter of the bundle
c. The maximum size of the aggregate dg plus 5mm
4) Where bars are positioned in separate horizontal layers, the bars in each layer should be
located vertically above each other and space between the resulting columns of bar
should permit the passage of an internal vibrator
5) Lapped bars may touch one another within the lap length
6) Maximum distance with in the bars shall comply with the code requirement

Bond

Design Bond Strength

1) The design bond strength fbd depends on the type of reinforcement, the concrete
strength and the position of the bar during concreting
2) The bond conditions are considered to be good for( See Figure) :
a) All bars which are in the lower half of an element
b) All bars in elements whose depth does not exceed 300mm
c) All bars which are at least 300mm from the top of an element in which they are
placed.
d) All bars with an inclination of 45o to 90o to the horizontal during concreting.

3) For good bond conditions, the design bond strength of plain bars may be obtained from :
fbd = fctd
4) For deformed bars twice the value for plain bars may be used

Reinforced Concrete I
 Chapter Four: Bond, Anchorage and Development Length 8

5) For other bond conditions, the design bond strength may be taken as 0.7 times the value
for good bond conditions

Figure 5.1 Bond requirements

Anchorage of Reinforcement

1) All reinforcement shall be properly anchored at each end with due consideration for the
effect of arch action and shear cracks
2) To prevent bond failure, the tension and compression in any bars at any section due to
ultimate loads shall be developed on each side of the section by appropriate embedment
length or end anchorage or combination thereof. Hooks may be used in developing bars in
tension (see figure).

Basic Anchorage Length

1) The basic anchorage length is the embedment length required to develop the full design
strength of a straight reinforcing bar.
2) The basic anchorage length lb for a bar of diameter Ø is:
φ f yd
lb = .
4 f bd

Required Anchorage Length

Reinforced Concrete I
 Chapter Four: Bond, Anchorage and Development Length 9

1) The required anchorage length lb,net depends on the type of anchorage and on the stress
in the reinforcement and can be calculated as :
As ,cal
lb ,net = alb ≥ lb ,min
As ,ef
Where As,cal is the theoretical area of reinforcement required by the design
As,ef is the area of reinforcement actually provided
a = 1.0 for straight bar anchorage in tension or compression
= 0.7 for anchorage in tension with the standard hooks of Fig. 5.
lb,min is the minimum anchorage length

2) For bars in tension,

lb ,min = 0.3lb ≥ 10φ
or ≥ 200mm
3) For bars in compression,
lb ,min = 0.6lb ≥ 10φ
or ≥ 200mm

Figure 5.2 Required anchorage length

Ties and Stirrups

1) The type of anchorage used shall not induce splitting or spalling of the concrete cover.
2) Anchorage by hooks(135o to 180o) is required for plain bars
3) Anchorage by bends( 90o to 135o) is only allowed for deformed bars
4) The required anchorage lb,net shall be measured from the mid depth of the member

Laps and Joints

1) The length of lap lo shall be at least equal to:

Reinforced Concrete I
 Chapter Four: Bond, Anchorage and Development Length 10

l o ≥ a1lb ,net ≥ l o ,min

l o ,min = 0.3aa1lb ≥ 15φ
Where
or ≥ 200mm
lb,net and a are as given before.
a1 is a function of the percentage of the reinforcement lapped at any section as
given in the following Table. Lab joints are considered to be at the same
section if the distance between their centers does not exceed the required
lap length.
Table 5.3 Values of a1
Distance between to Distance of nearest surface Percentage of reinforcement
adjacent laps lapped within required lap length
a b 20% 20% 20% 20% 20%
a ≤ 10Ø and/or b ≤ 5Ø 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
a > 10Ø and b > 5Ø 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4

2) The lap length lo shall be at least equal to the basic anchorage length lb.
3) The percentage of lapped bars in compression in any section may be 100% of the total
steel cross section.
4) The separation of bars at the joint shall be as small as possible and shall not exceed 4Ø
except in slabs and walls. The distance between two adjacent laps shall be equal to:
a) In the transverse direction: 2Ø ≥ 20mm ( clear distance)
b) In the longitudinal direction: 1.5lo (center to centre distance)
5) Transverse forces in lapped joints shall be checked where
a) Ø ≥ 16mm, or
b) The join affects more than one-half of the total area of the bars

