Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
TESIS DOCTORAL
Patricia Valle Vigón
2013
UNIVERSIDAD DE OVIEDO
Departamento de Química Física y Analítica
TESIS DOCTORAL
Patricia Valle Vigón
2013
UNIVERSIDAD DE OVIEDO
Departamento de Química Física y Analítica
2013
A mi familia
Agradecimientos
A mis nenis Nati, Mary y Noe, mis amigas del pasado, del presente y
del futuro.
Índice
Lista de Tablas XI
Resumen XIII
Abstract XV
ORGANIZACIÓN DE LA MEMORIA 1
INTRODUCCIÓN 7
1. Materiales Nanoporosos 9
2. Materiales de Sílice Mesoestructurada 10
3. Materiales de Carbono Mesoporoso 14
4. Materiales Mesoporosos Sílice-Carbono 22
OBJETIVOS 29
EXPERIMENTAL 33
1. SÍNTESIS DE MATERIALES 35
1.1. Materiales Híbridos Sílice-Agente Porógeno 35
1.1.1. Sílice mesoestructurada MCM-41 35
1.1.2. Sílice mesoestructurada SBA-15 35
1.1.3. Sílice mesoestructurada KIT-6 36
1.1.4. Sílice mesocelular 36
1.1.5. Nanoesferas organosilíceas de núcleo sólido y 37
pared mesoporosa
II Índice
2. FUNCIONALIZACIÓN 43
2.1. Incorporación de grupos oxigenados 43
2.2. Incorporación de grupos sulfónicos 43
2.3. Incorporación de funcionalidades nitrogenadas 43
2.4. Incorporación de funcionalidades de azufre 44
2.5. Incorporación de funcionalidades magnéticas 44
3. CARACTERIZACIÓN 45
3.1. Caracterización Estructural 45
3.1.1. Adsorción física de nitrógeno 45
3.1.2. Microscopía electrónica de barrido (SEM) 46
3.1.3. Microscopía electrónica de transmisión (TEM) 46
3.1.4. Difracción de rayos X (XRD) 46
4. APLICACIONES 52
4.1. Inmovilización de biomoléculas 52
4.2. Adsorción/degradación de colorantes 54
4.2.1. Adsorción de azul de metileno (MB) 54
RESULTADOS 59
Bloque I SÍNTESIS, FUNCIONALIZACIÓN Y APLICACIÓN DE MATERIALES 61
MESOESTRUCTURADOS SÍLICE-CARBONO
1. Resumen 61
2. Síntesis de Materiales Mesoestructurados Sílice-Carbono 65
2.1. Empleo del surfactante como precursor de carbono 65
BIBLIOGRAFÍA 273
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono y sus derivados VII
Lista de Figuras
Introducción página
Experimental página
Resultados página
Lista de Tablas
página
Tabla 1. Detalles de las revistas científicas en las que se han 5
publicado los artículos presentados en esta memoria.
Tabla 2. Condiciones de síntesis y mesoestructura de los 39
materiales de sílice elaborados en este trabajo.
Tabla 3. Estructura química de los colorantes empleados en los 55
ensayos de degradación.
Tabla 4. Cantidades específicas de los reactivos involucrados en 57
las tres reacciones de esterificación.
Tabla 5. Capacidad máxima de adsorción de azul de metileno de 82
diferentes adsorbentes recogidos en la literatura.
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono y sus derivados XIII
Resumen
El diseño de nanomateriales se ha convertido, en los últimos años, en
un campo de la nanotecnología de gran interés que evoluciona
continuamente hacia la búsqueda de materiales que se adapten por completo
a las exigencias de su posterior aplicación. En este sentido, el empleo de
materiales compuestos que unifiquen las características aportadas por cada
uno de sus componentes, así como otras nuevas derivadas del conjunto,
supondría un gran avance. Por ello, la presente tesis doctoral aborda el diseño
y la fabricación de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice-carbono.
Abstract
The design of nanomaterials has attracted widespread interest in
recent years and it is constantly growing in the search for novel materials
whose properties fulfil the requirements of increasingly demanding
applications. The use of composite materials which embody both the
characteristics of each individual component and new properties arising from
their combination, will act as a further stimulus to progress in this field. The
present thesis focuses on the design and fabrication of mesoporous silica-
carbon composites.
Organización de la Memoria
La presente memoria describe la síntesis, caracterización y aplicación
de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice-carbono y sus derivados con
propiedades avanzadas. La organización de los contenidos se ilustra en el
siguiente esquema:
Tras dar a conocer las ideas generales sobre las que versa la presente
memoria, se especifican los Objetivos.
Factor Posición/
Publicación Año Revista de Área área
Impacto (percentil)
5
Introducción
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono y sus derivados 9
Introducción
1. MATERIALES NANOPOROSOS
A lo largo de los últimos años se ha producido una gran evolución en
el campo del diseño de nanomateriales, permitiendo un control más preciso
de sus propiedades físicas y químicas, y con ello un mejor ajuste a las
exigencias de su posterior aplicación.
de la sílice empleada como molde y por tanto, el tamaño de poro del material
carbonoso final.
Objetivos
Conforme a lo expuesto anteriormente, la presente memoria tiene
como objetivo general la síntesis, funcionalización y aplicación de materiales
mesoporosos compuestos sílice-carbono y su empleo como plataforma para la
fabricación de materiales porosos con propiedades avanzadas. Para cumplir
este objetivo general se han planteado los objetivos específicos que se
detallan a continuación:
a) Sintetizar materiales sílice-carbono mesoestructurados con
propiedades texturales controladas mediante la incorporación de una
capa de carbono en los mesoporos de la sílice.
b) Investigar el mecanismo de formación de carbono en los composites a
partir del propio surfactante usado en la síntesis de la sílice, mediante
el empleo de ácido sulfúrico.
c) Preparar materiales con propiedades avanzadas mediante la
funcionalización post-síntesis de la capa de carbono de los composites
con diferentes grupos funcionales.
d) Sintetizar composites sílice-carbono dopados con funcionalidades
nitrogenadas y de azufre mediante el empleo, como fuente de
carbono, de precursores poliméricos ricos en estos heteroátomos.
e) Fabricar materiales mesoporosos sílice-carbono con morfología
esférica de tipo nano-sonajero.
f) Preparar materiales de carbono mesoporoso con morfología singular
de tipo cápsula.
g) Analizar el potencial de los diferentes materiales sintetizados en las
siguientes aplicaciones: inmovilización de biomoléculas, adsorción o
degradación de colorantes, retención de metales pesados y catálisis
ácida heterogénea.
Experimental
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono y sus derivados 35
Experimental
1. SÍNTESIS DE MATERIALES
TEOS/CTAB/NH3/H2O= 1/0.152/2.8/141.2
TEOS/P123/HCl/H2O= 1/0.017/5.7/193
TEOS/P123/HCl/H2O/BuOH = 1/0.017/1.83/195/1.31
TEOS/P123/HCl/H2O/NH4F/TMB = 1/0.02/5.71/171.95/0.03/0.81
este caso TEOS, en un medio líquido constituido por etanol, agua y disolución
acuosa de amoniaco (32 %). Mientras que el alcohol actúa como co-disolvente
para homogeneizar la disolución, la disolución de NH4OH ejerce de catalizador
morfológico mediante el control del pH, favoreciendo la formación de
partículas de sílice individuales frente a hidrogeles de sílice. Para obtener
esferas Stöber, el TEOS se adicionó lentamente sobre la disolución acuosa a
30 °C bajo agitación y se mantuvo así 1 h.
TEOS/NH4OH/EtOH/H2O = 1/6.5/48.9/21.6
Mesoestructura
Sílice SDA* Condiciones Aditivos Referencia
grupo espacial
Catiónico Hexagonal 2D
MCM-41 Básico - [91]
CTAB p6mm
No iónico
Hexagonal 2D
SBA-15 Pluronic Ácido - [92]
p6mm
P-123
No iónico
Débilmente n-butanol (agente Cúbica 3D
KIT-6 Pluronic [12]
ácido de hinchamiento) Ia3d
P-123
TMB (agente de
celdas esféricas de
No iónico hinchamiento);
tamaño uniforme
MCF Pluronic Ácido NH4F (mayor [13]
interconectadas
P-123 ordenamiento
Sistema poroso 3D
estructural)
Mesoporosidad
desordenada,
SCMS C18TMS Básico - [95, 96]
macroestructura
esférica.
*SDA: Agente director de la estructura (structure-directing agent)
2. FUNCIONALIZACIÓN
3. CARACTERIZACIÓN
A continuación se detallan las diferentes técnicas de caracterización,
así como los equipos y condiciones de análisis empleados para el estudio de
las propiedades estructurales y físico-químicas de los materiales sintetizados
en este trabajo.
2 senq (E1)
2
d100 (E2)
Ö3
a0
e
dp
Figura 6. Representación de la estructura hexagonal con simetría p6mm de un
material mesoestructurado de sílice SBA-15 y ecuación para el cálculo de a0
(Ecuación 2).
48 Experimental: Caracterización
Ö6 (E3)
(E4)
4. APLICACIONES
b) Lacasa (Lc).
(R1)
exceso molar para desplazar el equilibrio hacia la formación del éster. Antes
de la reacción, todos los catalizadores se secaron a 110 °C en estufa de vacío
durante 4 h. Los experimentos se llevaron a cabo mediante la mezcla de las
cantidades especificadas en la Tabla 4 de cada reactivo y de etanol, en un
matraz de fondo redondeado de 25 mL de capacidad, equipado con un
condensador de reflujo y agitación magnética. Una vez que la mezcla alcanzó
la temperatura de reflujo, se añadió el catalizador, marcando el tiempo inicial
de la reacción de esterificación. Se extrajeron periódicamente alícuotas,
separando el sobrenadante del sólido mediante centrifugación. Los análisis de
las muestras se llevaron a cabo mediante cromatografía de gases en un
equipo HP de la serie 6890 provisto de un detector de ionización de llama
(FID) y una columna capilar HP-5 (30 m x 0.25 mm x 0.25 m).
Resultados Bloque I:
Síntesis, Funcionalización y Aplicación de
Materiales Mesoestructurados Sílice-Carbono
1. RESUMEN
El diseño de materiales que se adapten por completo a las exigencias
de su posterior aplicación solo puede ser logrado mediante un exhaustivo
control y la posibilidad de modulación de sus propiedades estructurales,
químicas y morfológicas. El presente capítulo comprende los aspectos más
importantes relacionados con la síntesis de materiales mesoporosos
compuestos sílice-carbono con propiedades texturales controladas (área
superficial, volumen de poro y tamaño de poro). La posterior modificación de
sus propiedades químicas mediante funcionalización con diversos grupos
orgánicos, generó materiales con propiedades avanzadas útiles en diversas
aplicaciones específicas (ver Figura 8).
Artículo I:
Artículo II.:
Artículo III:
Artículo IV:
3. FUNCIONALIZACIÓN
Figura 11. Imágenes de SEM del composite sílice mesocelular/C (a) antes y (b) tras la
sulfonación, así como un esquema ilustrativo de la química superficial de la capa de
carbono.
sustancialmente mayor (hasta 0.4 mmol g-1) que la publicada por otros
autores, sin que repercuta en las propiedades estructurales. Así, por ejemplo,
Nakajima y col. [77] sulfonaron materiales sílice-carbono (SBA-15/C) con
porcentajes de carbono entre 20 y 40 % y hallaron densidades de grupos
sulfónicos de 0.13, 0.30 y 0.38 mmol g-1 para SBA-15/C con un 20, 30 y 40 %
de materia carbonosa respectivamente. Sin embargo, es importante destacar
que los materiales con mayor contenido de carbono (30 y 40 %) y de grupos
sulfónicos pierden su estructura porosa.
a) b)
N-Q
N-6 N-Q N-6
N-5 N-X
Intensity (a.u.)
c)
N-5
N-6
N-Q
N-X
N-X
N-5
N-5
Figura 13. Imágenes de SEM de la sílice SBA-15 (a) y del composite SBA-15/C dopado
con azufre carbonizado a 500 °C (b) y 800 °C (c). A la derecha se muestra un esquema
de la estructura química de la capa de carbono.
4. APLICACIONES
Figura 14. Ilustración del mecanismo de adsorción de azul de metileno (MB) sobre el
composite SBA-15/C funcionalizado con grupos carboxílicos.
Figura 16. Ilustración de las reacciones de esterificación con etanol de los tres
compuestos orgánicos seleccionados en este trabajo. (MA: anhídrido maleico; MEM:
monoetil maleato; DEM: dietil maleato; SA: ácido succínico; MES: monoetil succinato;
DIES: dietil succinato; OA: ácido oleico; EO: etil oleato).
160
Cantidad de dietilmaleato (mmol g-1)
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1 2 3 4
Número de ciclo
Figura 18. Reutilización del composite KIT-6/C carbonizado a 500 °C y sulfonado como
catalizador de la reacción de esterificación de anhídrido maleico con etanol.
5. CONCLUSIONES
Las principales conclusiones derivadas del análisis de los resultados
obtenidos del trabajo realizado en este capítulo son las siguientes:
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Article history: A general synthetic route for the fabrication of carbon-silica composites
Received 14 April 2010
with a carbon layer coating the mesopores of the mesostructured silica is
Received in revised form
21 May 2010
presented. The carbon layer is produced by carbonizing the surfactant
Accepted 24 May 2010 employed as structure directing agent in the synthesis of the mesostruc-
Available online 1 June 2010 tured silica materials (MSM). The synthesis of this kind of composites is
based on using sulphuric acid to generate a carbon residue from the
Keywords: surfactant molecules confined within the mesopores of the silica. The
Silica action of the sulphuric acid takes place via dehydration and sulphonation
Carbon reactions, which promote the formation of aromatic structures and favour
Composite cross-linking processes. In order to illustrate this synthetic strategy we
Mesoporous
selected three mesostructured silica materials prepared with the aid of
two types of surfactants: i) oxygen-containing non-ionic triblock
PEO-EO-PEO copolymer (Pluronic P-123) used for the synthesis of SBA-15
and KIT-6, and ii) an alkyl ionic surfactant CTAB (cetyltrimethylammonium
bromide) used to synthesize MCM-41. The silica-carbon composites
prepared have high BET surface areas, large pore volumes and an ordered
porosity made up of uniform mesopores.
*
Corresponding author. E-mail address: abefu@incar.csic.es (A.B. Fuertes). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.micromeso.2010.05.022
moieties which make it possible to tune deposition whereas by the second, the
the surface chemical properties [4, 5]. In synthetic route is complex and involves
addition, these silica materials are very numerous steps. What is more it re-
useful as hard templates for the fabrica- quires the use of expensive organic rea-
tion of mesoporous carbons and other gents. A simpler and more cost-effective
porous organic (polymer) and inorganic route to obtain these silica-carbon com-
(metal oxides) materials [6-9]. posites would be to use the surfactant
that is employed as structure directing
However, mesostructured silica mate-
agent in the synthesis of the mesostruc-
rials have certain drawbacks that limit
tured silica as the carbon source. More-
their applicability. They have a poor
over, since the surfactant molecules
electronic conductivity and the incorpo-
completely fill the silica pores, it can be
ration of organic surface functionalities
envisaged that this methodology will
entails complex and expensive proce-
lead to the formation of a uniform
dures. Yet the coating of the mesopo-
carbon layer over the pores of the silica.
rous network of silica with a thin layer of
carbon could lead to new possibilities for The conversion of surfactant to car-
the application of mesostructured mate- bon has been mainly investigated in
rials. A silica-carbon composite with relation to the synthesis of templated
these characteristics would combine the porous carbons. In most of these exper-
structural properties of silica (i.e. uni- iments, the conversion of the surfactant
form mesopores and a well-defined pore to carbon was carried out with the aid of
arrangement) with those typical of car- sulphuric acid. Thus, Kim et al. [13] pro-
bon materials, such as a high electronic duced carbon nanotubes by carbonizing
conductivity and facility to incorporate the Pluronic P-123 triblock copolymer
oxygen functional groups (i.e. sulphonic, (PEO-EO-PEO) trapped inside the meso-
carbonyl, hydroxyl, carboxylic, etc). In pores of silica with a 2-D hexagonal pore
other words, this type of composite arrangement. Kim et al. [14], Liu et al.
combines the textural characteristics of [15] and Yan et al. [16] propose the use
mesostructured silica and the surface of the surfactant (Pluronic P-123) con-
and electronic properties characteristic fined within the silica pores as precursor
of carbon materials. Two synthetic strat- for the synthesis of templated mesopo-
egies have been reported for deposition rous carbons. Liu et al. [17] have investi-
of carbon inside silica pores: (i) by means gated the possibility of modulating the
of a CVD process [10] and (ii) by attach- mesopore size via the formation of a
ing organic moieties to the silica surface carbon layer within the pores of the
followed by a carbonization step [11, silica. It should be noted that in all
12]. By means of the first method it is previous works, only the non-ionic
difficult to ensure a uniform carbon PEO-EO-PEO triblock copolymer surfac-
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono 99
tants (mostly Pluronic P-123) were used carbon is formed from these surfactants
as carbon source. The employ of sul- was also investigated.
phuric acid for the generation of carbon
from the organic substance is not limited 2. Experimental
to the surfactants. Thus, the conversion
of the sucrose into carbon in presence of 2.1. Preparation of hybrid sili-
sulphuric acid is a procedure commonly ca/surfactant materials
employed to fabricate templated meso- 2.1.1 KIT-6/P-123.
porous carbons [18]. A recent example This hybrid silica/surfactant material
of this methodology has been reported was prepared as described by Kleitz et
by Devi et al. [19], which described the al. [20] by using a non-ionic oligomeric
synthesis of a sulphonated carbonaceous alkyl-ethylene oxide surfactant as struc-
material obtained through the carboni- ture-directing agent, i.e. Pluronic P-123.
zation of a mixture of glycerol and sul- 2.4 g of Pluronic P-123 (Aldrich) was
phuric acid. However, although the sul- dissolved in 66.4 g of water and 22.9 g
phuric acid has been widely employed to HCl 2 M. Once the surfactant had dis-
prepare carbon materials from a variety solved, 2.4 g n-butanol (Aldrich, >99.4 %)
of organic substances, its role in the was added, the mixture then being
conversion of organic molecules to car- maintained under stirring at 35 °C for
bon has hardly been investigated. 1 h. Then, 5.16 g of tetraethyl orthosili-
cate (TEOS, Aldrich, 98 %) was added
In the present work, we carried out a
and the resulting mixture was kept un-
systematic investigation into the fabrica-
der stirring for 24 h at 35°C, and subse-
tion of carbon coated mesostructured
quently heated under static conditions
silica materials by carbonizing hybrid
for 24 h at 130 °C. The solid product
silica/surfactant materials. This study is
obtained was separated by centrifuga-
not only limited to silica/triblock
tion, washed with distilled water and
(PEO-EO-PEO) nanocomposites but also
ethanol, and dried at 100 °C
introduces a methodology for fabricating
silica-carbon composites by using ionic 2.1.2. SBA-15/P-123.