Reinforced Concrete I
 Chapter Four: Bond, Anchorage and Development Length 11

Figure 5.3 Bond requirements

Curtailment of Longitudinal Reinforcement

Staggering Rule

1) The tensile force diagram or M/z diagram for a flexural member shall be obtained by
dividing the moment diagram by the appropriate lever arm z and displacing the resulting
curves horizontally by the amounts a1 as shown in Fig. 5.
2) The displacement a1 depends on the spacing of potential share cracks and may be taken
as follows in the absence of more accurate determination:

a) Members without shear reinforcement ( e.g. slabs) a1 = 1.0d

b) Members with Vsd < 2Vc a1 = 0.75d
c) Members with Vsd ≥ 2Vc a1 = 0.5d

Where Vsd is the applied design shear force

Reinforced Concrete I
 Chapter Four: Bond, Anchorage and Development Length 12

3) Near points of zero moment, ≥a1d shall be taken for both positive and negative
moments.

Figure 5.4 Tensile force diagram

Anchorage Length of reinforcement

1) Reinforcement shall extend beyond the point at which it is no longer required to resist
tension for a length given by:
a) lb according to the previous equation
b) lb,net ≥ d according to the previous equation provided that in this case, the continuing
bars are capable of resisting twice the applied moment at the section
2) The anchorage length of bars that are bent as shear reinforcement shall be at least
equal to 1.3lb,net in zones subjected to tension and to 0.7lb,net in zones subjected to
compression

Anchorage Bottom reinforcement at the Supports

3) At least one-quarter of the positive moment reinforcement in simple beams and one-half
of the positive moment reinforcement in slabs shall extend along the same face of the
member into the support
4) The anchorage of this reinforcement shall be capable of developing the following tensile
force Ft.
a1
Ft = Vsd ≥ 0.5Vsd
d
5) The anchorage length is measured from:
a) The face of the support, for a direct support

Reinforced Concrete I
 Chapter Four: Bond, Anchorage and Development Length 13

b) A plane inside the support located at a distance of 1/3 the width of the support from
the face of the support, for an indirect support.
6) The anchorage length of the bottom reinforcement at intermediate supports shall be at
least 10Ø.

Reinforced Concrete I
 Chapter Four: Bond, Anchorage and Development Length 14

Reinforced Concrete I
 Chapter Four: Bond, Anchorage and Development Length 15

Reinforced Concrete I
 Chapter Four: Bond, Anchorage and Development Length 16

Reinforced Concrete I
 Chapter Four: Bond, Anchorage and Development Length 17

Reinforced Concrete I
 Chapter Four: Bond, Anchorage and Development Length 18

Reinforced Concrete I
 Chapter Four: Bond, Anchorage and Development Length 19

Reinforced Concrete I
 Chapter Four: Bond, Anchorage and Development Length 20

Reinforced Concrete I
 Chapter Four: Bond, Anchorage and Development Length 21

Reinforced Concrete I
 Chapter Four: Bond, Anchorage and Development Length 22

Reinforced Concrete I
 Chapter Four: Bond, Anchorage and Development Length 23

Reinforced Concrete I
 Chapter Four: Bond, Anchorage and Development Length 24

Reinforced Concrete I
 Chapter Four: Bond, Anchorage and Development Length 25

Reinforced Concrete I
 Chapter Four: Bond, Anchorage and Development Length 26

Reinforced Concrete I
 Chapter Four: Bond, Anchorage and Development Length 27

Reinforced Concrete I
 Chapter Four: Bond, Anchorage and Development Length 28

Reinforced Concrete I
 Chapter Four: Bond, Anchorage and Development Length 29

Reinforced Concrete I
 Chapter Four: Bond, Anchorage and Development Length 30

Reinforced Concrete I
 Chapter Four: Bond, Anchorage and Development Length 31

Reinforced Concrete I