surfactants as carbon source This hybrid composite was synthe-
i.e. n-alkyltrimethylammonium halides sised, under acid pH, as reported by
(CTAB). This synthetic method has been Zhao et al. [21]. In a typical synthesis,
used to fabricate a variety of silica- the silica source (TEOS) was added to an
carbon composites based on the aqueous solution containing HCl and
PEO-EO-PEO triblock surfactant Pluronic surfactant (starting mol ratio:
P-123 (SBA-15/C and KIT-6/C) and on TEOS/surfac-tant/HCl/H2O =
cationic alkyl surfactant CTAB 1/0.017/5.7/193). The mixture was then
(MCM-41/C). The mechanism via which magnetically stirred until the TEOS was
100 Artículo I: Valle-Vigón et al. Micro. Meso. Mater. 134 (2010) 165 - 174
the as analysis of the silica and carbon deduced from the weight loss that
samples correspond to a macroporous occurs in the 450-600 °C range. X-ray
silica sample [23] and a non-graphitised photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was
carbon black sample [24], respectively. carried out on a Specs spectrometer,
The pore size distributions (PSD were using MgK (1253.6 eV) radiation from a
performed by applying the Kruk– double anode at 50 w. Binding energies
Jaroniec–Sayari (KJS) method to the for the high-resolution spectra were
adsorption branch [25]. Transmission calibrated by setting C 1s to 284.6 eV.
electron micrographs (TEM) were taken Temperature programmed desorption
on a JEOL (JEM-2000 EX II) microscope (TPD) experiments were performed in a
operating at 160 kV. Diffuse reflectance chemisorption analyzer (Micromeritics,
Fourier-Transform Infrared (FT-IR) spec- Autochem II) by heating the samples up
tra of the materials were recorded on a to 1000°C under an argon flow at a rate
Nicolet Magna-IR 560 spectrometer of 10 °C/min and recording the amounts
fitted with a diffuse reflection attach- of SO2, CO and CO2 with a mass spec-
ment. The percentage of carbon in the trometer (OmniStar 300O). The Raman
composites was deduced by thermograv- spectra were recorded on a Horiva
imetric analysis which was performed on (LabRam HR-800) spectrometer. The
a CI Electronics system. In a typical ex- source of radiation was a laser operating
periment, a small amount of composite at a wavelength of 514 nm and a power
was heated up to 800°C (5 °C/min) in an of 25 mW.
air stream and the carbon content was
Table 1. Structural parameters of the silica samples (calcined at 550°C) and silica-carbon com-
posites (carbonized at 800°C).
s-plot results
Carbon SBET Vp Pore size a
Sample 2 -1 3 -1 a b 3 -1 c 2 -1 d e
(wt %) (m .g ) (cm .g ) (nm) Vm (cm .g ) Sext (m .g ) (nm)
100 10.4 nm
(a) 800 20
9.7 nm
(b)
dV/dlog(D), cm 3 g-1
75
-1
800
dV/dlog(D), cm g
15
-1
3
-1
Adsorbed volume, cm STP g
50
600 10
9.4 nm 8.8nm
600 25
3
0
0
8 9 10 11 12 13 400 5 10 15 20
400 Pore s ize (D), nm Pore s ize (D), nm
200
200
SBA-15
KIT-6
SBA-15/C
KIT-6/C
0 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Relative pressure (p/p o) Relative pressure (p/p o)
500 (c)
-1
STP g
400
3
Adsorbed volume, cm
300 3.2 nm
40
g -1
3
30
dV/dlog(D), cm
200
20 2.9 nm
10
100
MCM-41 0
2 3 4 5
MCM-41/C Pore size (D), nm
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Relative pressure (p/p o )
Figure 1. Nitrogen sorption isotherms and pore size distributions (insets) of the silica and silica-
carbon composites. (a) KIT-6 and KIT-6/C, (b) SBA-15 and SBA-15/C and (c) MCM-41 and
MCM-41/C.
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono 103
Figure 1 presents a comparison of the the MSM samples. This can be deduced
nitrogen sorption isotherms and pore from the XRD patterns shown in
size distributions (insets) obtained for Figure 2, which present a comparison of
the silica and silica/carbon samples. The the low-angle X-ray diffraction patterns
silica-carbon samples show, in relation of the calcined silica and their corre-
to the MSM (i.e. KIT-6, SBA-15 and sponding silica-carbon composites. Thus,
MCM-41), a moderate reduction in BET like the parent calcined silica samples,
surface area, pore volume and pore size. the silica carbon composites KIT-6/C,
This leads to confirm that the textural SBA-15/C and MCM-41/C display well-
properties of the composites are compa- resolved XRD peaks, which are assigned
rable to those of MSM. to the reflections characteristic of the 3D
cubic Ia3d silica mesostructure (Fig. 2a)
The incorporation of carbon does not
and 2D p6mm hexagonal silica
affect the structural order of the silica-
mesostructure (Fig. 2b and 2c).
carbon composites in relation to that of
(211 a (100)
b
(220)
Intensity (a. u.)
(420)
Intensity (a.u.)
KIT-6/C (110)
(200)
SBA-15/C
KIT-6 SBA-15
0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5 0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5
2 Theta (º) 2 Theta (º)
(100) c
MCM-41/C
(110) (200)
Intensity (a. u.)
MCM-41
Figure 2. XRD patterns in the low-angle region of the mesostructured silica materials and the
corresponding silica-carbon composites. (a) KIT-6 and KIT-6/C; (b) SBA-15 and SBA-15/C; (c)
MCM-41 and MCM-41/C.
104 Artículo I: Valle-Vigón et al. Micro. Meso. Mater. 134 (2010) 165 - 174
TEM images corresponding to the silica- composites. This is due to the use of a
carbon composites are shown in Fig- high carbonization temperature (800 °C),
ure 3. These clearly show that the struc- as confirmed by the fact that the cell
tural order characteristic of the parent parameter of KIT-6 silica calcined at
MSM is retained in the carbon-silica 800 °C is 22.3 nm, which is smaller than
composites. The unit cell parameters, that of the sample calcined at 550 °C
deduced from the XRD pattern, are listed (23.7 nm). Interestingly, the cell parame-
in Table 1. In comparison with the silica ter for the KIT-6/C composite (23.2 nm)
samples calcined at 550 °C, the silica- is larger than that of KIT-6 calcined at
carbon composites obtained after heat 800 °C (22.3 nm). This suggests that the
treatment at 800 °C show slightly smaller carbon layer formed acts as a rigid sup-
cell parameters, indicating that some port which limits the extent of structural
structural shrinkage has taken place shrinkage.
during the synthesis of the silica-carbon
a b
50 nm 50 nm
50 nm
Figure 3. TEM images of the silica-carbon composites. (a) KIT-6/C, (b) SBA-15/C and
(c) MCM-41/C.
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono 105
Mesoporous carbon materials can be duced by the fact that the low-angle
obtained by dissolving the silica skeleton range XRD patterns for these samples
in the silica-carbon composites. The exhibit a broad peak at 2 < 2.5 ° (see
nitrogen sorption isotherms and pore Figure 4d). The mesoporous structure of
size distributions (insets) are presented these carbons indicates that the carbon
in Figures 4a-c. The textural data for in the silica-carbon composites is inter-
these templated carbons are listed in connected and it is uniformly distributed
Table 2. The results show that these within the pore network. Interestingly, a
carbons have large specific surface areas mesoporous carbon is obtained from the
and that their porosity is predominantly MCM-41/CTAB hybrid material in spite
made up of mesopores. What is more, of the fact that the mesopores of this
these carbons retain their mesoporous type of silica are not interconnected. An
structural order to some extent, as de- explanation for this could be that the
1200
a b g -1
4 4.0 nm
400 3
3
dV/dlog(D), cm
1000
STP g -1
-1
2
Adsorbed volume, cm STP g
1
300 800
3
3
1.5 0
Adsorbed volume, cm
2.6 nm 0 2 4 6 8 10
-1
dV/dlog(D), cm g
200 1.0
0.5 400
100
0.0 200
1 3 5 7
Pore size (D), nm
0 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Relative pressure (p/po) Relative pressure (p/p o)
c350 d
300
-1
Adsorbed volume, cm STP g
250
C-(KIT-6)
Intensity (a. u.)
2.1 nm
3
200 1.0
dV/dlog(D), cm 3 g-1
150
0.5
100 C-(SBA-15)
0.0
50 C-(MCM-41)
0 2 4 6 8 10
Pore size (D), nm
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
Relative pressure (p/po) 2 Theta (º)
Figure 4. (a-c) Nitrogen sorption isotherms and pore size distributions (Insets) of the carbons
obtained from the surfactant-based silica-carbon composites: (a) C-(KIT-6), (b) C-(SBA-15),
(c) C-(MCM-41). (d) XRD patterns in the low-angle region of the surfactant-based mesoporous
carbons.
106 Artículo I: Valle-Vigón et al. Micro. Meso. Mater. 134 (2010) 165 - 174
-1
Table 2. Structural properties of the mesopo- 1490 cm , which can be assigned to the
rous carbons obtained from the silica-carbon stretching and bending vibration modes
composites
of C-H bonds [26, 27] and b) bands asso-
Pore -1
SBET, Vp, ciated to silica groups at 1000-1300 cm
Sample 2 -1 3 1 a size, -1
(m .g ) (cm .g- ) b and ~ 800 cm corresponding to asym-
(nm)
C-(KIT-6) 860 0.64 2.6
metric and symmetric stretching vibra-
C-(SBA-15) 1200 1.7 4.0 tions of the Si–O–Si framework and a
-1
C-(MCM-41) 715 0.54 2.1 broad band at 2600 - 3800 cm caused
a
Pore volume determined at p/po=0.99. by the O-H stretching of H bonded O-H
b
Maximum of the pore size distribution. [28-30]. The silica-carbon composites do
-1
1600 cm (G-band) which are associated
to the amorphous carbon and the gra- MCM-41/C
phene sheets respectively. A comparison
of the FT-IR spectra for the hybrid silica- MCM-41/CTAB
surfactant, silica-carbon composites and
the calcined silica samples derived from
KIT-6 and MCM-41 is shown in Figure 5a
3500 2500 1500 500
and 5b, respectively. The FT-IR spectra -1
Wavenumber (cm )
for the hybrid silica/surfactant compo-
Figure 5. FTIR spectra of the hybrid sili-
sites exhibit two types of bands: a) ca/surfactant, silica-carbon and calcined silica
bands associated to the alkyl chains of for the materials derived from: (a) KIT-6 and
the surfactant at 2800 - 3000 cm-1 and (b) MCM-41.
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono 107
not show any IR band associated to the Four peaks can be identified in the C 1s
-1
silanol groups (2600-3800 cm range). spectrum represented in Figure 6a. The
Moreover, when the carbon layer in the two peaks at lower binding energies
silica-carbon composites is removed (by correspond to the carbon which is not
calcination in air), the broad IR band attached to oxygen (dashed line),
associated to the silanol groups whereas the other two peaks at higher
re-emerges in the resulting silica sam- binding energies are attributed to car-
ples. These silica samples show a sharp bon bonded to oxygen (solid line). Thus,
-1
peak at 3750 cm due to the stretching the peak at 284.4 eV corresponds to
modes of isolated OH groups. The above C=C, the peak at 285.3 eV to C-C/C-Hx,
results suggest that the silica surface is the peak at 286.1 eV to -C-OR in the
completely coated by the carbon layer in hydroxyl groups or ethers and the last
the silica-carbon composites. one at 289.0 eV to -COO in the carbox-
ylic groups, esters or lactones [31, 32].
X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy The O 1s spectrum confirms the pres-
(XPS) was used to characterize the oxy- ence of these oxygenated groups. Thus,
gen functionalities associated to carbon as shown in Figure 6b, the peak corre-
which are present on the carbon layer of sponding to oxygen atoms in the carbox-
the silica-carbon composites. As a repre- yl groups, esters or lactones is identified
sentative example, Figure 6 shows the at 532.3 eV (dashed line). In addition,
C 1s and O 1s core-level spectra of the the peak at 533.7 eV (solid line) can be
SBA-15/C composite and the peak fit- attributed to oxygen atoms in hydroxyl
tings of the C 1s and O 1s envelopes. groups or ethers [32-34].
a b
Intensity (a.u.)
Intensity (a.u.)
282 284 286 288 290 292 294 528 530 532 534 536
Binding Energy (eV) Binding Energy (eV)
Figure 6. (a) C 1s and (b) O 1s core level spectra of the composite SBA-15/C.
108 Artículo I: Valle-Vigón et al. Micro. Meso. Mater. 134 (2010) 165 - 174
In order to elucidate the role of the stretching vibrations [35, 36]. Also signif-
sulphuric acid in the formation of the icant is the broad band at 2450-
-1
carbonaceous material, we examined 2700 cm , which is assigned to an over-
the chemical characteristics of materials tone of the bending mode of OH O
obtained at several stages of the synthe- linked by a strong hydrogen bond, sug-
sis process. Thus, the functionalities gesting that some -SO3H groups are
present in the organic materials (the contiguous [37]. These spectra also show
silica was removed using HF) derived other bands that are assigned to C=O
-1
from MCM-41 and SBA-15 after treat- stretching (1730 cm ), C=C stretching
-1 -1
ment with sulphuric acid at 160°C and (1630 cm ), O-H bending (1250 cm )
carbonization at 300°C were examined and C-H stretching and bending vibra-
-1 -1
by infrared spectroscopy (Figure 7). The tions (2800-3000 cm and 1460 cm )
FT-IR spectra reveal the presence of associated to alkyl residues from the
sulphonic groups (-SO3H) in these sam- surfactants (CTAB and P-123) [38]. The
-1
ples. Indeed, the bands at 780 cm are presence of C=C linkages suggests that
assigned to S–O stretching vibrations, parallel to the sulphonation of the sur-
-1
whereas the sharp peaks at 1040 cm factant molecules, a dehydration process
are associated to symmetric S=O occurs.
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono 109
0.05
a C b
0.04 800 °C (S=0.21 wt %) S
O
Gas concentration, (vol %)
CO
CO2
0.03 SO2 300 °C (S=0.90 wt %)
Counts
0.02
500 counts
0.01
160 °C (S=1.32 wt %)
0.00
0 200 400 600 800 0 1 2 3
Temperature, ºC Energy (KeV)
Figure 8. (a) Variation of the concentration of evolved gases (TPD experiment) during the ther-
mal treatment under nitrogen (Heating rate: 5 °C/min) of the SBA-15/P-123 sample treated in
air at 160°C (15 h) in the presence of H2SO4. (b) Energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectra corre-
sponding to the carbonaceous samples obtained from the MCM-41/CTAB hybrid material treat-
ed with H2SO4 up to 160°C, 300°C and 800°C.
The sulphonic groups that are fixed shown in Figure 8a. The peaks corre-
during the sulphuric acid treatment at sponding to CO and CO2 show that, as
160 °C decompose during carbonization. the sulphuric acid and sulphonic groups
This was deduced from the temperature- decompose, the carbonaceous material
programmed desorption (TPD) experi- is partially gasified due to its oxidation
ments on the sulphonated sili- by the in situ produced SO3 (SO3 + C
ca/surfactant samples (in H2SO4 at SO2 + CO/CO2) and also due to the de-
160 °C). A pronounced release of SO2 can composition of oxygen groups as the
be seen in the 200 – 400 °C range (max- temperature increases. However, not all
imum at ~ 280°C), which can be ascribed the fixed sulphur is released during the
to the decomposition of the unreacted carbonization step. This is evidenced by
sulphuric acid (H2SO4 H2O + SO3) and the energy-dispersive X-ray spectra ob-
most of the –SO3H groups. As an exam- tained for the H2SO4-treated
ple, the TPD curves of SO2, CO and CO2 MCM-41/CTAB-based materials (Figure
for the SBA-15/P-123 sample which was 8b). These reveal: (a) a reduction of the
treated with sulphuric acid (160 °C) are sulphur content in the carbonaceous
110 Artículo I: Valle-Vigón et al. Micro. Meso. Mater. 134 (2010) 165 - 174
a b
800 °C 800 °C
Imtesity (a.u)
300 °C 300 °C
160 °C 160 °C
100 °C
SBA-15/P-123
MCM-41/CTAB
Figure 9. Raman spectra of the samples collected at different stages of the carbonization pro-
cess corresponding to the samples based on the (a) MCM-41 and (b) SBA-15 materials.
even for a temperature treatment as low sites obtained at 300 °C and 800 °C (see
as 100 °C. The band centered at Figure S3 in Supporting Information).
-1
1150 cm can be assigned to the sul- These patterns exhibit a well-defined
phonic groups [38]. The other two weak broad (002) diffraction peak
bands are typical of carbon materials (2 ~ 10° - 30°) attributable to amor-
and their presence indicates that, as phous carbon composed of randomly
consequence of the action of the sul- oriented carbon sheets.
phuric acid, the alkyl chains of the sur-
factant are converted to a carbonaceous The experiments described clearly
material at temperatures as low as show that sulphuric acid is essential for
100 °C. As the temperature of the the generating carbon residue from
treatment increases, the intensity of the surfactant molecules. From a mechanis-
1150 cm-1 band (sulphonic groups) de- tic point of view, the above results sug-
creases and it completely disappears in gest that sulphuric acid is involved in two
the case of the sample obtained at types of process: dehydration reactions
300 °C. In contrast, the intensity of the and the formation of sulphonic groups,
other bands associated to carbon in- both of which occur at low temperature
creases, indicating the generation of (160 °C) and play an important role in
carbonaceous material. Thus, the prod- the formation of carbonaceous residue.
uct obtained at 300 °C exhibits two well- Thus, whereas dehydration reactions
developed bands at around 1360 favour aromatization, sulphonation in-
(D-mode) and 1587 (G-mode) cm ,
-1 creases the carbonization yield due to
2 cross-linking processes resulting from
which reveal the presence of C sp atoms
in benzene or condensed benzene rings the formation of sulphide bridges be-
of amorphous (partially hydrogenated) tween adjacent phenyl rings. On the
carbon and aromatic carbon clusters basis of the previous results, Figure 10
[40]. This spectrum is similar to that provides a schematic illustration of the
obtained for the samples carbonized at formation of carbonaceous material via
800 °C, which suggests that the sample the sulphonation of the alkyl chains of
carbonized at 300 °C contains well- surfactant molecules confined within the
developed carbonaceous clusters. These mesopores of the silica. Finally, we want
clusters are combined with alkyl chains to point out that in our opinion, the role
that contain abundant functional groups, of sulphuric acid in the formation of
as evidenced by the FT-IR spectra (see carbon from a variety of organic sub-
Figure 7). The above results are corrobo- stances such the mentioned sucrose or
glycerol, will be similar to that described
rated by the XRD patterns corresponding
here in relation to the surfactants.
to the silica (MCM-41)-carbon compo-
112 Artículo I: Valle-Vigón et al. Micro. Meso. Mater. 134 (2010) 165 - 174
Silica / Surfactant
160ºC
O
OH
H2SO4 SO3 H
OH
O
OH
O SO3H
O O
O
O
O
O
O S
O S OH O
O
O
O
O O
S S
O
800ºC 300ºC
Figure 10. Schematic illustration of the transformation of the silica-associated surfactant mole-
cules into carbon with the aid of sulphuric acid.
Supplementary Information
G-band
D-band
Intensity (a. u.)
900
N2 Air
100
800
a
700
90
600
Temperature, ºC
80
Weight, %
500
400
70
300
200
60
MCM-41/CTAB 100
SBA-15/P-123
50 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Time, min
900
100 N2 Air
800
b
700
90
600
Temperature, ºC
80
Weight, %
500
13.2 % C
400
70
300
200
60
SBA-15/P-123 10.5 % C 100
MCM-41/CTAB
50 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
Time, min
Figure S2. Modification of the sample weight during the thermal treatment of: (a) sili-
ca/surfactant hybrid materials and (b) hybrid materials treated at 160°C (15 h) in the presence
of H2SO4. Heating rate: 5 °C/min.
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono 117
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
2 Theta (º)
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
textile dye (i.e. methylene blue) and the range for 2 h. The silica-carbon compo-
2+ 2+
removal of heavy metals (i.e. Cu , Zn sites thus obtained were denoted as
2+
and Pb ions) in an aqueous medium. CXD, where C = carbon, X = S or K for
SBA-15, KIT-6 silica respectively and D
2. Experimental refers to dihydroxynaphthalene.
Scheme 1. Illustration of the synthesis route used for preparing mesostructured silica-carbon
composites functionalized with oxygenated functional groups.
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono 125
a) 700 c) 16
9.8 nm
600 SBA-15 14
CSD
Adsorbed volume (cm 3 STP g-1 )
CSD-ox 12
500
dV/dlog(D) (cm3 g-1)
10
400
8
300 6.7 nm
6
200
4 6.5 nm
100 2
0 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Relative pressure (p/po ) Pore size (D) (nm)
b) d) 35
800
KIT-6 10.1 nm
30
700 CKD
Adsorbed volume (cm 3 STP g-1)
CKD-ox
600 25
dV/dlog(D) (cm3 g-1)
500 20
400
15
7.9 nm
300
10
200
7.6 nm
100 5
0 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Relative pressure (p/po) Pore size (D) (nm)
Figure 1. Nitrogen sorption isotherms (a and b) and pore size distributions (c and d) obtained
for SBA-15 and KIT -6 silica, silica-carbon composites and oxidized silica-carbon composites.
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono 127
properties (i.e. BET surface area, pore TEM images (Figure 2) obtained for the
volume and pore size) with respect to silica materials and their corresponding
the pristine silica, as can be seen from composites before and after the oxida-
the data listed in Table 1. The nitrogen tive treatment reveal that the initial
sorption isotherms and pore size distri- structural order is retained after the
butions of SBA-15, KIT-6 and the derived carbonization-oxidation steps. Dissolu-
composites are shown in Figure 1. They tion of the silica skeleton of the silica-
reveal a well-developed porosity made carbon composites gives rise to templat-
up of mesopores of a uniform size in the ed carbons. Figure S3 (SI) provides the
6 - 8 nm range. From a comparison of SEM image and the nitrogen sorption
the pore sizes of the silica and compo- isotherm corresponding to the carbon
sites it can be inferred that the carbon derived from a SBA-15/carbon compo-
layer has a thickness of ~ 1.4 nm, which site. Figure S3b shows a carbon material
is equivalent to the thickness of four with large BET surface area (1080 m2 g-1)
graphene layers. The low angle-range and a high porosity made up of uniform
XRD patterns (see Figure S2 in SI) and mesopores of ~ 3.9 nm.
Figure 2. TEM images of (a) CSD, (b) CSD-ox, (c) CKD and (d) CKD-ox.
128 Artículo II: Valle-Vigón et al. Micro. Meso. Mater. 176 (2013) 78 - 85
The SEM image in Figure S3a (SI) reveals 3.2. Chemical properties of the function-
that the structure of this templated alized composites
carbon consists of a bundle of nanorods,
The nature of the surface oxygen func-
which indicates that it is a faithful replica
tional groups incorporated into the car-
of SBA-15 silica pores and suggests that
bon layer was investigated by means of
the carbon layer is located exclusively
Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) and
inside the silica pores of the composites.
X-ray photoelectron (XPS) spectroscopic
Finally, it is worth noting that, unlike the
techniques. Figure 3 shows the FT-IR
templated carbons that undergo a sub-
spectra for the silica-carbon composites
stantial loss of structural order after
before and after functionalization. Three
oxidation [15], the silica-carbon compo-
main bands are apparent after the
sites retain the pore arrangement typical
treatment with APS: a) a broad band at
of mesostructured silica even after the
3700-3200 cm-1 due to -OH stretching
oxidative treatment. This is because the
vibrations in alcohols or carboxylic acids
silica framework acts as a support which
and b) two peaks at ~1750 and
prevents the pore structure from col- -1
1630 cm ascribed to C=O stretching
lapsing.
vibrations in lactones or carboxylic acids
and quinones or conjugated ketones
respectively [21, 25, 26]. Further infor-
CSD mation about the nature of the oxygen-
ated functionalities was provided by XPS.
Figure 4a shows the C 1s core-level spec-
CSD-ox
tra of the silica-carbon sample (CKD) and
Transmittance (a.u.)
Transmittance (a.u.)
a) b)
CKD-ox CKD-ox
Intensity (a.u.)
Intensity (a.u.)
CKD CKD
280 282 284 286 288 290 292 294 530 532 534 536 538 540
Binding Energy (eV) Binding Energy (eV)
Figure 4. (a) C 1s and (b) O 1s core-level XPS spectra. In order to avoid interferences from the
silica framework, the XPS analyses were performed using the corresponding templated carbon
derived from samples CKD and CKD-ox.
a)
-3
1.5x10
-3
1.0x10
-4 CA PH CQ
5.0x10
C1 C2
0.0
0 200 400 600 800
Temperature (ºC)
b) 3.0x10
-3
CO2 emission rate (mol s g )
-1
-3
2.5x10
-1
-3
2.0x10
-3
1.5x10
WA CA
-3
1.0x10
-4
5.0x10 LD
SA
0.0
0 200 400 600 800
Temperature (ºC)
Figure 5. (a) CO and (b) CO2 TPD profiles for the CKD-ox sample. Deconvoluted peaks: SA,
strongly acidic carboxyl groups; WA, weakly acidic carboxyl groups; CA, carboxyl anhydrides; LD,
lactones; PH, phenols; CQ, carbonyl/quinone functionalities.
-1 -1
(0.4 mmol g ), lactone (0.1 mmol g ), time, of the amount of basic dye (meth-
-1
and carbonyl/quinone (0.1 mmol g ) ylene blue, MB) adsorbed onto the
groups. The peaks C1 and C2 from the CO CSD-ox sample at different pH values. It
curve can be attributed to the decompo- is worth noting the fast adsorption rate
sition of carboxyl groups. On the other observed at all the pH values, with
hand, the anhydride groups are probably ~ 95 % of the total amount of dye being
formed as a consequence of dehydrox- adsorbed in the first 2 minutes. The
ylation between adjacent carboxyl highest sorption of MB occurs at pH 10,
groups, whereas lactone functionalities when the negatively charged acidic
are probably generated by condensation groups act as anchoring sites for the
reactions between adjacent carboxyl and positively charged MB molecules. By
phenol groups [21, 31, 32]. contrast, at pH = 7 a low adsorption
uptake is observed as consequence of
3.3. Dye adsorption and heavy metal the weak electrostatic interactions be-
removal tween the partially deprotonated oxygen
The capacity of oxidized silica-carbon functionalities and the cationic dye. On
composites to adsorb basic dyes and the other hand, the slight decrease in
remove heavy metals from aqueous the MB adsorption observed at pH = 11
solutions was also investigated. Fig- could be due to the instability of this dye
ure 6a shows the modification, with in stronger basic conditions.
a) b)
200 450
Amount adsorbed (mg MB g-1 support)
175 400
350
150
300
125
250
100
200
75
150
pH 7
50 100 CSD-ox
pH 10
SBA-15
25 50
pH 11 CSD
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 100 200 300 400 500
Time (min) Final solution concentration (mg L-1)
Figure 6. (a) Modification of the amount of MB adsorbed with time at different pH values
(CSD-ox sample), (b) adsorption isotherms of MB over the different supports at room tempera-
ture and pH 10. The solid lines in (b) represent the best fit of the experimental data to the
Langmuir model.
132 Artículo II: Valle-Vigón et al. Micro. Meso. Mater. 176 (2013) 78 - 85
Thus, at high pH values, MB could react capacity, the large mesopores also en-
-
with OH and be demethylated to other sure a fast diffusion of the dye along the
common dyes (Azure A, B and C) [33]. whole pore structure.
Figure 6b shows the isotherms for the
The cation-exchange properties of the
adsorption of methylene blue onto the
carboxyl functionalized silica-carbon
silica (SBA-15), silica-carbon composite
composites were tested for the removal
(CSD) and the oxidized samples (CSD-ox) 2+ 2+ 2+
of Cu , Pb and Zn cations in an aque-
at pH 10. Due to its hydrophobic charac-
ous medium. To perform the adsorption
ter, the silica-carbon composite (CSD)
experiments we selected a pH value of
hardly adsorbs any MB, and adsorbs
6.5 ± 0.5, which is similar to the pH of
even less than silica, which is negatively
normal wastewater treatment. At this
charged in a basic medium. However,
pH value, metal cations are likely to be
after the oxidation step, the CSD-ox
found as free ions in equilibrium with
composite is able to adsorb an extremely
the solvated species. This is the most
high amount of basic dye,
-1 appropriate pH value for adsorption to
i.e. ~ 400 mg g , which is among the
take place given that higher pH values
highest value reported for mesoporous
tend to precipitate metal species and
carbon or silica materials. This value is
low pH values result in a low adsorption
even larger than those obtained for
because of the increase in competition
mesoporous silica samples such as
-1 between the metal ions and protons for
MCM-41 (54 mg g ) [34] and SBA-15
-1 adsorption sites. Thus, under these con-
(280 mg g ) [35], carboxyl-functionalized
-1 ditions metal species can be expected to
mesoporous MCM-41 silica (113 mg g )
be electrostatically attracted by the
[34], silica-carbon composites function-
-1 negatively charged acidic surface of the
alized with sulphonic groups (252 mg g )
oxidized mesoporous silica-carbon
[36], mesoporous carbon materials
-1 sorbents. Figure 7a shows the adsorp-
(~ 260 mg g ) [37], and commercial
-1 tion uptakes obtained for KIT-6 silica, the
activated carbons (< 400 mg g ) [38].
silica-carbon composite (CKD) and the
The high adsorption of MB dye by
oxidized sample (CKD-ox). As can be
CSD-ox may be attributed to the combi-
seen, very low adsorption uptakes were
nation of the unique structural charac-
obtained for silica and the non-oxidized
teristics of the synthesized mesoporous
silica-carbon composite. In contrast,
silica-carbon composites and the high
large amounts of metal cations were
density of oxygenated acid functionali-
removed by the oxygen-functionalized
ties, attached to the carbon layer. Clear-
silica-carbon composite. This confirms
ly, what happens is that, whereas elec-
the dominant role played by the surface
trostatic interactions between oxygen-
functional groups within the pore struc-
ated groups and the dye molecules re-
ture of the sorbents in removing heavy
sulting in an increase in the adsorption
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono 133
a) b) 70
-1
50
50
40 40
30 30
20 Serie1 Pb2+
Pb2+
20
Serie1 Zn2+
Zn2+
2+
Zn 10
Zn2+ 10 Serie1 2+
Cu2+
Cu
Pb2+
Pb2+ 0
Cu2+
Cu2+ CKD-ox 0
CKD 0 100 200 300 400
KIT-6
-1
Equilibrium concentration (mg L )
Figure 7. (a) Amount of heavy metal removed by adsorption in the KIT-6 based materials and (b)
adsorption isotherms corresponding to the selected metal cations in the CKD-ox sample. The
solid lines in b represent the best fit of the experimental data to the Langmuir model.
ties on the carbon layer, largely in the [6] F. Schuth, W. Schmidt, Adv. Mat., 14
form of carboxyl groups. Whereas oxida- (2002) 629-638.
tion enhances electrostatic interactions [7] P. Srinivasu, V.V. Balasubramanian, L.
between acid oxygen groups and cation- Kumaresan, D.P. Sawant, X. Jin, S.
ic molecules under basic (i.e. cationic Alam, K. Ariga, T. Mori, A. Vinu, J.
dye) or neutral (i.e. metal cations) condi- Nanosci. Nanotechnol., 7 (2007)
tions, the mesopore structure itself en- 3250-3256.
sures the rapid diffusion of the adsorb- [8] Z. Yan, S. Tao, J. Yin, G. Li, Journal of
ate molecules towards the adsorption Materials Chemistry, 16 (2006)
sites. Thus, the excellent capacity of 2347-2353.
these materials to act as sorbents of [9] M.C. Bruzzoniti, A. Prelle, C. Sarzani-
basic dyes (i.e. methylene blue ni, B. Onida, S. Fiorilli, E. Garrone, J.
Sep. Sci., 30 (2007) 2414-2420.
~ 400-mg g-1) and heavy metals (Cu2+:
-1 2+ -1
61 mg g , Pb : 82 mg g and Zn :
2+ [10] G.-P. Hao, W.-C. Li, D. Qian, G.-H.
-1 Wang, W.-P. Zhang, T. Zhang, A.-Q.
87 mg g ) is confirmed.
Wang, F. Schüth, H.-J. Bongard, A.-
H. Lu, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 133 (2011)
Acknowledgments. This work was sup-
11378-11388.
ported by the Spanish MICINN (Project
[11] Y. Zhang, F.L.-Y. Lam, X. Hu, Z. Yan,
CQT2011-24776). M.S. and P.V-V.
Chem. Commun., (2008) 5131-
acknowledge Ramon y Cajal and JAE-
5133.
Predoc contracts respectively.
[12] P. Valle-Vigon, M. Sevilla, A.B. Fuer-
tes, Microp. Mesop. Mater., 134
References (2010) 165-174.
[1] F. Hoffmann, M. Cornelius, J. Morell, [13] P. Valle-Vigón, M. Sevilla, A.B. Fuer-
M. Fröba, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed., 45 tes, Appl. Surf. Sci. DOI:
(2006) 3216-3251. 10.1016/j.apsusc.2012.08.059.
[2] G.J.D. Soler-illia, C. Sanchez, B. [14] P.A. Bazula, A.H. Lu, J.-J. Nitz, F.
Lebeau, J. Patarin, Chem. Rev., 102 Schüth, Microp. Mesop. Mater.,
(2002) 4093-4138. 108 (2008) 266-275.
[3] C.H. Huang, K.P. Chang, H.D. Ou, Y.C. [15] A. Vinu, K.Z. Hossian, P. Srinivasu,
Chiang, C.F. Wang, Microp. Mesop. M. Miyahara, S. Anandan, N. Goku-
Mater., 141 (2011) 102-109. lakrishnan, T. Mori, K. Ariga, V.V.
Balasubramanian, J. Mater. Chem.,
[4] W. Shaobin, Microp. Mesop. Mater.,
17 (2007) 1819-1825.
117 (2009) 1-9.
[16] A. Stein, Z. Wang, M.A. Fierke, Adv.
[5] J. Lei, J. Fan, C.Z. Yu, L.Y. Zhang, S.Y.
Mater., 21 (2009) 265-293.
Jiang, B. Tu, D.Y. Zhao, Microp.
Mesop. Mater., 73 (2004) 121-128. [17] C. Moreno-Castilla, M.A. Ferro-
Garcia, J.P. Joly, I. Bautista-Toledo,
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono 135
Supplementary Information
Figure S1. SEM micrographs of (a) SBA-15, (b) CSD and (c) CSD-ox.
a) b)
CKD-ox
Intensity (a. u.)
CSD-ox
CKD
CSD
SBA-15 KIT-6
0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5 0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5
2 Theta (º) 2 Theta (º)
Figure S2. XRD patterns in the low-angle region of the mesostructured silica materials and the
corresponding silica-carbon composites before and after the oxidation step.
138 S.I. Artículo II: Valle-Vigón et al. Micro. Meso. Mater. 176 (2013) 78 - 85
Figure S3. (a) SEM image and (b) sorption isotherm and pore size distribution (inset) corre-
sponding to the templated carbon obtained by dissolving the silica skeleton of a SBA-15/carbon
composite.
6.3. Artículo III
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R AC T
Article history:
The synthesis of highly functionalized porous silica-carbon composites
Received 19 June 2012 made up of sulfonic groups attached to a carbon layer coating the
Received in revised form 8 August pores of three types of mesostructured silica (i.e. SBA-15, KIT-6 and
2012 mesocellular silica) is presented. The synthesis procedure involves the
Accepted 14 August 2012 following steps: (a) removal of the surfactant, (b) impregnation of the
Available online 25 August 2012
silica pores with a carbon precursor, (c) carbonization and (d) sulfona-
tion. The resulting silica-carbon composites contain ~ 30 wt % of
Keywords:
carbonaceous matter with a high density of acidic groups attached to
Silica the deposited carbon (i.e. -SO3H, -COOH and -OH). The structural
Carbon characteristics of the parent silica are retained in the composite
Composite materials, which exhibit a high surface area, a large pore volume and
Mesoporous a well-ordered porosity made up uniform mesopores. The high densi-
Sulfonation
ty of the sulfonic groups in combination with the mesoporous struc-
Solid acid
Catalyst
ture of the composites ensures that a large number of active sites are
Esterification easily accessible to reactants. These sulfonated silica-carbon compo-
sites behave as eco-friendly, active, selective, water tolerant and
recyclable solid acids. In this study we demonstrate the usefulness of
these composites as solid acid catalysts for the esterification of maleic
anhydride, succinic acid and oleic acid with ethanol. These composites
exhibit a superior intrinsic catalytic activity to other commercial solid
acids such as Amberlyst-15.
*
Corresponding author. E-mail address: abefu@incar.csic.es (A.B. Fuertes). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2012.08.059
authors failed to obtain a uniform car- cation as solid acid catalysts in the ester-
bon layer when > 20 % of carbon was ification of several organic acids
deposited. The reason for this was that (i.e. maleic anhydride, succinic acid and
carbon was plugging the mesopore oleic acid) with ethanol.
channel resulting in a microporous ma-
terial and a decrease in catalytic activity 2. Experimental
as confirmed by the dimerization of
-methylstyrene. Likewise, Liu et al. 2.1. Synthesis of the silica-carbon com-
described the synthesis of sulfonated posites
silica-carbon composites using sucrose
Three types of mesostructured silica
as carbon precursor and MCM-48 as
materials (i.e. SBA-15, KIT-6 and meso-
silica substrate [30]. These materials
cellular silica) were employed for the
were used to esterify acetic acid with n-
preparation of the composites. The
butyl alcohol. They were also employed
SBA-15 silica was synthesized according
for esterifying caprylic acid, lauric acid
to the procedure reported by Zhao et al
and hexadecanoic acid with ethanol.
[31], whereas KIT-6 mesostructured
In the present work, we propose a novel silica and mesocellular silica (MS) were
method for producing sulfonated meso- prepared as described by Kleitz et al [32]
porous silica-carbon composites made and Stucky et al [33] respectively. In
up of a thin layer of carbon with a high order to remove the surfactant, the as-
density of -SO3H groups covering the synthesized hybrid silica-surfactant ma-
internal surface of the pores of three terials were solvent-extracted using a
types of mesoporous silica. The method mixture of 4 mL of HCl (37 wt %) and 200
involves a mild surfactant removal pro- mL of ethanol per gram of sample. This
cedure which allows the preservation of procedure was performed twice at 80 °C
a high concentration of silanol groups (reflux), and after each extraction, the
inside the internal surface of the silica silica was filtered, washed with ethanol
substrates. These silanol groups act as and water, and dried [34].
anchoring sites for the carbon precursor The preparation of the silica-carbon
molecules (i.e. 2,3-dihydroxy- composites was carried out according to
naphthalene) giving rise to a homogene- the procedure reported by Nishihara et
ous layer of carbon coating the silica al. using 2,3-dihydroxynaphthalene (DN)
pores. Subsequent treatment of the as carbon precursor [25]. In a typical
silica-carbon samples with sulfuric acid synthesis, 1.5 g of silica was added to a
produces sulfonated composites with a solution of 3 g of DN in 75 mL of acetone
high concentration of -SO3H groups uni- and the mixture was stirred for several
formly distributed along the porosity. hours at room temperature in a closed
We further prove their successful appli- vessel. Then, the acetone was allowed to
144 Artículo III: Valle-Vigón et al. Appl. Surf. Sci. 261 (2012) 574 583
tion. The total content of acidic groups tor (FID) and a HP-5 capillary column
(i.e. -SO3H, -COOH and -OH) and the (30m x 0.25 mm x 0.25 m).
content of the strongest acidic groups
Recycling experiments were performed
(i.e. -COOH and -SO3H groups) were
to determine the operational stability of
estimated by titration with
the prepared catalysts. At the end of
NaOH (0.05 N) and NaHCO3 (0.05 N),
each esterification cycle, the catalyst
respectively. Then, carboxylic and hy-
was centrifuged, washed with acetone
droxyl densities were calculated from
and dried before reuse.
the combination of the titration results
and the elemental sulphur content.
3. Results and discussion
pores. Finally, the silica-carbon compo- of sulfonic groups attached to the car-
site was treated with concentrated bon layer.
sulfuric acid, giving rise to the formation
Table 1. Structural properties of the silica samples, silica-carbon composites and sulfonated
silica-carbon composites.
Figure 1 shows the electron microphoto- size) with respect to the parent silicas
graphs of SBA-15, KIT-6 and MS silica (Table 1). The N2 sorption isotherms
samples and their corresponding silica- (Figure 2), show a pronounced capillary
carbon composites. For all the silica- condensation step at p/p0 ~ 0.6 - 0.8,
carbon composites, it can be seen that, indicating the presence of
despite the large amount of deposited well-developed and uniform mesopores.
carbon, they retain the morphology of This is confirmed by the pore size distri-
the parent silica, there being no appre- butions in Figure 2 (insets). These meso-
ciable amounts of carbon deposits on pores have a size in the 8-11 nm range in
the outer surface of the particles (Fig. 1). the case of SBA-15, KIT-6-based materi-
Interestingly, in the case of mesocellular als and ~ 28 nm in the case of the sam-
silica it can be observed that the large ples obtained from mesocellular silica.
mesopores are empty (Figures 1G and The thickness of the deposited carbon
1H). These results suggest that the car- layer can be deduced from the differ-
bon layer is exclusively located inside the ence between the mean pore size of
silica pores. The incorporation of carbo- silica and the silica-carbon composite.
naceous matter into the silica pores Thus, for the SBA-15, KIT-6/carbon com-
leads to a moderate reduction in the posites, a carbon thickness of ~ 0.7 nm
textural properties of the composites was recorded, which is equivalent to the
(BET surface area, pore volume and pore thickness of two graphene sheets.
148 Artículo III: Valle-Vigón et al. Appl. Surf. Sci. 261 (2012) 574 583
Figure 1. SEM micrographs of: SBA-15 (A), CS-500 (B), CSS-500 (C), KIT-6 (D), CK-500 (E), CSK-500
(F), MS (G), CMS-500 (H) and CSMS-500 (I).
Low angle-range XRD patterns of SBA-15, the pores of the silica. To obtain more
KIT-6/carbon composites reveal that the information about the distribution of the
structural order is maintained after car- carbon deposited inside the silica-carbon
bonization (see Figure S1). This result is composites, we examined the structure
also confirmed by the TEM images of the of a templated carbon obtained by dis-
SBA-15, KIT-6 and MS/carbon compo- solving the silica skeleton of a
sites (Figure 3A, 3C and 3E respectively). SBA-15/carbon composite. SEM inspec-
These findings suggest a uniform distri- tion revealed that the templated carbon
bution of the carbon deposited inside particles are made up of a bundle of
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono 149
a) b)
700
16 10.1 nm
9.8 nm 800 30
dV/dlog(D), cm3 g-1
600
-1
10.5 nm 20
500 8
600 15
8.7 nm 10.2 nm
8.6 nm
4 10
3
3
400 500
5
0
400 0
300 4 6 8 10 12 14
4 6 8 10 12 14
Pore size (D), nm
300 Pore size (D), nm
200
200
SBA-15 KIT-6
100 CS-500 CK-500
100
CSS-500 CSK-500
0 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Relative pressure (p/po) Relative pressure (p/po)
c)
1400 20
28 nm
dV/dlog(D), cm3 g-1
1200 15
27 nm
28.5 nm
Adsorbed volume (cm STP g )
-1
10
1000
5
3
800
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
600 Pore size (D), nm
MS
400 CMS-500
CSMS-500
200
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Relative pressure (p/po)
Figure 2. Nitrogen sorption isotherms and pore size distributions (insets) of the silica, silica-
carbon composites, and sulfonated silica-carbon composites: (a) SBA-15, CS-500 and CSS-500;
(b) KIT-6, CK-500 and CSK-500; (c) MS, CMS-500 and CSMS-500.
Figure 3. TEM images of: (A) CS-500, (B) CSS-500, (C) CK-500, (D) CSK-500, (E) CMS-500 and (F)
CSMS-500.
What is more, comparison of the low that the pore structure is hardly affected
angle-range XRD patterns (Figure S1) and at all by the carbonization-sulfonation
TEM images (Figure 3) obtained for the steps. This is further supported by the
parent silica materials and the corre- analysis of the N2 sorption isotherms in
sponding sulfonated composites, reveals Figure 2 and Figure S3. Only a slight
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono 151
The chemical nature of the functional- formly coats the silica pores. Moreover,
ized carbon deposited inside the silica this sample exhibits several new peaks
pores was investigated by infrared, X-ray corresponding to C=C stretching vibra-
-1
photoelectron and Raman spectroscopic tions at 1630 cm and C–H out-of-plane
-1
techniques. deformation vibrations at 750 cm [25].
In the case of the sulfonated samples
A comparison of the FT-IR spectra for the
(i.e. CSS-500, CSK-500 and CSMS-500), a
silica (SBA-15), CS-500 silica-carbon -1
new band appears at 1050-1080 cm
composite and for sulfonated silica-
corresponding to a S=O symmetric
carbon samples is presented in Figure 4.
stretching vibration, indicating that sul-
The SBA-15 silica exhibits two character-
fonic groups are attached to the carbon
istic FT-IR bands at 1000-1300 cm-1 and
-1 surface [26]. The IR spectra of the sul-
~ 800 cm corresponding to asymmetric
fonated samples also show other bands
and symmetric stretching vibrations of
assigned to O-H stretching (3200-3700
the Si-O–Si and a broad band at 2600- -1 -1
-1 cm ) and C=O stretching (1740 cm )
3800 cm caused by the O-H stretching
vibrations, together with an increase in
of H bonded O-H [39-41]. After the in-
intensity of the C=C stretching vibration
corporation of carbon (i.e. the CS-500 -1
band (~1640 cm ). The generation of
sample), the characteristic FT-IR band
these O-groups occurs because, in paral-
associated to the OH stretching vibra-
lel with the insertion of -SO3H groups,
tions from silanol groups
-1 oxidation reactions within the car-
(2600-3800 cm ) completely disappears.
boneous layer are taking place as a con-
This suggests that the carbon layer uni-
sequence of the action of sulphuric acid.
a) b)
CSS-500
Intensity (a.u)
Intensity (a.u) .
CSK-500
CSMS-500
162 164 166 168 170 172 174 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900
-1
Binding Energy (eV) Raman shift (cm )
Figure 5. (a) S 2p core level XPS spectrum of the CSK-500 composite after removal of the silica
with HF. (b) Raman spectra for the three sulfonated silica-carbon samples.
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono 153
Table 3. Catalytic activity of Amberlyst-15 and the sulfonated silica-carbon composites treated
at 500 °C in the esterification reactions.
Figure 7. Illustration of the esterification reactions and the product formation profiles with time
for: (a) Maleic anhydride, (b) Succinic acid and (c) Oleic acid esterifications.
In the case of the esterification of maleic ability of these acid catalysts, we exam-
anhydride, the selectivity of this reaction ined the stability of a CSK-500 composite
is very important since, besides DEM, an during the esterification of maleic anhy-
undesirable trans-isomer product (dieth- dride over 4 cycles. The results present-
yl fumarate, DEF) may also be formed. In ed in Figure 8 show that DEM yields
this case, the sulfonated composites remained almost constant after four
exhibited a better selectivity than Am- cycles, which confirms its reusability as
berlyst-15. In order to evaluate the reus- catalyst.
156 Artículo III: Valle-Vigón et al. Appl. Surf. Sci. 261 (2012) 574 583
[29] L. FANG, K. ZHANG, X. LI, H. Wu, [35] M. Kruk, M. Jaroniec, and A. Sayari,
and P. Wu, Preparation of a Car- Application of large pore MCM-41
bon-Silica Mesoporous Composite molecular sieves to improve pore
Functionalized with Sulfonic Acid size analysis using nitrogen adsorp-
Groups and Its Application to the tion measurements, Langmuir 13
Production of Biodiesel, Chinese (1997) 6267-6273.
Journal of Catalysis 33 (2012) 114- [36] X. Mo, D. E. López, K. Suwannakarn,
122. Y. Liu, E. Lotero, J. Goodwin, and C.
[30] Y. Liu, J. Chen, J. Yao, Y. Lu, L. Lu, Activation and deactivation
Zhang, and X. Liu, Preparation and characteristics of sulfonated carbon
properties of sulfonated carbon- catalysts, J. Catal. 254 (2008) 332-
silica composites from sucrose dis- 338.
persed on MCM-48, Chem. Eng. J. [37] J. Janaun and N. Ellis, Role of silica
148 (2009) 201-206. template in the preparation of sul-
[31] D. Zhao, Q. Huo, J. Feng, B. F. fonated mesoporous carbon cata-
Chmelka, and G. D. Stucky, lysts, Appl. Catal. A: Gen. 394
Nonionic Triblock and Star Diblock (2011) 25-31.
Copolymer and Oligomeric Surfac- [38] M. Okamura, A. Takagaki, M. Toda,
tant Syntheses of Highly Ordered, J. N. Kondo, K. Domen, T. Tatsumi,
Hydrothermally Stable, Mesopo- M. Hara, and S. Hayashi, Acid-
rous Silica Structures, J. Am. Chem. catalyzed reactions on flexible pol-
Soc. 120 (1998) 6024-6036. ycyclic aromatic carbon in amor-
[32] F. Kleitz, S. H. Choi, and R. Ryoo, phous carbon, Chem. Mater. 18
Cubic Ia3d large mesoporous silica: (2006) 3039-3045.
synthesis and replication to plati- [39] R. S. McDonald, Surface Functional-
num nanowires, carbon nanorods ity of Amorphous Silica by Infrared
and carbon nanotubes, Chem. Spectroscopy, J. Phys. Chem. 62
Comm. (2003) 2136-2137. (1958) 1168-1178.
[33] P. Schmidt-Winkel, W. Wayne, D. [40] B. A. Morrow and A. J. McFarlan,
Zhao, P. Yang, B. F. Chmelka, and G. Infrared and gravimetric study of
D. Stucky, Mesocellular Siliceous an aerosil and a precipitated silica
Foams with Uniformly Sized Cells using chemical and H/D exchange
and Windows, J. Am. Chem. Soc. probes, Langmuir 7 (1991) 1695-
121 (1998) 254-255. 1701.
[34] P. F. Fulvio, S. Picus, and M. Jaro- [41] A. Zecchina, S. Bordiga, G. Spoto, L.
niec, SBA-15-Supported Mixed- Marchese, G. Petrini, G. Leofanti,
Metal Oxides: Partial Hydrolytic Sol- and M. Padovan, Silicalite charac-
Gel Synthesis, Adsorption, and terization. 2. IR spectroscopy of the
Structural Properties, ACS Appl. interaction of carbon monoxide
Mater. Interfaces 2 (2009) 134-142. with internal and external hydroxyl
160 Artículo III: Valle-Vigón et al. Appl. Surf. Sci. 261 (2012) 574 583
Supplementary Information
Table S1. Specific reactant amounts for the three esterification reactions.
Organic Catalyst weigh Organic acid Ethanol (Ethanol: organic acid)
acid (g) (mmol) (mmol) mol ratio
Maleic
0.2 60 370 6
anhydride
Succinic 0.1 5 400 80
acid
Oleic acid 0.2 25 250 10
CSS-500
CSK-500
KIT-6
Figure S1. XRD patterns in the low-angle region of the mesostructured silica materials and the
corresponding sulfonated silica-carbon composites.
Figure S2. (a) SEM micrograph and (b) nitrogen sorption isotherm and pore size distribution
(inset) for the templated carbon C(S) obtained by dissolving the silica skeleton of a
SBA-15/carbon composite.
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono 163
a) b)
600 700
10 11 nm 25 11.4 nm
dV/dlog(D), cm 3 g-1
dV/dlog(D), cm 3 g-1
10.5 nm 11 nm
8 20
Adsorbed volume (cm STP g )
500
6 15
4 500 10
400 2 5
3
0 400 0
300 1 10 100 0 5 10 15 20
Pore size (D), nm Pore size (D), nm
300
200
200
CSS-450 CSK-450
100 CSS-500 100 CSK-500
CSS-550 CSK-550
0 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Relative pressure (p/po ) Relative pressure (p/po )
c)
25 28.4 nm
dV/dlog(D), cm3 g-1
1200 28.8 nm
20
Adsorbed volume (cm STP g )
30.1 nm
-1
15
1000
10
5
3
800
0
1 10 100
600 Pore size (D), nm
CSMS-450
400 CSMS-500
CSMS-550
200
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Relative pressure (p/po )
Figure S3. Nitrogen sorption isotherms and pore size distributions (insets) of the sulfonated
silica-carbon composites carbonized at different temperatures: (a) SBA-15/C-SO3H,
(b) KIT-6/C-SO3H and (c) MS/C-SO3H.
6.4. Artículo IV
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R AC T
*
Corresponding author. E-mail address: abefu@incar.csic.es (A.B. Fuertes).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matchemphys.2013.01.036
1. Introduction
Mesostructured silica materials have applications, e.g. as catalytic supports
become the focus of widespread atten- [2], selective adsorbents [3], drug deliv-
tion due to their unique properties: a) a ery carriers [4], supports for the immobi-
well-defined morphology, size and po- lization of biomolecules [5], etc. These
rosity, b) a large porosity made up of materials have also been used as tem-
uniform mesopores in the 2-10 nm plates for the fabrication of mesoporous
range, c) a well-organized pore ar- carbons that exhibit complementary
rangement (2D hexagonal, wormhole, properties with respect to the silica [6].
3D cubic, etc) and d) an ability to attach For example such carbons have very
a variety of functional groups [1]. These large porosity in the mesopore range, a
properties make mesoporous silica ma- good electrical conductivity and an ex-
terials attractive for a broad range of cellent chemical stability. These proper-
168 Artículo IV: Valle-Vigón et al. Mater. Chem. Phys. 139 (2013) 281 - 289
ties make them especially useful for carbon composites by means of an ester-
energy storage (in supercapacitors and ification method, based on the esterifi-
Li-ion batteries), [7] gas storage [8], as cation of furfuryl alcohol with silanol
carriers for enzyme immobilization [9], groups on the pore walls of SBA-15 fol-
and as adsorbents [10]. lowed by a carbonization step. Recently,
we reported a new method for fabricat-
In spite of their practical interest,
ing silica-carbon composites whereby
mesoporous silica materials have several
the carbon layer coating the silica pores
drawbacks that limit their applicability.
is produced by carbonizing the surfac-
They have a poor electrical conductivity
tant employed as structure-directing
and the introduction of organic func-
agent in the synthesis of mesostructured
tionalities entails complex and expensive
silica [17].
procedures. Thus, the controlled incor-
poration of a certain amount of carbon The ability of graphene layers to cova-
into the silica pores could open up new lently attach heteroatoms (e.g. O, N, S)
possibilities for the application of these has been normally exploited in order to
materials. Indeed, a silica-carbon com- incorporate oxygen, nitrogen or sulphur-
posite would combine the structural based functional groups into carbona-
properties of silica (i.e. uniform and ceous materials [18]. In the present
large mesopores, and a well-defined work, this approach is adopted in order
pore arrangement) with those character- to incorporate nitrogen and sulphur
istic of carbon materials, such as a good functionalities into a layer of carbon
electrical conductivity and easy func- deposited inside the pores of silica. The
tionalization. Thus, the incorporation of incorporation of such functionalities may
different types of functional groups to enhance the range of potential applica-
the carbon layer would extend the range tions of silica-carbon composites. In-
of potential applications even further. deed, it has been reported that N-doped
Several synthesis strategies have been carbons exhibit a much better perfor-
reported for coating silica mesopores mance as supercapacitors [19], for the
with a carbon layer. Thus, Zhang et al. capture of CO2 [20], and for the removal
[11] and He et al. [12] reported modify- of contaminants and heavy metals from
ing the size of the pore entrances of aqueous media [21] due to their basic
SBA-15 by depositing a carbon layer character and enhanced electrical con-
using a chemical vapor deposition tech- ductivity. On the other hand, S-doped
nique. The usual procedure for preparing carbons show an excellent behaviour as
silica-carbon composites consists in catalytic supports due to the intense
attaching organic moieties to the silica interaction of sulphur with metal nano-
surface followed by a carbonization step particles [22]. In addition, they are good
[13-15]. Yokoi et al. [16] fabricated silica- sorbents for certain heavy metals such
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono 169
as mercury [23]. In the present work we analysis were used to investigate the
fabricated carbon-coated mesostruc- morphology, crystalline structure, chem-
tured silica materials by incorporing ical properties and textural characteris-
nitrogen or sulphur functionalities into tics of the synthesised silica-carbon
the carbon layer. Two types of composites.
mesostructured silica materials
(i.e. SBA-15 and KIT-6) were selected as 2. Experimental
substrates for these experiments. The
2.1. Synthesis of functionalized silica-
synthesis strategy adopted involves the
carbon composites
following steps: i) filling the silica pores
with a monomer rich in nitrogen 2.1.1. Preparation of the silica samples
(pyrrole) or sulphur (thiophene), ii) in SBA-15 and KIT-6 mesostructured silica
situ polymerization of these precursors materials were used to prepare the
to form polypyrrole or polythiophene composites. SBA-15 silica was synthe-
and iii) carbonization of the polymer. sised according to the procedure report-
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), ed by Zhao et al. [24]. In a typical syn-
scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X- thesis, the silica source (TEOS) was add-
ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), ed to an aqueous solution containing HCl
infrared spectroscopy (IR), thermograv- and surfactant (starting mol ratio: TEOS/
imetric analysis (TGA) and physisorption surfactant/HCl/H2O=1/0.017/5.7/193).
Table 1. Physical properties of the silica materials (calcined at 500 °C) and functionalized silica-
carbon composites (heat-treated at 500 and 800 °C).
Carbonaceous N or S content b Textural properties
Type of
Sample matter N S SBET Vp Pore size
material
(wt %) a (wt %) (wt %) (m2.g-1) (cm3.g-1) c (nm) d
SBA-15 - - - 670 1.25 9.8 (1.4)
Silica
KIT-6 - - - 680 1.26 11 (0.9)
SCN-500 23.7 3.6 - 480 0.72 8.3 (1.6)
N-doped SCN-800 23.1 1.6 - 390 0.56 7.6 (1.5)
Composite KCN-500 25.7 4.2 - 510 0.82 10.2 (1.0)
KCN-800 20.1 1.6 - 440 0.62 8.8 (1.3)
SCS-500 26.6 - 5.1 490 0.69 8.7 (1.6)
S-doped SCS-800 22.9 - 0.9 340 0.56 8.5 (1.6)
Composite KCS-500 23.8 - 6.1 570 0.86 10.3 (0.9)
KCS-800 20.6 - 1.9 490 0.74 9.5 (0.8)
Templated CN(S)-800 - 6.7 - 830 2 4.3
Carbons CS(S)-800 - - 3.9 840 1.6 3.9
a
Carbonaceous matter consists not only of pure carbon but also other associated heteroatoms.
b
Heteroatom content in composite materials.
c
Pore volume determined at p/po=0.99.
d
Maximum of pore size distribution, (the full width at half maximum (in nm) of the pore size distribution
is given in parentheses).
170 Artículo IV: Valle-Vigón et al. Mater. Chem. Phys. 139 (2013) 281 - 289
The mixture was then magnetically n-butanol was added (starting mol ratio:
stirred until the TEOS was well- TEOS/P123/HCl/H2O/BuOH = 1/0.017/
dispersed. Next, it was placed in a closed 1.83/195/1.31). The mixture was main-
Teflon vessel and stirred for 20 h at 35 °C tained under stirring at 35 °C for 1 h.
and allowed to age at a temperature of Then, TEOS was added and the resulting
135 °C. The solid product obtained was mixture was kept under stirring for 24 h
separated by centrifugation, washed at 35 °C and subsequently heated under
with distilled water and ethanol and static conditions for 24 h at 130 °C. The
dried at 100 °C. KIT-6 silica was pre- solid obtained was separated by centrif-
pared as described by Kleitz et al. [25]. ugation, washed with distilled water and
Once the surfactant had dissolved in an ethanol and dried at 100 °C
aqueous solution containing HCl,
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono 171
a) b)
800 9.8 nm 11 nm
16
800 30
-1
-1
dV/dlog(D), cm g
dV/dlog(D), cm g
12
3
3
Adsorbed volume (cm 3 STP g-1)
0 0
400 4 6 8 10 12 14 6 8 10 12 14
400
Pore size (D), nm Pore s ize (D), nm
200 200
SBA-15 KIT-6
SCN-500 KCN-500
SCN-800 KCN-800
0 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Relative pressure (p/po) Relative pressure (p/po)
c) d)
800
16 9.8 nm 11 nm
800 -1 30
-1
dV/dlog(D), cm g
dV/dlog(D), cm g
12
3
Adsorbed volume (cm 3 STP g-1)
600 20 10.3 nm
8 8.7 nm
600 9.5 nm
8.5 nm 10
4
0 0
400
0 5 10 15 20 6 8 10 12 14
400 Pore size (D), nm
Pore s ize (D), nm
200 200
KIT-6
SBA-15 KCS-500
SCS-500 KCS-800
SCS-800
0 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Relative pressure (p/po) Relative pressure (p/po)
Figure 2. Nitrogen sorption isotherms and pore size distributions (insets) of the silica and N- or
S-doped silica-carbon composites carbonized at 500 and 800 °C. (a) SBA-15 and N containing
SBA-15/carbon composites; (b) KIT-6 and N containing KIT-6/carbon composites; (c) SBA-15 and
S-doped SBA-15/carbon composites, and (d) KIT-6 and S-doped KIT-6/carbon composites.
high-resolution spectra were calibrated (Figure 1 b), the external surface of the
by setting C 1s to 284.6 eV. The chemical particles shows a certain roughness,
composition of the samples was deter- which suggests that a fraction of the
mined by elemental analysis using a deposited carbon is coating the silica
LECO CHNS-932 analyzer and the total particles.
sulphur content was corroborated by
Because most of the deposited carbo-
means of a LECO S-144DR device.
naceous matter is inside the pores of the
silica, it is to be expected that the silica-
3. Results and discussion carbon composites will show a reduction
3.1. Structural properties in their textural properties with respect
to the parent silica. This is confirmed by
3.1.1. Silica-carbon composites the results presented in Table 1, which
Nitrogen and sulphur functionalized reveal that the silica-carbon composites
silica-carbon composites were prepared show, in relation to the silica samples
using two types of mesoporous silica as (SBA-15 and KIT-6), a moderate reduc-
starting materials, i.e. SBA-15 and KIT-6. tion in their BET surface area, pore vol-
The physical and chemical properties of ume and pore size. This result suggests
the mesostructured silica substrates and that there is no blockage of the pores by
the corresponding functionalized silica- the deposited carbon. It can also be seen
carbon composites are summarized in that the reduction in textural properties
Table 1. The silica-carbon composites is more pronounced in the case of the
contain around 20-25 wt % of carbona- composites treated at 800 °C than in
ceous matter, which decreases slightly those prepared at 500 °C. This may be
as the carbonization temperature in- due to thermal shrinkage of the silica
creases from 500 °C to 800 °C. Figure 1 framework, which becomes more pro-
shows the SEM images for the SBA-15 nounced as the carbonization tempera-
silica (Figure 1a) and the SBA-15/carbon ture increases [28]. Figure 2 shows the
composites with N or S (Figures 1 b, 1 c nitrogen sorption isotherms and the
and 1 d). Both the silica and composite pore size distributions (inset) corre-
particles have a similar particle size sponding to the two silica samples and
(~1 m). It can be seen that for the silica- the silica-carbon composites obtained by
carbon particles doped with S the exter- carbonization at 500 °C and 800 °C. All
nal appearance of the particles is similar the isotherms exhibit a type IV pattern
to that of the silica indicating that the with a well-defined capillary condensa-
carbon layer has been deposited exclu- tion step at p/po~ 0.6-0.8, which is indic-
sively inside the pore network (Figures ative of a well-developed mesoporosity.
1 c and 1 d). In contrast, in the case of This is confirmed by the pore size distri-
the silica-carbon samples doped with N butions, depicted in the insets of
174 Artículo IV: Valle-Vigón et al. Mater. Chem. Phys. 139 (2013) 281 - 289
Figure 2, which show that the porosity of display well-resolved XRD peaks, which
both the silica and the composites is are assigned to reflections characteristic
made up of uniform mesopores ranging of a 2D p6mm hexagonal silica
from 8 to 11 nm. It can be seen that as a mesostructure (SBA-15). These results
consequence of the deposition of the are in agreement with TEM images,
carbon layer, there is a reduction in the displayed in Figure 4, for the SBA-15 and
mean pore size. For example, whereas derived composites (taken along the
the pore size of the SBA-15 silica cal- channel direction and perpendicu-
cined at 500 °C is ~ 9.8 nm, the SCN-500 lar to it). It can be seen that the struc-
composite has a pore size of ~ 8.3 nm. tural order characteristic of the parent
The thickness of the deposited carbon silica is still retained in the composites.
layer can be deduced from the differ- The KIT-6/carbon composites also retain
ence between the mean pore size of the the structural order of the parent silica
silica–carbon composite and that of the as can be deduced from the well-
silica. This means that the carbon layer resolved low-angle XRD patterns in
has a thickness of around 0.7 nm (ap- Figure S1a.
proximately equivalent to the thickness
of two graphene sheets) which is similar
to the size deduced by Nishihara et al.
for SBA-15/carbon composites prepared
by using 2,3-dihydroxynaphthalene as SCS-800
.
Intensity (a.u.)
Figure 4. TEM micrographs of SBA-15 silica (a); N-doped carbon-silica composites treated up to
500 °C, SCN-500 (b) and 800 °C, SCN-800 (c) and S-doped carbon-silica samples carbonized at
800 °C, SCS-800 (d).
2
Adsorbed volume, cm STP g
1000 0
0 2 4 6 8
is interconnected and uniformly distrib-
800 Pore size (D), nm uted within the pore network. It is also
600 worth mentioning that these templated
400 carbons combine a high surface area
CN(S)-800 and mesoporous structure with a large
200
CS(S)-800 amount of nitrogen in the case of the
0
CN(S)-800 sample (6.7 wt % N) and sul-
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Relative pressure (p/po ) phur in the case of CS(S)-800 (3.9 wt %
S) (see Table 1). Clearly, the combina-
Figure 5. N2 sorption isotherms (with PSDs tion of these two properties would
inset) of the carbons obtained from the make these materials useful in several
functionalized silica-carbon composites
areas such as supercapacitors, CO2 cap-
treated at 800 °C.
ture, catalytic supports or sorbents [18] .
Figure 6. TEM micrographs of the templated carbons obtained: N-doped carbon, CN(S)-800 (A
and B) and S-doped carbon, CS(S)-800 (C and D), obtained by removing the SBA-15 silica from
the functionalized carbon-silica composites carbonized at 800 °C.
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono 177
a) do-p C-H b)
C=C
C=O
s C=O
s C=C/C-C
C-H
CH2-S
C-S
and C-N
CN(S)-800
CS(S)-800
Transmittance (a.u.) .
Transmittance (a.u.) .
CN(S)-500
CS(S)-500
PPy
PTh
2000 1750 1500 1250 1000 750 500 2000 1750 1500 1250 1000 750 500
-1 -1
Wavenumber (cm ) Wavenumber (cm )
c) SBA-15 d) SBA-15
Transmittance (a.u.)
Transmittance (a.u.)
SCN-800 SCS-800
SCN-500 SCS-500
OH (isolated)
OH (isolated)
N-H/O-H
S-PPy S-Pth
O-H
Figure 7. (a) FT-IR spectra corresponding to N- and S- rich polymers (polypyrrole and polythio-
phene) and to the resulting doped carbons from the SBA-15/carbon composites. (b) FT-IR spec-
tra of the polymer-silica hybrids, SBA-15/carbon composites doped with N and S and calcined
SBA-15.
peaks centred at 398.1 eV and 400.7 eV, oxidation of the sample from its expo-
and a small one at 403.1 eV can be dis- sure to the ambient, and it represents
tinguished corresponding to pyridinic only 3% of the different N moieties
nitrogen (N-6), and N-oxides of pyridine- [32,33]. The peak centred at 400.7 eV
N respectively [32]. The pyridine-N-oxide can be attributed to quaternary-N (N-Q),
(N-X) band is probably caused by the which is the most stable N species under
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono 179
a) b)
CP CPTh
CN(S)-800
CS(S)-800
Intensity (a.u.) .
Intensity (a.u.)
N-Q
N-X
N-6 N-5
CN(S)-500
N-5 CS(S)-500
N-6 N-X
N-Q
PPy PTh
N-5
396 398 400 402 404 161 163 165 167 169
Binding Energy (eV) Binding Energy (eV)
Figure 8. (a) N 1s core level spectra of PPy, CN(S)-500, CN(S)-800 and CP. (b) S 2p core level
spectra of PTh, CS(S)-500, CS(S)-800 and CPTh.
(A)
w ith
Silica / Surfactant Silica tion
r egna
mp le
1) I pyrro ion
pol
y izat
a rb n
o
2) C
Calcination
1) I
m
pol preg (B)
yth n
iop ation
2) C hen wit
arb e h
oniz
atio
n
which is consistent with -C-S(O)2-C- sul- ure 9. The synthesis procedure is similar
phone bridges [38]. These sulphone for both materials and comprises the
bridges represent only ~ 5 % of the total following steps: a) calcination of the as-
sulphur content, indicating that most of synthesized silica (SBA-15 or KIT-6),
the sulphur present in the C-PTh sample b) impregnation with the carbon precur-
(13.8 wt %) is in the form of sulphide sor (polypyrrole or polythiophene) and
bridges. In the case of S-doped carbons, c) carbonization. The composite has a
the S 2p spectrum of the CS(S)-500 sam- thin carbon layer that covers the pores
ple exhibits only one doublet which is of silica. This carbon layer contains a
ascribed to sulphide bridges. In contrast, large number of S or N functional groups
the CS(S)-800 sample contains two dou- attached to the graphene layers, as illus-
blets associated to -C-S-C- sulphide trated in Figure 9. The results obtained
bridges and -C-S(O)2-C- sulphone bridges reveal that, whereas nitrogen is incorpo-
like the C-PTh sample. However, the rated into aromatic rings in the form of
sulphone bridges in the CS(S)-800 sam- pyridine and in quaternary positions,
ple represent only a very small percent- most of the sulphur forms sulphide
age of the total amount of sulphur bridges between adjacent graphene
(~ 4 %). Therefore, most of the S het- layers.
eroatoms must be forming sulphide
bridges. 4. Conclusions
An illustration of the synthesis scheme In summary, we have presented a simple
for nitrogen and sulphur doped silica- synthesis strategy for preparing nitrogen
carbon composites is provided in Fig- and sulphur doped silica-carbon compo-
182 Artículo IV: Valle-Vigón et al. Mater. Chem. Phys. 139 (2013) 281 - 289
Supplementary Information
a) b)
KCS-800
Intensity (a. u.) .
Intensity (a.u.)
KCS-500
CN(S)-800
KCN-800
CS(S)-800
KCN-500
SBA-15
KIT-6
0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5 0.5 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5
2 Theta (º) 2 Theta (º)
Figure S1. XRD patterns in the low-angle region of the mesostructured: a) KIT-6 silica and the
corresponding functionalized silica-carbon composites carbonized at 500 and 800 °C. b) SBA-15
silica and the corresponding nitrogen and sulphur doped templated carbons carbonized at
800 °C.
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono y sus derivados 187
1. RESUMEN
Mientras que en el capítulo anterior se abordó la fabricación de
composites sílice-carbono mesoestructurados con propiedades texturales y
químicas controladas, esta sección se centra en la preparación de materiales
con una morfología bien definida. Desde el punto de vista de su aplicación
práctica, la morfología de las partículas que constituyen los materiales es un
factor fundamental. Así, una morfología esférica confiere a los materiales una
elevada área superficial, útil en procesos catalíticos o de adsorción, y una gran
densidad de empaquetamiento, necesaria en aplicaciones cromatográficas y
de almacenamiento de energía. Adicionalmente, aquellos materiales de
apariencia esférica dotados de una cavidad interna hueca (i.e. cápsulas),
resultan idóneos como nanocontenedores, debido a la gran cantidad de
sustancias que pueden ser alojadas en el macroporo central. Por otro lado, la
incorporación de una o más partículas en el interior de las esferas huecas
(i.e. nano-sonajero), o sobre su superficie porosa, puede resultar útil para
implementar en el sistema funcionalidades con propiedades adicionales
(v.g. magnéticas o catalíticas).
Artículo V:
Artículo VI:
Artículo VII:
el grupo orgánico del compuesto C18TMS, que actúa como agente porógeno
en la síntesis de las nanoesferas organosilíceas.
a b
Magnet
IMÁN
100 nm
Figura 23. (a) Imagen de TEM de las cápsulas de carbono mesoporoso funcionalizadas
con nanopartículas magnéticas de óxido de hierro y (b) ejemplo de su separación
magnética en medio acuoso.
4. APLICACIONES
La utilización de enzimas como biocatalizadores constituye un campo
de creciente interés en los últimos años tanto en la industria química como en
la farmacéutica, con el fin de preparar productos bioquímicos, biosensores,
fármacos e incluso sistemas de eliminación de contaminantes [140]. Puesto
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono y sus derivados 201
por parte de las cápsulas magnéticas, con valores de ~ 500 mg Cyt C g-1,
considerablemente superior a los encontrados en la bibliografía para otros
materiales de carbono mesoporoso (~ 220 mg g-1 sobre CMK-3 [142]), a pesar
de su menor volumen de poros como consecuencia de la incorporación de las
nanopartículas magnéticas. Esta gran diferencia en las cantidades
inmovilizadas puede deberse a la acomodación de una fracción considerable
de Cyt C en la cavidad interna de las cápsulas, que actúa como nano-
contenedor de sustancias. Adicionalmente, su fácil recuperación del medio de
reacción por simple aplicación de un imán convencional supone una
importante ventaja para su separación, recuperación y reutilización.
5. CONCLUSIONES
Las principales conclusiones derivadas de este bloque de resultados
son las siguientes:
Materials Letters
Volume 64, Issue 14, 31 July 2010, Pages 1587 - 1590
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Article history: A facile route for the fabrication of nanorattles composed of tunable
Received 16 February 2010
silica spherical nanoparticles confined inside mesoporous carbon shells
Accepted 24 April 2010
Available online 1 May 2010
is presented. The synthetic strategy imply several steps: i) Synthesis of
solid core-mesoporous shell silica microspheres, ii) infiltration of the
mesoporous shell with a carbon precursor and its conversion in carbon
Keywords:
Silica
through a carbonization process and iii) controlled dissolution of silica
Carbon by means of a soft etching agent (NaOH 1.5 M). In this way, a variety of
Nanocomposite Silica@Carbon nanorattles of a diameter of ~430 nm can be produced.
Nanorattle The diameter of the silica core can be uniformly tuned between 330 nm
Porosity and 160 nm by varying the etching time between 2 h and 44 h. The rate
Nanoparticle
constant for the dissolution process of silica core was estimated to be
k1.210 gcm s . These nanorattles have a high BET surface area
-10 -2 -1
and a large pore volume, which depend on the amount of silica in the
composite.
*
Corresponding author. E-mail address: abefu@incar.csic.es (A.B. Fuertes). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2010.04.052
macroporous hollow core are commonly conductivity of carbon shell, and easy
denoted as nanorattles and symbolized functionalization of the silica core. The
by X@Y, identifying X and Y the nature of synthetic scheme employed to obtain
the core and shell materials respectively these nanorattles is illustrated in Figure
[4]. The shell is usually made up of car- S1 (Supplementary Information).
bon, silica or polymeric materials, and in
most cases it contains penetrating pores 2. Experimental
that provide a passage between the
outside and the inner space of the parti- Sub-micrometer-size solid core/ mes-
cles. The core commonly has a different oporous shell (SCMS) silica microspheres
nature than the shell and it consist in were prepared as reported by Unger et
metallic [5] or oxide [6] nanoparticles. In al. [7]. The porosity of these particles
the present work we propose a simple was impregnated with a carbon precur-
synthetic strategy for the fabrication of sor (furfuryl alcohol) and carbonized up
nanorattles composed of tunable silica to 800 °C under nitrogen. This silica-
nanoparticles confined inside mesopo- carbon composite was denoted as S-C.
rous carbon shells. Such Silica@Carbon The Silica@Carbon nanorattles were
nanorattles have not been described synthesised by means of the treatment
previously and they have potential inter- of the S-C microspheres with a dissolu-
est taking into account that both materi- tion of NaOH 1.5 M, at room tempera-
als have complementary properties, tures and for different etching times,
i.e. high porosity and good electrical between 2 h and 44 h. The synthesised
nanorattles are denoted as S@C-x being fill the silica pores and in consequence
x=1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6 depending on etching the S-C composite exhibits a certain
time (see Table 1 for details). For com- porosity as revealed by the textural
parison purposes a free-silica carbon properties listed in Table 1.
capsules sample denoted as @C was
The dissolution of silica in water con-
prepared by treatment of the S-C com-
sists basically in a depolymerization
posite with HF (48 wt %). The morpholo-
process, which is catalysed by the hy-
gy of the powders was examined by
droxyl ions [8]. In alkaline solutions
scanning (SEM, Zeiss DSM 942) and
above pH 11, the rate of dissolution of
transmission (TEM, JEOL-2000 FXII) elec-
the silica is a function of the surface of
tron microscopy. Nitrogen adsorption
solid silica phase according to:
and desorption isotherms were per-
Rate = (-dM/dt)=kS [9]. The as-
formed at –196 °C in a Micromeritics
synthesised silica-carbon composite
ASAP 2020 volumetric adsorption sys-
(S-C) has a BET surface area of
tem.
195 m g , which is exclusively associat-
2 -1
Figure 2 TEM images of silica@carbon composites: (a) S-C, (b) S@C-1, (c) S@C-4, (d) S@C-5,
(e) S@C-6 and (f) carbon capsules @C.
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono 217
The TEM images in Figure 2 illustrate particles (@C). The textural properties
the evolution of the silica-carbon com- (BET surface area, pore volume and pore
posites during the etching process, since size) of these samples are listed in Table
the S-C sample to the carbon capsules 1. The as-synthesised silica-carbon com-
(@C). The TEM image of the S-C micro- posite (S-C) exhibits a certain porosity as
spheres (Figure 2a) shows a slight con- commented before. An analysis of the
trast between the shell (silica-carbon) sorption isotherm reveals that the pores
and the core (nonporous silica). After 2 h in the S-C sample are in the micropore
of etching, the silica in the shell has been
range (< 2 nm) and they can be assigned
completely removed and the particles
(S@C-1 in Figure 2b) are made up of a a
mesoporous carbon shell (see inset in 1400
1000 S@C-4
silica core for longer etching times give S@C-3
3
800
S-C
nanorattles as clearly illustrated by the
600
TEM images obtained for the S@C-4 (Fig.
2c), S@C-5 (Fig. 2d) and S@C-6 (Fig. 2e) 400
to nanospaces between the infiltrated which permits a fine control of the di-
carbon and the silica walls. As the silica ameter of the silica core, which can be
core shrinks, the BET surface area and easily tuned between 330 nm (2 h etch-
pore volume of the S@C-x samples in- ing) and 160 nm (44 h etching). Then, a
crease uniformly and, taking in account variety of silica@carbon nanorattles can
that the silica core is nonporous, the BET be easily synthesised by varying the
surface areas calculated in the carbon etching time. The estimated rate con-
basis have values close to that of carbon stant for the dissolution of the silica core
capsules @C (see Table 1). Since the is k1.210-10 gcm-2s-1.
porosity of these samples is exclusively
associated to shell-confined pores, the Acknowledgments
size of these pores remain almost invari- The financial support for this research
able for the different nanorattle samples provided by the MEC (MAT2008-00407)
and the carbon capsules at ~ 3.5 nm as is gratefully acknowledged. M. S. and
showed in Figure 3b. P. V.-V. acknowledge the assistance of
the Spanish MCyT for the award of a
4. Conclusions postdoctoral and JAE-Predoc grants
respectively.
In summary, we have illustrated a facile
route for the fabrication of nanorattles
References
composed of tunable silica spherical
nanoparticles confined inside mesopo- [1] Y. Ma, L. Qi, Journal of Colloid and
rous carbon shells. The procedure em- Interface Science, 335 (2009) 1-10.
ployed is based on the controlled re- [2] X.W. Lou, L.A. Archer, Z. Yang,
moval of silica in the silica-carbon com- Advanced Materials, 20 (2008) 3987-
posites prepared by the infiltration of 4019.
the solid core-mesoporous shell silica [3] J. Liu, F. Liu, K. Gao, J. Wu, D. Xue,
microspheres with a carbon precursor. Journal of Materials Chemistry, 19
(2009) 6073-6084.
The action of etching agent (NaOH
1.5 M) at room temperature rapidly [4] Y. Chen, H. Chen, L. Guo, Q. He, F.
Chen, J. Zhou, J. Feng, J. Shi, ACS
dissolves the silica in the shell, which
Nano, 4 (2010) 529-539.
results in a composite formed by a mes-
[5] W.M. Zhang, J.S. Hu, Y.G. Guo, S.F.
oporous carbon shell enveloping a non-
Zheng, L.S. Zhong, W.G. Song, L.J.
porous silica core. The shrinking of the Wan, Advanced Materials, 20 (2008)
nonporous silica core takes place slowly, 1160-1165.
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono 219
Supplementary Information
(A) (B)
(1)
(2)
(C)
Figure S1. Illustration of the synthesis procedure. (A) Solid Core-Mesoporous Shell Silica Micro-
sphere; (B) Silica/Carbon composite (S@C); (C) Nanorattle formed by a silica nanosphere con-
fined inside of a mesoporous carbon shell (S@C-x). (1) Impregnation and carbonization of car-
bon precursor; (2) Dissolution of the silica.
222
Figure S2. SEM images of the silica microspheres (SCMS), silica-carbon composites (S-C) and the silica cores obtained by the calcination (in
air up to 600ºC) of the S@C-x samples prepared at different etching times.
S.I. Artículo V: Valle-Vigón et al. Mater. Lett. 64 (2010) 1587 - 1590
6.2. Artículo VI
A synthetic method to produce uniform mesoporous hollow carbon nanospheres with a large sur-
face area and uniform mesoporosity has been developed by employing, as carbon source an or-
ganic moiety used as porogen agent to synthesize of spherical organosilica nanoparticles with a
core@shell (organic-inorganic) structure. The conversion of the organic moiety to carbon is
achieved by means of sulphuric acid which considerably increases the carbon yield via dehydra-
tion and sulphonation reactions. The carbon capsules exhibit a uniform morphology (a diameter
of ~440 nm and a shell thickness of ~50 nm), a high BET surface area (1620 m g ), a large pore
2 -1
volume (2.3 cm g ) and a porosity made up of mesopores centred at around 4.3 nm. Iron oxide
3 -1
magnetic nanoparticles were incorporated into the pores of the porous shell of the carbon cap-
sules. The magnetic hollow nanoparticles were then used as support for the immobilization of the
cytochrome C. A large amount of enzyme is stored in this magnetic nanocomposite (~500 mg
-1
Cytg support) which suggests that a significant fraction of enzyme is accommodated in the hol-
low core of the capsules.
Instituto Nacional del Carbón (CSIC), P.O. Box 73, 33080-Oviedo Spain
*
Corresponding author. E-mail address: abefu@incar.csic.es (A.B. Fuertes).
10
into the pores of the shell of inorganic plates. This type of silica particle is
3
nanoparticles. Such multifunctional obtained by growing, upon the surface
hollow carbon particles are very attrac- of the Stöber silica spheres, a mesopo-
tive as high-performance catalysts, drug rous silica shell produced by the co-
delivery systems, or for the adsorption condensation of tetraethylortosilicate
and immobilization of biomolecules. (TEOS) with a porogen agent such as
Several examples of these nanocompo- octadecyltrimethoxysilane (C18-TMS). On
sites have been presented recently. the other hand, Arnal et al. reported the
Thus, Kim et al. reported the fabrication fabrication of mesoporous hollow car-
of Au nanoparticles trapped inside the bon microspheres by using as template a
4
macroporous core of carbon capsules. mesoporous bynary oxide with a
11
Chai et al. described the incorporation of core@shell structure (SiO2@ZrO2).
PtRu nanoparticles inside the porous
shell of carbon capsules and observed The conventional synthetic strategy for
that this material exhibits a high specific obtaining mesoporous carbon capsules
activity for methanol electrooxidation.
5 necessitates several supplementary
Ikeda et al. demonstrated that platinum steps: i) the infiltration of the mesopores
nanoparticles encapsulated in a hollow of calcined SCMS silica particles by a
porous carbon shell display a better carbon precursor (a phenol-
catalytic performance for hydrogenation formaldehyde mixture, furfuryl alcohol,
reactions than conventional catalysts glucose, etc), ii) the polymerization of
(i.e., Pt supported on an activated car- this precursor, iii) the carbonization of
6
bon). Recently we reported the fabrica- the polymer and iv) the removal of the
tion of core@shell materials made up of silica framework. This methodology
inorganic nanoparticles confined within involves a complex synthetic procedure
the macroporous core of carbon cap- consisting of multiple steps and the
7
sules with a mesoporous shell. In addi- utilization of foreign substances such as
tion, we demonstrated the importance carbon precursors and polymerization
of this core@shell architecture for en- catalysts. In addition, as Ikeda et al. have
capsulating nanosized catalysts with a emphasized, the infiltration method
high catalytic performance in heteroge- cannot guarantee the exclusive incorpo-
8
neous processes. A methodology for the ration of the carbon precursor into mes-
preparation of uniform mesoporous opores of SCMS, as it also provokes the
carbon capsules with a mesoporous shell aggregation of particles.12 Therefore, the
(SCMS) was first described by Hyeon et development of simpler synthetic routes
9
al. They chose a hard-templating route towards the formation of uniform po-
based on using monodisperse sub- rous carbon capsules is still an important
micrometric solid core/mesoporous shell challenge. In the present work we report
(SCMS) silica spheres as sacrificial tem- an easy synthetic strategy to obtain
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono 227
dV/dlog(D), cm 3/g
2
of the silica-carbon particles (S-C) gives
2.1 nm
1 rise to uniform carbon nanospheres with
250
0
a a diameter of around 440 nm, as can be
0 2 4 6 8 10
seen from the SEM image (see
STP/g)
150
clearly show. The diameter of the
100 macroporous core is around 350 nm.
The shell of these capsules, which has a
SCMS
50 S-C thickness of ~50 nm, contains frame-
S-C18 work-confined pores, as revealed by the
0 TEM image shown in Figure 4c. The tex-
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
tural characteristics of these porous
Relative pressure (p/p o)
capsules were examined by means of the
1400 b nitrogen sorption isotherm and pore size
distribution (Figure 3b). There is a large
-1
STP·g
1200
nitrogen uptake for p/po > 0.9, indicating
1000
3
800 4.3 nm
presence of interparticle voids between
-1
6
dV/dlog(D), cm ·g
600
4
400
sules have a large BET surface area of
2
16
spheres and thickness of the porous bons. Thus, Kim et al. reported the
shell) are analogous in both cases, the fabrication of mesoporous carbons by
textural characteristics are somewhat means of the carbonization of the sur-
different (see Table 1). The most im- factant (Pluronic P123) confined inside
portant difference is related to pore size, the porosity of the silica, with the aid of
17
which is larger in the HC-C18 capsules the sulphuric acid. Moreover, several
than in the HC-FA ones. authors have found that the sulphona-
tion of polymeric resins increases the
18
carbonization yield. However, although
the sulphuric acid has been widely em-
ployed to prepare carbon materials, its
Transmitance (a. u.)
S-O
role in the conversion of organic mole-
S=O
cules to carbon has hardly been investi-
OH····O
O-H
gated.
C=C
C=O
In a first step the organosilica micro-
spheres were oxidised with H2O2. We
observed that this pre-treatment causes
4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 a slight increment of the carbon yield
Wavenumber, cm -1
(~10 wt %), which is important to obtain
Figure 5. FTIR spectrum of the S-C18 compo- robust carbon capsules. In our opinion,
site treated with H2SO4 at 160 °C for 15 h.
this is a consequence of the fact that the
oxidation of the C18- alkyl chain by H2O2
Mechanism of the formation of the introduces oxygen functionalities, which
carbonaceous material. The conversion favours the dehydration reactions by the
of the alkyl group -(CH2)17-CH3 attached H2SO4. In order to clarify the role of the
to silica to carbon was investigated. In sulphuric acid in the formation of the
the absence of sulphuric acid, this organ- carbonaceous material, we analyzed the
ic group completely decomposes into chemical characteristics of composites at
gaseous species during pyrolysis (see several stages during carbonization.
Figure S3 in Supporting Information). In Thus, for a composite obtained after
contrast, when the process occurs in the treatment with sulphuric acid at 160 °C
presence of sulphuric acid, a substantial and subsequently washed with water to
fraction of the organic moiety is con- remove the unreacted sulphuric acid,
verted into carbon (up to 30 wt %). The the FTIR spectrum (Figure 5) clearly
conversion of the organic substances reveals the formation of sulphonic
into carbon in presence of sulphuric acid groups (-SO3H). Indeed, the band at
-1
is a procedure commonly employed to 780 cm can be assigned to S–O stretch-
fabricate templated mesoporous car- ing vibrations, whereas the sharp peak
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono 233
-1
at 1050 cm is associated to symmetric 4
100
19
S=O stretching vibrations. Important a
also is the presence of a broad band at 80
-1 3
2450-2700 cm , which can be assigned
-1
Weight loss rate. %.min
to an overtone of the bending mode of 60
Weight, %
OH· · ·O linked by a strong hydrogen 2
a b S 2p
Suphide bridges
Intensity (a.u.)
Intensity (a. u.)
(S)
800ºC
160ºC
S-C 18
900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 162 164 166 168 170 172
-1
Raman shift (cm ) Binding Energy (eV)
Figure 7. (a) Raman spectra of the samples collected at different stages of the carbonization
process. (b) S2p XPS spectrum of a silica-carbon composite carbonized at 800 °C under N2.
-1
the Raman spectra obtained for the 1587 (G-mode) cm , which reveal the
2
samples at several stages of carboniza- presence of C sp atoms in benzene or
tion. The as-synthesised organosilica condensed benzene rings of amorphous
22
composite S-C18 exhibits three peaks (partially hydrogenated) carbon and
which are characteristic of the saturated aromatic carbon clusters. Finally, it can
alkyl chain associated to silica (Si- be seen that the G-band in the sample
21
(CH2)17-CH3). The sample treated with carbonized at 800 °C is narrower than
sulphuric acid at 160 °C exhibits an addi- the one at 250 °C, indicating an increase
-1
tional weak band centred at 1580 cm , in the size of the aromatic clusters in the
which is characteristic of alkene stretch- carbonaceous material. This result is in
21
ing vibrations and suggests the for- corroborated by the XRD pattern corre-
mation of C=C linkages due to dehydra- sponding to the carbon capsules ob-
tion reactions catalysed by the sulphuric tained at 800 °C (see Figure S4 in Sup-
acid. This conclusion is coherent with porting Information). This pattern exhib-
what was previously deduced from the its a well-defined broad (002) diffraction
FTIR analysis (see Figure 5). The compo- peak (2θ~10-30°) attributable to amor-
site obtained by heat treatment up to phous carbon composed of aromatic
250 °C exhibits two broad overlapping carbon sheets oriented in a considerably
bands at around 1360 (D-mode) and random fashion.
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono 235
SO3 H SO3 H
1) H2O2
CH3 CH3
2) H2SO4
O SO3 H OH
S O
S
S O
800ºC 250ºC
Figure 8. Schematic illustration of the transformation of the –(CH2)17-CH3 alkyl group to carbon
with the aid of sulphuric acid
are mainly deposited on the porous shell ventional mesoporous carbons, in spite
of the carbon capsules. They consist of of the fact that the magnetic carbon
iron oxide spinel nanomagnets (magnet- capsules exhibit a lower pore volume.
ite@maghemite) as revealed by the XRD Thus, Vinu et al. reported for CMK-3
pattern shown in Figure 9b and they templated mesoporous carbons (pore
volume: 1.3 cm g ; pore size: ~ 4.3 nm),
3 -1
have a size of around 11.5 nm as de-
duced by applying thee Scherrer equa- a maximum loading of cytochrome C of
-1 25
tion to the (311) diffraction peak. The ~220 mg Cytg . This substantial differ-
adsorption isotherm corresponding to ence in the amounts of enzyme immobi-
the adsorption of cytochrome C by the lized may be due to the fact that a signif-
magnetic hollow particles at pH 9.3 is icant fraction of the enzyme immobilized
shown in Figure 9c. It can be seen that is accommodated inside the
these hollow nanoparticles immobilize a macroporous core of the carbon cap-
large amount of enzyme, the maximum sules. This hollow core acts as a nano-
amount being ~500 mg Cyt.g-1. This container, which considerably enhances
quantity is considerably higher than the the capacity of immobilization in relation
values found in the literature for con- to what might be expected from the
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono 237
a (311) b
600
c 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
500 2 Theta (º)
Amount adsorbed, mg/g
400
d
300
200
Magnet
100
0
0 1 2 3
Equilibrium concentration, mg/mL
Figure 9. (a) TEM image of the carbon capsules containing magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles
(mHC-C18 sample). (b) XRD pattern of the mHC-C18 sample. (c) Adsorption isotherm of Cyto-
chrome C on the magnetic carbon capsules (room temperature, pH=9.3). (d) Example of mag-
netic separation of the mHC-C18 capsules loaded with cytochrome C.
increases the carbon yield via dehydra- (2) (a) Yu, A.; Wang, Y.; Barlow, E.;
tion and sulphonation reactions. These Caruso, F. Adv. Mater. 2005, 17,
favour the aromatization and cross- 1737. (b) Zhu, Y.; Kockrick, E.; Iko-
linking processes through the formation ma, T.; N. Hanagata and S. Kaskel,
of sulphonyl and sulphide bridges. The Chem. Mater. 2009, 21, 2547. (c)
present approach provides an easy route Zhao, W.; Lang, M.; Li, Y.; Li, L.; Shi,
for synthesising uniform mesoporous J. J. Mater. Chem. 2009, 19, 2778;
hollow carbon particles. These mesopo- (d) Zhu, Y.; Shi, J.; Shen, W.; Dong,
rous carbon capsules can be used in X.; Feng, J.; Ruan, M.; Li, Y. Angew.
various applications such as drug deliv- Chem. Int. Ed. 2005, 44, 5083.
ery or enzyme immobilization. In the
(3) (a) Kim, M.; Sohn, K.; Na, H. B.;
present work, we have demonstrated
Hyeon, T. Nano Lett., 2002, 2, 1383.
this concept by attaching iron oxide
(b) Zhang, W-M.; Hu, J-S.; Guo, Y-
magnetic nanoparticles to the carbon
G.; Zheng, S-F.; Zhong, L-S.; Song,
capsules and employing this kind of
W-G.; Wan, L-J. Adv. Mater. 2008,
magnetic nanocomposite for the immo-
20, 1160. (c) Guo, L.; Cui, X.; Li, Y.;
bilization of an enzyme (cytochrome C).
He, Q.; Zhang, L.; Bu, W.; Shi, J.
The results obtained indicate that these
Chem. Asian J., 2009, 4, 1480. (d)
magnetic capsules are able to immobi-
Fang, B.; Kim, J. H.; Lee, C.; Yu, J-S.
lize a large amount of enzyme and sug-
J. Phys. Chem. C, 2008, 112, 639.
gest that a considerable fraction of the
(e) Zheng, R.; Meng, X.; Tang, F.;
enzyme is stored in the hollow core of
Zhang, L.; Ren, J. J. Phys. Chem. C,
the magnetic capsules.
2009, 113, 13065.
Acknowledgments. The financial sup-
(4) Kim, J. Y.; Yoon, S. B.; Yu, J.-S.
port for this research work provided by
Chem.. Commun. 2003, 790.
the Spanish MCyT (MAT2008-00407) is
gratefully acknowledged. P. V-V. and M. (5) Chai, G. S.; Yoon, S. B.; Kim, J. H.;
S. acknowledge the assistance of the Yu, J-S. Chem. Commun. 2004,
Spanish MCyT for its award of a Pre- 2766.
doctoral grant (FPI) and a Postdoctoral (6) Ikeda, S.; Ishino, S.; Harada, T.;
Mobility contract, respectively. Okamoto, N.; Sakata, T.; Mori, H.;
Kuwabata, S.; Torimoto, T.; Mat-
References
sumura, M. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed.
(1) (a) Ma, Y.; Qi, L. J. Coll. Interf. Sci. 2006, 45, 7063.
2009, 335, 1. (b) Lou, X.; Archer, L.
(7) Fuertes, A. B.; Sevilla, M.; Valdes-
A.; Yang, Z. Adv. Mater. 2008, 20,
Solis, T.; Tartaj, P. Chem. Mater.
3987.
2007, 19, 5418.
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono 239
(8) Valdés-Solís, T.; Valle-Vigón, P.; (18) (a) Neely, J. W. Carbon 1981, 19,
Sevilla, M.; Fuertes, A. B. J. Catal. 27. (b) Matsuda, M.; Funabashi, K.
2007, 251, 239. J. Polym. Sci. Part A: Polym. Chem.
1987, 25, 669. (c) Malika, D. J.;
(9) (a) Bon, S.; Sohn, Y. K.; Kim, J. Y.;
Trochimczukb, A. W.; Jyoc, A.;
Shin, C-H.; Yu, J-S.; Hyeon, T. Adv.
Tylusd, W. Carbon 2008, 46, 310.
Mater. 2002, 14, 19; (b) Kim, M.;
Yoon, S. B.; Sohn, K.; Kim, J. Y.; (19) (a) Sahin, Y.; Aydın, A.; Udum, Y.
Shin, C-H.; Hyeon, T.; Yu, J-S. Mi- A.; Pekmez, K.; Yıldız, A. J. Appl.
crop. Mesop. Mater. 2003, 63, 1. Polym. Sci. 2004, 93, 526. (b) Tian,
X.; Su, F.; Zhao, X. S. Green Chem.
(10) Büchel, G.; Unger, K. K.; Matsumo-
2008, 10, 951.
to, A.; Tsutsumi, K. Adv. Mater.
1998, 10, 1036. (20) Suganuma, S.; Nakajima, K.; Kitano,
M.; Yamaguchi, D.; Kato, H.; Hayas-
(11) Arnal, P. M.; Schuth, F.; Kleitz, F.
hi, S.; Hara, M. J. Am. Chem. Soc.
Chem. Commun. 2006, 1203.
2008, 130, 12787.
(12) Ikeda, S.; Tachi, K.; Ng, Y.; Ikoma, Y.;
(21) Socrates, G. Infrared and Raman
Sakata, T.; Mori, H.; Harada, T.;
Characteristic Group Frequencies, 3.
Matsumura, M. Chem. Mater.
ed.; Wiley: New York, 2005.
2007, 19, 4335.
(22) (a) Ferrari, A. C., Robertson J. Phys.
(13) Kruk, M.; Jaroniec, M.; Sayari, A.
Rev. B 2000, 61, 14095. (b) Schwan,
Langmuir, 1997, 13, 6267.
J.; Ulrico, S.; Batori, V.; Ehrhardt, H.
(14) Jaroniec, M.; Kruk, M.; Oliver, J. P. J. Appl. Phys. 1996, 80, 440.
Langmuir, 1999, 15, 5410.
(23) (a) Fuertes, A. B.; Valdes-Solıs, T.;
(15) Kruk,M.; Jaroniec, M.; Gadkaree, K. Sevilla, M.; Tartaj, P. J. Phys. Chem.
P. J. Colloid Interface Sci., 1997, C 2008, 112, 3648. (b) Sevilla, M.;
192, 250. Valle-Vigón, P.; Tartaj, P.; Fuertes,
(16) (a) Ryoo, R.; Joo, S.-H.; Jun, S. J. A. B. Carbon 2009, 47, 2519.
Phys. Chem. B 1999, 103, 7743. (b) (24) (a) Ochi, H.; Hata, Y.; Tanaka, N.;
Jun, S.; Joo, S. H.; Ryoo, R.; Kruk, Kakudo, M.; Sakurai, T.; Aihara, S.;
M.; Jaroniec, M.; Liu, Z.; Ohsuna, T.; Morita, Y. J. Mol. Biol., 1983, 166,
Terasaki, O. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 407. (b) Macdonald, I. D. G.; Smith,
2000, 122, 10712. W. E. Langmuir 1996, 12, 706.
(17) Kim, J; Lee, J.; Hyeon, T. Carbon (25) Vinu, A.; Streb, C.; Murugesan, V.;
2004, 42, 2711. Hartmann, M. J. Phys. Chem. B
2003, 107, 8297.
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono 241
Supplementary Information
6 3.6 nm
1400
-1
dV/dlog(D), cm ·g
3
4
1200
2
-1
STP·g
1000
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
3
Adsorbed volume, cm
600
3
400 2
200 0
Spherical capsules 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Deflated capsules Pore size (D), nm
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Relative pressure (p/p o)
Figure S1. Comparison of nitrogen sorption isotherms and pore size distributions (insets) ob-
tained for the spherical and deflated carbon capsules. For the deflated capsules the values of
2 3 -1
the BET surface area, total pore volume and mesopore volume are 2100 m /g, 2.26 cm .g and
3 -1
1.63 cm .g respectively. The textural data for the spherical carbon capsules (HC-C18) are listed
in Table 1.
242 S.I. Artículo VI: Valle-Vigón et al. Chem. Mater. 22 (2010) 2526 - 2533
a b
100 100 nm
1400 c
1200
STP/g)
1000
3
Adsorbed volume, (cm
800 3.5 nm
8
dV /dlog(D ), cm /g
4.3 nm
3
600 6
4
400
2
200 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Pore size (D), nm
0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Relative pressure (p/p o)
Figure S2. Comparison of the structural and textural properties of carbon capsules prepared
according to the procedure disclosed in this work (HC-C18) and by means of the conventional
methodology (HC-FA). (a) TEM image of HC-C18, (b) TEM image of HC-FA and (c) comparison of
the nitrogen sorption isotherms and pore size distribution (inset) for HC-C18 (open symbols)
and HC-FA (black symbols).
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono 243
5
100
4
95
85
2
80
1
75
70 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Temperature, ºC
Figure S3. Modification of the weight and weight loss rate during thermal treatment under
nitrogen atmosphere (Heating rate: 5 °C/min) for the hybrid organosilica sample (S-C18). The
amount of organic moiety decomposed is 22 wt % (in N2). No weight loss was detected when
the atmosphere was changed from N2 to air at 800 °C, which proves that the organic moiety
was totally decomposed under N2. Maximum weight loss rate occurred at 472 °C.
(002)
Intensity (a. u.)
(101)
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
2 Theta (º)
Figure S4. XRD pattern of the carbon capsules obtained by carbonization up to 800 °C.
6.3. Artículo VII
RSC Advances
www.rsc.org/advances PAPER
Magnetically Separable Carbon Capsules Loaded with Laccase and
their Application to Dye Degradation
A B S T R A C T
1;2
1. Introduction stances . Specifically, porous inorganic
capsules are of great interest because
Submicrometric hollow particles (cap- they combine a high permeability own-
sules) have recently attracted wide- ing to their porous shell with a good
spread attention due to the fact that chemical inertness and mechanical sta-
they combine a small and uniform size bility. The incorporation of a variety of
with the unique feature of providing a functionalities (i.e. magnetic, catalytic,
protected macroporous core suitable for electrochemical, etc.) to these hollow
encapsulating a large variety of sub- particles enhances their level of useful-
248 Artículo VII: Valle-Vigón and Fuertes. RSC Adv. 1 (2011) 1756 - 1762
3;4
ness. In particular, mesoporous car- for the adsorption of biomolecules.
12;22;23
bon capsules are important because In particular, we have demon-
they combine the above properties with strated the capacity of these magnetic
5-8
a good electronic conductivity. These carbon capsules to act as carriers for the
12;22
hollow carbon particles have also shown immobilization of lysozyme. In all of
themselves to be highly efficient as cata- these reports, the procedure used for
9-11
lytic supports. In this respect, we the synthesis of the carbon capsules is
recently reported the fabrication of complex as it requires several steps and
core@shell materials consisting of iron the involvement of foreign substances.
oxide nanoparticles confined within the Indeed, it entails infiltrating mesoporous
macroporous core of carbon capsules, silica nanospheres with a monomer
12
surrounded by a mesoporous shell. (i.e. furfuryl alcohol), which is subse-
This composite exhibited a high catalytic quently polymerized with aid of a cata-
performance in the heterogeneous Fen- lyst that has been previously deposited
13
ton process. within the silica pores. As an alternative
to this multistep conventional proce-
Mesoporous materials with silica, car- dure, we recently proposed a simpler
bon or polymeric frameworks have been synthetic route to obtain mesoporous
extensively employed as carriers for the carbon capsules, which employs the
manipulation of bulky biomolecules organic moiety from the porogen agent
(e.g. separation, adsorption, immobiliza- used to synthesize silica nanospheres as
14-16
tion or drug-delivery). In particular, unique carbon source. 24 This procedure
mesoporous hollow microparticles con- greatly simplifies the fabrication of mes-
stitute an ideal container for storing oporous carbon capsules. In the present
large amounts of biomolecules due to work, we explore the possibility of using
their unique structural properties, i.e. a the carbon capsules fabricated by this
large macroporous core and a mesopo- method as carriers for the manipulation
17;18
rous shell. In order for these hollow of biomolecules. To facilitate the separa-
particles to fulfil their role as substrates tion of these particles from the reaction
for immobilizing biomolecules, it is im- medium, magnetic nanoparticles
portant that they be easily separated (i.e. iron oxide spinel) were inserted into
from the reaction medium. This can be the mesoporous shell of the carbon
accomplished by the incorporation of capsules. This magnetic composite was
magnetic functionalities. Several exam- proved in relation to the immobilization
ples of the use of magnetic porous hol- of an enzyme (laccase). The following
low silica particles for this purpose can features were investigated: a) the struc-
19-21
be found in the literature. A few tural characteristics of the magnetic
reports also refer to the role of magnetic carbon capsules, b) the ability of the
mesoporous carbon capsules as carriers composites to immobilize laccase and c)
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono 249
samples. Nitrogen adsorption and de- the organic reagent (OR) was 10 wt %.
sorption isotherms were performed This value was used to calculate the
at -196 °C in a Micromeritics ASAP 2020 amount of enzyme immobilized. To im-
volumetric adsorption system. The BET mobilize the enzyme on the MHC parti-
surface area was calculated from the cles, around 10 mg of magnetic nano-
analysis of the sorption isotherm in the composite was dispersed at room tem-
relative pressure range of 0.04-0.20. The perature in 10 mL of laccase solution
total pore volume was calculated from (initial concentration 0.1 - 2.5 mg
-1
the amount of nitrogen adsorbed at a OR·mL ) prepared with 0.025 M sodium
relative pressure of 0.99. The pore size acetate buffer (pH 4.2). The adsorption
distribution (PSD) was calculated by experiments were carried out in closed
means of the Kruk-Jaroniec-Sayari vessels to avoid any evaporation, with
method. 29 The primary mesopore vol- continuous orbital stirring for 45 h. Sub-
ume (Vm) and external surface area (Sext) sequently, the MHC particles loaded
were estimated using the αs-plot meth- with laccase were separated by centrifu-
od. The reference adsorption data used gation and the solid was washed several
for the αs analysis of the carbon samples times with a buffer solution until no
correspond to a non-graphitized carbon protein was detected in the supernatant.
30
black sample. X-ray diffraction (XRD) The laccase-magnetic composite
patterns were obtained on a Siemens (Lc-MHC) was then stored in a fresh
D5000 instrument operating at 40 kV acetate buffer solution at 4 °C before
and 20 mA and using CuKa radiation use. To evaluate the amount of immobi-
(λ=0.15406 nm) source. Diffuse reflec- lized enzyme, the concentration of pro-
tance Fourier-Transform Infrared (FT-IR) tein in the solution was periodically
spectra were recorded on a Nicolet monitored by means of spectrophoto-
Magna-IR 560 spectrometer fitted with a metric measurements using Coomassie
diffuse reflection attachment. The Brilliant Blue purchased from Aldrich. 31
themogravimetric analysis was per- A calibration curve was constructed
formed in a CI Electronics system. employing several OR solutions with
-1
concentrations in the 0.1-2.5 mg·mL
2.3. Enzyme immobilization range. The adsorbed amount of OR/Lc
was deduced from the difference be-
A MHC magnetic composite was em- tween the amount of OR/Lc introduced
ployed to immobilize laccase from into the reaction mixture and the
Trametes versicolor. The organic reagent amount of OR/Lc found in the superna-
(OR) containing the pure enzyme was tant and washing solutions. Moreover,
purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. Accord- the OR/Lc loaded on the inorganic phase
ing to the information of the supplier, (MHC) was also determined by using
the pure enzyme content (Laccase, Lc) in TGA to calculate the weight loss result-
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono 251
ing from heating the hybrid composite was washed three times with a buffer
under nitrogen up to 500 °C. solution (3 x 10 mL).
-1
incorporation of inorganic nanoparticles tion value of 12.8 emu·g . The magnetic
(Figure 1c). The TEM image in Figure 1b properties of these nanocomposites are
shows the internal structure of a carbon exemplified in Figure 2c, which shows
capsule, which is formed by a porous that the MHC particles are easily sepa-
layer of thickness ~50 nm and a central rated from the liquid media by applying
macroporous core ~350 nm in diameter. of an external magnetic field. This mag-
The SEM microphotograph presented in netic separation occurs in a relative
Figure 1c reveals the presence of inor- short time (< 2 min).
ganic nanoparticles (white spots) depos-
ited on the outer surface of the carbon
capsules. These are clearly visible in the
TEM image in Figure 1d. This image re-
veals that the inorganic nanoparticles
are exclusively deposited on the porous
shell and that they only occupy a small
fraction of the porosity, the rest of the
pores remaining empty. Proof of the
formation of the ferrite iron oxide nano-
particles was obtained by X-ray diffrac-
tion. Thus, the XRD pattern in Figure 2a
reveals that these particles consist of
iron oxide spinel nanomagnets (magnet- Figure 2. (a) XRD pattern of the MHC sample.
(b) Field-dependent magnetization of MHC
ite@maghemite) and that they have a
particles at room temperature (inset: low-
size of around 18 nm, which was de- field magnetization). (c) Example of magnetic
duced by applying the Scherrer equation separation of the MHC capsules.
to the (311) diffraction peak. In general,
the crystallite sizes of the magnetic na- The textural characteristics of the porous
noparticles obtained by XRD are slightly carbon capsules and the corresponding
smaller than the diameters deduced by magnetic composites were examined by
TEM inspection, which suggests that means of nitrogen physisorption (Figure
ferrite nanoparticles are formed by the 3). The textural data are summarized in
aggregation of two or three crystallites. Table 1. The carbon capsules employed
The room-temperature magnetization to prepare these composites exhibit a
curve for the MHC particles was record- well developed porosity as is deduced
ed (see Figure 2b). As can be seen from from the nitrogen sorption isotherm in
the figure, this sample displays irreversi- Figure 3a. A capillary condensation step
ble magnetic behaviour (coercivity field is observed at p/po ~0.5 - 0.6 which
of 65 Oe as deduced from Figure evidences the presence of mesopores.
2b/inset) with a saturation magnetiza- These mesopores have a size in the
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono 253
1500
a b 4.3 nm
1250 HC 6
Adsorbed volume, cm3 STP·g-1
MHC
OR-MHC
-1
1000
dV/dlog(D), cm ·g
3
4
750
500 3.4 nm
2
250 3 nm
0 0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1 10 100
Relative pressure (p/po ) Pore size (D), nm
Figure 3. (a) Nitrogen adsorption isotherms and (b) pore size distributions of the carbon cap-
sules (HC), the magnetic nanocomposite (MHC) and the composite loaded with biomolecules
(OR-MHC).
Table 1. Textural properties of the hollow carbon (HC) particles, the iron oxide ferrite/carbon
capsule composite (MHC) and the composite after adsorption of the organic reagent (OR-MHC).
s-plot results
SBET Vp Pore size FWHM
Sample 2 -1 3 -1 a b c Vm Sext
(m .g ) (cm .g ) (nm) (nm) 3 -1 d 2 -1 e
(cm .g ) (m .g )
HC 1620 2.3 4.3 2.8 1.73 168
MHC 780 0.94 3.4 4.7 0.78 92
OR-MHC 160 0.3 3.0 4.8 0.18 63
a
Pore volume determined at p/po=0.99.
b
Maximum of the pore size distribution.
c
Full Width at Half Maximum of the pore size distribution.
d
Pore volume of structural mesopores.
e
External surface area.
254 Artículo VII: Valle-Vigón and Fuertes. RSC Adv. 1 (2011) 1756 - 1762
-1
Equilibrium concentration, mg ·mL
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
700
125 1050
a b
-1
Amount of adsorbed OR, mg·g-1
Figure 4. (a) Variation of the amount of OR adsorbed with time at different initial concentra-
tions of adsorbate. (b) Adsorption isotherms for the OR adsorbate and pure laccase over MHC
(20 °C, pH = 4.2). Solid lines in Figure 4b represent the best fit of experimental data to the
Langmuir model.
of adsorbed OR and the obtained results means of the Langmuir model. The solid
(see Figure S-2 in Supporting Infor- lines in Figure 4b correspond to the best
mation) confirm those achieved by fit of the Langmuir equation. This ad-
means of the UV-vis technique. justment allows us to estimate the max-
imum amount of laccase that can be
The kinetics of the adsorption of OR on
adsorbed (monolayer adsorption capaci-
the MHC sample is illustrated in -1
ty) is 140 mg Lc·g . In comparison to
Figure 4a. It can be seen that the immo-
other mesoporous magnetic supports
bilization process is relatively fast, and
reported in the literature, the magnetic
that the equilibrium of adsorption is
carbon capsules presented here provide
achieved in ~20 h in all cases. Figure 4b
a higher laccase immobilization uptake
shows the equilibrium adsorption iso-
(see Table S-1 in Supporting Infor-
therms for the OR/Lc-MHC system at
mation). This large immobilization capac-
20 °C and pH 4.2. It can be seen that the
ity can be attributed to the macroporous
maximum amount of OR adsorbed on
core that acts as a nano-container allow-
the magnetic carbon capsules is
ing a higher amount of enzyme to be
~1000 mg·g-1 of support. Taking into
stored in comparison to other more
account the percentage of pure laccase
conventional mesoporous supports.
in the organic reagent (OR), the adsorp-
tion isotherm for this enzyme is also To examine the structure of the im-
represented Figure 4b. The adsorption mobilized laccase, FT-IR analysis was
equilibrium data were adjusted by conducted on the pure laccase and Lc-
256 Artículo VII: Valle-Vigón and Fuertes. RSC Adv. 1 (2011) 1756 - 1762
-1
MHC system (Figure 5). Table S-2 (Sup- 815 cm also appear in the IR spectrum
porting Information) shows the IR fe- of the Lc-MHC sample. These results
quencies associated to the functional show that the secondary structure of the
groups of proteins. 38 laccase remains unchanged, indicating
that the intrinsic properties of the ad-
sorbed enzyme (e.g. catalytic activity)
A
are preserved.
Transmittance, a.u.
80
degradation activity was observed (i.e. ~
60
3 % for AG25 and ~ 7 % for RBBR). In the
case of the AG25 dye after eight cycles a
40 loss of only ~ 5 % of activity was detect-
AG 25 ed.
20 RBBR
Moreover, the activity of the immobi-
0 lized laccase remained stable after long
0 5 10 15 20 25 storage times and after two months the
Time, h loss of activity was < 10 % (see Figure S-3
Figure 6. Dye degradation profiles over the in Supporting Information). These results
Lc-MHC biocatalyst as a function of time. indicate that the laccase immobilized on
magnetic supports exhibits excellent
-1
7.3 µmol AG25·mg Lc and 9 µmol reusability and that the activity of the
-1
RBBR·mg Lc. Obviously, these values immobilized enzyme is preserved even
are lower than those measured for the after long storage times. Figures 7a and
-1
free enzyme (i.e. 16 µmol AG25·mg Lc 7b show the percentages of dye re-
-1
and 12.8 µmol RBBR·mg Lc). However, moved via adsorption by the MHC sup-
it must be pointed out that, unlike im- port over several cycles. It can be seen
mobilized laccase, the free enzyme is that the adsorption process is consider-
difficult to recover for reutilization pur- ably less effective than the biocatalytic
poses. As an example, the degradation degradation by means of Lc-MHC. What
of the AG25 dye is illustrated in Fig- is more, the adsorption capacity of the
ure S-3 (Supporting Information). It is magnetic support disappears after 3 or 4
worth mentioning that the degradation cycles. These results demonstrate that
of the dyes by the Lc-MHC biocatalyst Lc-MHC is much more effective in elimi-
does not require any external mediator nating dyes than the MHC sample. An-
which is remarkably advantageous. For other advantage of the Lc-MHC biocata-
practical purposes however, it is im- lyst is that it can be magnetically sepa-
portant that the biocatalyst system rated. Thus, Figure 7 illustrates a typical
(Lc-MHC) possess not only a high catalyt- dye degradation experiment by means
ic activity, but also that this activity be of the Lc-MHC system and its separation.
preserved even after multiple cycles. In It can be seen that once the dye degra-
order to determine whether this is the dation has taken place, the catalytic
case, we examined the degradation particles are easily and quickly (< 2 min)
258 Artículo VII: Valle-Vigón and Fuertes. RSC Adv. 1 (2011) 1756 - 1762
Figure 7. Reusability of laccase immobilized over magnetic carbon capsules in relation to the
degradation of: a) AG 25 and b) RBBR (Reaction time: 2 h). Grey columns correspond to catalytic
degradation by means of Lc-MHC, and the black ones to the adsorption of dye on the MHC
magnetic composite. c) Image of the sequence of a RBBR degradation reaction: (I) RBBR solu-
tion, (II) after addition of Lc-MHC particles and (III) magnetic separation of Lc-MHC particles.
recovered from the reaction medium by The unique structure of the magnetic
applying an external magnet. hollow carbon particles allows the im-
mobilization of a large amount of laccase
4. Conclusions -1
(100 mg·g of support), which is intro-
In summary, we have illustrated a simple duced into the mesopores of the shell
synthetic procedure for fabricating mag- and the macroporous core. The magnet-
netic carbon capsules (diameter ic nanocomposite loaded with laccase
~ 440 nm) made up of a macroporous was successfully applied to degrade two
core surrounded by a mesoporous shell dyes: Acid Green 25 and Remazol Bril-
(thickness ~50 nm), containing iron oxide liant Blue R. The Lc-MHC biocatalyst
spinel nanoparticles inside the pores. In exhibited a good performance in the
spite of the presence of the inorganic degradation of both dyes (80 % of the
phase, a large fraction of the porosity of dyes were degraded in ~ 1 h). Moreover,
the composite remains unfilled. it was found that the catalytic activity of
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono 259
18. Y. Zhao, L. N. Lin, Y. Lu, S. F. Chen, L. 30. M. Kruk, M. Jaroniec, and K. P. Gad-
Dong, and S. H. Yu, Advanced Mate- karee, Journal of Colloid and Inter-
rials, 2010, 22, 5255. face Science, 1997, 192, 250.
19. J. Kim, J. E. Lee, J. Lee, J. H. Yu, B. C. 31. M. E. Corman, N. Oezturk, N. Bereli,
Kim, K. An, Y. Hwang, C. H. Shin, J. G. S. Akgol, and A. Denizli, Journal of
Park, J. Kim, and T. Hyeon, Journal of Molecular Catalysis B-Enzymatic,
the American Chemical Society, 2010, 63, 102.
2005, 128, 688.
32. K. Piontek, M. Antorini, and T.
20. W. Zhao, H. Chen, Y. Li, L. Li, M. Choinowski, Journal of Biological
Lang, and J. Shi, Advanced Function- Chemistry, 2002, 277, 37663.
al Materials, 2008, 18, 2780.
33. A. A. Leontievsky, T. Vares, P. Lank-
21. Y. Zhu, E. Kockrick, T. Ikoma, N. inen, J. K. Shergill, N. N. Pozdnyako-
Hanagata, and S. Kaskel, Chemistry va, N. M. Myasoedova, N. Kalkkinen,
of Materials, 2009, 21, 2547. L. A. Golovleva, R. Cammack, C. F.
Thurston, and A. Hatakka, FEMS Mi-
22. A. B. Fuertes, T. Valdes-Solis, M.
crobiology Letters, 1997, 156, 9.
Sevilla, and P. Tartaj, Journal of
Physical Chemistry C, 2008, 112, 34. N. N. Pozdnyakova, J. Rodakiewicz-
3648. Nowak, and O. V. Turkovskaya, Jour-
nal of Molecular Catalysis B-
23. L. Guo, X. Cui, Y. Li, Q. He, L. Zhang,
Enzymatic, 2004, 30, 19.
W. Bu, and J. Shi, Chemistry - An
Asian Journal, 2009, 4, 1480. 35. G. Bayramoglu and M. Y. Arica, Ma-
terials Science & Engineering C-
24. P. Valle-Vigón, M. Sevilla, and A. B.
Materials for Biological Applications,
Fuertes, Chemistry of Materials,
2010, 22, 2526. 2009, 29, 1990.
36. A. Vinu, V. Murugesan, and M.
25. V. Madhavi and S. S. Lele, BioRe-
Hartmann, Journal of Physical Chem-
sources, 2009, 4, 1694.
istry B, 2004, 108, 7323.
26. S. Witayakran and A. Ragauskas,
37. T. Valdés-Solís, A. F. Rebolledo, M.
Advanced Synthesis & Catalysis,
2009, 351, 1187. Sevilla, A. B. Fuertes, P. Valle-Vigón,
O. Bomati-Miguel, and P. Tartaj,
27. G. Büchel, K. K. Unger, A. Matsumo- Chemistry of Materials, 2009, 21,
to, and K. Tsutsumi, Advanced Mate- 1806.
rials, 1998, 10, 1036.
38. J. Kong and S. Yu, Acta Biochimica et
28. A. Bourlinos, A. Simopoulos, D. Biophysica Sinica, 2007, 39, 549.
Petridis, H. Okumura, and G.
39. A. Barth, Biochimica et Biophysica
Hadjipanayis, Advanced Materials,
Acta (BBA) - Bioenergetics, 2007,
2001, 13, 289.
1767, 1073.
29. M. Kruk, M. Jaroniec, and A. Sayari,
Langmuir, 1997, 13, 6267.
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono 261
RSC Advances:
Figure S-3. UV-vis spectrum of Acid Green 25 before and after degradation by
S3
immobilized laccase.
Table S-1. Textural properties of several magnetic supports and their corre-
S4
sponding amounts of immobilized laccase.
600
100
500
90
Temperature, ºC
400
Weight, %
80 34.2 %
300
70 200
60 100
50 0
0 100 200 300
Time, min
Figure S-3. UV-vis spectrum of Acid Green 25 (AG 25) solution (initial concentration of
-1
0.65 mg·mL ) before (solid line) and after (dotted line) degradation by the laccase immobilized
on magnetic carbon capsules. Inset: image of AG 25 solution before (t=0) and after the degrada-
tion process (t= 40 min).
100
80
Dye degradation, %
60
40
20
0
1 40 55
Time, days
Figure S-4. Activity of immobilized laccase after long storage times. The dye employed in these
experiments was AG 25.
264 S.I. Artículo VII: Valle-Vigón and Fuertes. RSC Adv. 1 (2011) 1756 - 1762
Table S-1. Textural properties of several magnetic supports and their corresponding
amounts of immobilized laccase.
Pore Adsorption
SBET Pore size
Immobilization support 2 -1 volume capacity Reference
(m ·g ) 3 -1 (nm) -1
(cm ·g ) (mg·g )
Magnetic mesoporous carbon
780 0.94 3.4 100 This work
capsules
Magnetic mesoporous silica Zhu et al.
421 0.63 24.7 82
spheres (2007)
Magnetic mesoporous silica Wang et al.
580 2.14 14.5 73
nanoparticles (2010)
- Zhu, Y.; Kaskel, S.; Shi, J.; Wage, T.; van Pée, K. H., Immobilization of Trametes versicolor
Laccase on Magnetically Separable Mesoporous Silica Spheres. Chem. Mater. 2007, 19 (26),
6408-6413.
- Wang, F.; Guo, C.; Yang, L.-R.; Liu, C.-Z., Magnetic mesoporous silica nanoparticles: Fabrica-
tion and their laccase immobilization performance. Bioresour. Technol. 2010, 101 (23),
8931-8935.
Table S-2. Characteristic infrared bands of proteins (J. Kong and S. Yu, Acta Biochimica
et Biophysica Sinica, 2007, 39, 549).
Approximate
Designation −1 Description
frequency (cm )
Amide A 3300 NH stretching
Amide B 3100 NH stretching
Amide I 1600−1690 C=O stretching
Amide II 1480−1575 CN stretching, NH bending
Amide III 1229−1301 CN stretching, NH bending
Amide IV 625−767 OCN bending
Amide V 640−800 Out-of-plane NH bending
Amide VI 537−606 Out-of-plane C=O bending
Conclusiones
Generales
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono y sus derivados 267
Conclusiones Generales
En este trabajo se han investigado diversas estrategias de síntesis de
materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice-carbono. Los materiales obtenidos
se han empleado como plataforma para la fabricación de materiales porosos
de carbono con propiedades avanzadas. Asimismo, se han investigado
diferentes vías de funcionalización de los composites y materiales de carbono
obtenidos, y finalmente, se ha analizado su aplicación en procesos de
inmovilización de biomoléculas, eliminación de colorantes, adsorción de
metales pesados y catálisis ácida heterogénea.
Bibliografía
[1] H. Marsh, F. Rodríguez Reinoso, Activated carbon, Elsevier,
Amsterdam 2006.
[2] D.W. Breck, Zeolite molecular sieves: structure, chemistry, and use,
John Wiley & Sons, New York 1974.
[5] J.S. Beck, J.C. Vartuli, W.J. Roth, M.E. Leonowicz, C.T. Kresge, K.D.
Schmitt, C.T.W. Chu, D.H. Olson, E.W. Sheppard, A new family of
mesoporous molecular sieves prepared with liquid crystal templates,
Journal of the American Chemical Society, 114 (1992) 10834-10843.
[10] C.T. Kresge, M.E. Leonowicz, W.J. Roth, J.C. Vartuli, J.S. Beck, Ordered
mesoporous molecular sieves synthesized by a liquid-crystal template
mechanism, Nature, 359 (1992) 710-712.
[12] F. Kleitz, S. Hei Choi, R. Ryoo, Cubic Ia3d large mesoporous silica:
synthesis and replication to platinum nanowires, carbon nanorods and
carbon nanotubes, Chemical Communications, (2003) 2136-2137.
[15] J.A. Melero, R. van Grieken, G. Morales, Advances in the Synthesis and
Catalytic Applications of Organosulfonic-Functionalized
Mesostructured Materials, Chemical Reviews, 106 (2006) 3790-3812.
[17] X.S. Zhao, G.Q. Lu, Modification of MCM-41 by Surface Silylation with
Trimethylchlorosilane and Adsorption Study, The Journal of Physical
Chemistry B, 102 (1998) 1556-1561.
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono y sus derivados 277
[18] X.S. Zhao, Q. Ma, G.Q. Lu, VOC Removal: Comparison of MCM-41 with
Hydrophobic Zeolites and Activated Carbon, Energy & Fuels, 12 (1998)
1051-1054.
[19] P.M. Price, J.H. Clark, D.J. Macquarrie, Modified silicas for clean
technology, J. Chem. Soc., Dalton Trans., (2000) 101-110.
[21] A.S. Maria Chong, X.S. Zhao, Functionalization of SBA-15 with APTES
and Characterization of Functionalized Materials, The Journal of
Physical Chemistry B, 107 (2003) 12650-12657.
[35] M.T. Gilbert, J.H. Knox, B. Kaur, Porous glassy carbon, a new columns
packing material for gas chromatography and high-performance liquid
chromatography, Chromatographia, 16 (1982) 138-146.
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono y sus derivados 279
[36] X.S. Zhao, F. Su, Q. Yan, W. Guo, X.Y. Bao, L. Lv, Z. Zhou, Templating
methods for preparation of porous structures, Journal of Materials
Chemistry, 16 (2006) 637-648.
[38] R. Ryoo, S.H. Joo, S. Jun, Synthesis of highly ordered carbon molecular
sieves via template-mediated structural transformation, Journal of
Physical Chemistry B, 103 (1999) 7743-7746.
[43] S.H. Joo, S.J. Choi, I. Oh, J. Kwak, Z. Liu, O. Terasaki, R. Ryoo, Ordered
nanoporous arrays of carbon supporting high dispersions of platinum
nanoparticles, Nature, 412 (2001) 169-172.
[57] P. Serp, J.L. Figueiredo, Carbon materials for catalysis, Wiley, New
Jersey, 2009.
[59] Y.F. Jia, B. Xiao, K.M. Thomas, Adsorption of Metal Ions on Nitrogen
Surface Functional Groups in Activated Carbons, Langmuir, 18 (2001)
470-478.
[60] H.I. Lee, S.H. Joo, J.H. Kim, D.J. You, J.M. Kim, J.N. Park, H. Chang, C.
Pak, Ultrastable Pt nanoparticles supported on sulfur-containing
ordered mesoporous carbon via strong metal-support interaction,
Journal of Materials Chemistry, 19 (2009) 5934-5939.
[61] Y. Shin, G.E. Fryxell, W. Um, K. Parker, S.V. Mattigod, R. Skaggs, Sulfur-
Functionalized Mesoporous Carbon, Advanced Functional Materials,
17 (2007) 2897-2901.
[65] R. Liu, Y. Shi, Y. Wan, Y. Meng, F. Zhang, D. Gu, Z. Chen, B. Tu, D. Zhao,
Triconstituent Co-assembly to Ordered Mesostructured Polymer-Silica
and Carbon-Silica Nanocomposites and Large-Pore Mesoporous
Carbons with High Surface Areas, Journal of the American Chemical
Society, 128 (2006) 11652-11662.
[67] J.B. Pang, V.T. John, D.A. Loy, Z.Z. Yang, Y.F. Lu, Hierarchical
mesoporous carbon/silica nanocomposites from phenyl-bridged
organosilane, Advanced Materials, 17 (2005) 704-707.
[74] S.B. Yoon, J.Y. Kim, J.-S. Yu, A direct template synthesis of nanoporous
carbons with high mechanical stability using as-synthesized MCM-48
hosts, Chemical Communications, (2002) 1536-1537.
[76] B.L.A. Prabhavathi Devi, K.N. Gangadhar, P.S. Sai Prasad, B. Jagannadh,
R.B.N. Prasad, A Glycerol-based Carbon Catalyst for the Preparation of
Biodiesel, ChemSusChem, 2 (2009) 617-620.
[79] Y. Liu, J. Chen, J. Yao, Y. Lu, L. Zhang, X. Liu, Preparation and properties
of sulfonated carbon-silica composites from sucrose dispersed on
MCM-48, Chemical Engineering Journal, 148 (2009) 201-206.
[88] W.M. Zhang, J.S. Hu, Y.G. Guo, S.F. Zheng, L.S. Zhong, W.G. Song, L.J.
Wan, Tin-nanoparticles encapsulated in elastic hollow carbon spheres
for high-performance anode material in lithium-ion batteries,
Advanced Materials, 20 (2008) 1160-1165.
[89] Y. Yin, R.M. Rioux, C.K. Erdonmez, S. Hughes, G.A. Somorjai, A.P.
Alivisatos, Formation of Hollow Nanocrystals through the Nanoscale
Kirkendall Effect, Science, 304 (2004) 711-714.
[92] D. Zhao, Q. Huo, J. Feng, B.F. Chmelka, G.D. Stucky, Nonionic Triblock
and Star Diblock Copolymer and Oligomeric Surfactant Syntheses of
Highly Ordered, Hydrothermally Stable, Mesoporous Silica Structures,
Journal of the American Chemical Society, 120 (1998) 6024-6036.
[98] S.B. Yoon, K. Sohn, J.Y. Kim, C.H. Shin, J.S. Yu, T. Hyeon, Fabrication of
carbon capsules with hollow macroporous core/mesoporous shell
structures, Advanced Materials, 14 (2002) 19-21.
[104] P. Scherrer, Bestimmung der Größe und der inneren Struktur von
Kolloidteilchen mittels Röntgenstrahlen Göttinger Nachrichten, 2
(1918) 98-100.
Síntesis de materiales mesoporosos compuestos sílice/carbono y sus derivados 287
[108] H.P. Boehm, Some aspects of the surface chemistry of carbon blacks
and other carbons, Carbon, 32 (1994) 759-769.
[115] P.A. Bazula, A.H. Lu, J.-J. Nitz, F. Schüth, Surface and pore structure
modification of ordered mesoporous carbons via a chemical oxidation
approach, Microporous and Mesoporous Materials, 108 (2008) 266-
275.
[118] R. Xing, Y. Liu, Y. Wang, L. Chen, H. Wu, Y. Jiang, M. He, P. Wu, Active
solid acid catalysts prepared by sulfonation of carbonization-
controlled mesoporous carbon materials, Microporous and
Mesoporous Materials, 105 (2007) 41-48.
[120] X. Wang, R. Liu, M.M. Waje, Z. Chen, Y. Yan, K.N. Bozhilov, P. Feng,
Sulfonated Ordered Mesoporous Carbon as a Stable and Highly Active
Protonic Acid Catalyst, Chemistry of Materials, 19 (2007) 2395-2397.
[123] J.R. Pels, F. Kapteijn, J.A. Moulijn, Q. Zhu, K.M. Thomas, Evolution of
nitrogen functionalities in carbonaceous materials during pyrolysis,
Carbon, 33 (1995) 1641-1653.
[126] K.Y. Ho, G. McKay, K.L. Yeung, Selective Adsorbents from Ordered
Mesoporous Silica, Langmuir, 19 (2003) 3019-3024.
[134] T.M. Abdel-Fattah, S.M.S. Haggag, M.E. Mahmoud, Heavy metal ions
extraction from aqueous media using nanoporous silica, Chemical
Engineering Journal, 175 (2011) 117-123.
[135] G.D. Yadav, M.B. Thathagar, Esterification of maleic acid with ethanol
over cation-exchange resin catalysts, Reactive and Functional
Polymers, 52 (2002) 99-110.
[139] R.K. Iler, The chemistry of silica: solubility, polymerization, colloid and
surface properties, and biochemistry, John Wiley & Sons, New York
1979.
[141] C.H. Lee, T.S. Lin, C.Y. Mou, Mesoporous materials for encapsulating
enzymes, Nano Today, 4 (2009) 165-179.
[145] F. Wang, C. Guo, L.-R. Yang, C.-Z. Liu, Magnetic mesoporous silica
nanoparticles: Fabrication and their laccase immobilization
performance, Bioresource Technology, 101 (2010) 8931-8935.