Waves and Wave Travel For The Musician

Waves and Wave Travel for the Musician
Grace College
24 April 2010
Toby Chin
CPO 300
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Imagine yourself sitting in an old, gothic cathedral in Europe. As part of a special musical
tour, a small vocal ensemble of eight gathers at the crossing, where the altar is located. Without
any assistance of an amplification system, the group begins a moving performance of “Kyrie
Eleison.” As the piece crescendos and diminuendos, becomes louder again, and finally ends in a
powerful unison chord, every word of the group is clearly understood and seems to ring in the
old cathedral. The cathedral, including the walls, floor, and ceiling become part of the music, and
part of the ensemble. These old cathedrals are wonderful examples of acoustics that are
appreciated, noticed, and commented upon. That being said, there is a great deal more to
acoustics than reverberation in a space such as a cathedral.
However, acoustics is probably one of the least researched fields by musicians and the
public in general, and—consequently—is probably the least understood. Of course, there are
people that have a definite passion for acoustics and study it rather intensely. If musicians—
indeed, most people—can understand how sound travels, they can understand how various rooms
and scenarios affect each listening experience and make it unique. A few facets of this deficit in
many people’s understanding are a lack of education, a readiness of information, and the passing
on of that information. Many people do not understand acoustics: what sound waves are, how the
waves travel, or when they are absorbed or reflected.
There is a wealth of information about acoustics but that information is not necessarily
readily available nor is it in a format that can easily be understood by an “average Joe” who has
no technical or engineering background. Due to an increase in the use of sound systems and a
desire for bigger and better systems (in turn more complex sound systems), an increasing number
of people have researched acoustics and sound systems at a very deep level. Some of these
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people are the staff of Syn-Aud-Con (a professional training and certification company) and the
Audio Engineering Society (AES). Working technical professionals in companies like
Lectrosonics, Shure, EV, Meyer Sound, Auralex Acoustics, Renkus-Heinz, and others also
contribute to the ever growing library of written materials. Their research does not really impact
the average musician. As the demand of these materials increases, so will the supply. The
educational materials these people release have to do mainly with sound systems. Much of their
training materials proved helpful in the preparation of this presentation even though the materials
do not directly address acoustics.
And for those who are more serious about studying acoustics, all large universities offer
courses that allow for a deeper exploration of acoustics. However, it is very difficult to be a
major in these programs and once accepted, it is a tough road to graduation. Many of the
programs that are most highly regarded in the field are at universities such as Penn State.
However, many of these universities only offer Masters or Doctoral degrees in acoustics, but do
not offer professional licensing. This paper and the accompanying presentation is not meant to be
a definitive resource for musicians who desire a deep study of acoustics. Rather, these are meant
to raise curiosity in the audience and to provide a basic understanding of the field of acoustics. It
will also generate a sense of importance and a desire in the musician to further his knowledge of
acoustics.
So, what is sound? In Donald Hall’s book, “Musical Acoustics,” he states that sound is
“the sensation of hearing or the air disturbance that causes it”1 . The following age old question
can finally be answered. “If a tree falls in the forest and no one is present to hear it, does it still
1 Donald E. Hall, Musical Acoustics: An Introduction (Belmont, CA,1980), 1.

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make a sound?” According to Hall’s definition and to the best working knowledge of this author,
yes, the falling tree still makes a sound because there is a disturbance of sound waves in the air
and it does not matter if anyone was there to hear the tree fall. The disturbance of the air is the
sound, not the mere sensation of sound. A person’s perception of sound is immaterial as to
whether or not the sound really existed or not. A person who has a working auditory sense can
testify that there was indeed a sound. On the other hand, a deaf person does not have his auditory
sense and would say that there is no sound when in fact there actually was a measurable sound.
Yet another scenario to contemplate: auditory hallucinations. A person believes he heard a sound
that was not present, even though he had “perceived” it. Therefore a true sound or noise can be
mechanically measured and can be humanly observed as well.
What exactly causes the disturbances in the air? Sound waves traveling through the air
are the disturbances. A good way to envision this is to think of a slinky. Slinky’s create two forms
of waves, much like the sound waves traveling through air. These forms are longitudinal and
transverse waves. Longitudinal waves compress against each other, propelling the waves before
them, and thus pushing the waves to their destination. Transverse waves travel side to side, and
this is what we perceive as amplitude, or loudness.
It may yet be unclear as to what causes the disturbances in the air. So, getting back to the
question with a more scientific explanation, energy is exerted upon the particles nearest the
source of the sound. As the volume of the sound increases, so does the number of particles
affected. The particles nearest the source of the noise bump against the next particle and so on
until the disturbance, or sound, reaches your ears. This process can span a great distance—miles
—if the source exerts enough energy (or is loud enough).

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Think back to the slinky. When the slinky is pushed, the coils on side A compress against
the coils away from where the energy was first exerted, or towards side B. The coils then return
to their original position. This continues to the end of the slinky, where the coils may stop. If the
coils have enough kinetic energy, they may double back on themselves and return toward the
Side B Figure 1 Side A
side that was originally pushed. This simple representation is a good representation of sound that
went straight into a wall and had enough energy to bounce off the wall and head back toward the
source. Of course, sound is much more complicated than pushing a slinky in that it does not
travel in such a straight line. The analogy of the slinky, however, is a good basic understanding
of how sound waves travel2 .
If the waves do not travel in straight paths, then how do they travel? Think about when a
crowd of people are together and one person is addressing the group. Even though the speaker is
not directly facing each individual member of the audience, the entire group can more or less
hear what the speaker is saying. A person is better able to hear and understand the speaker when
the speaker is directly facing him. There are several factors at play here3 . Sound spreads out at

3 Sound waves are much larger than we originally imagine. Further explanation of this particular case is covered in a
following section. Also, factors such as reflection, refraction, and diffraction are at play. These will also be discussed
later.
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much greater angles than we may originally think. For example, loudspeakers can “bleed” sound
outside of their specified angle of coverage. Many loudspeakers throw sound at about a 60° total
coverage area (30° to either side of the center axis of the speaker). If someone is sitting outside
of the 60° coverage area, he will still hear whatever is being amplified, but not with optimal
quality or clarity. There are many reasons for this, some of which are covered below.
Pitch and loudness have been touched upon briefly but a closer inspection is beneficial.
First is that which is perceived as pitch. Pitch is the common term for musical notes or relative
highness or lowness of a sound. Pitch is also synonymous with the more technical term
frequency. Pitch is often referred to in terms of treble, midrange (mids), and bass. Treble is what
we perceive as high pitches (above a soprano or violin). Mids are pitches between treble and
bass, just as the name suggests. A person’s average speaking pitch is a low-mid pitch. Bass is the
range of low pitches such as the low thump of a kick drum or the low notes from a bass guitar
that you may feel in your chest. 4
For a more simple explanation: imagine a rope, held by two people. One person moves
their end of the rope up and down in a steady fashion. What happens? Sine waves are created
throughout the length of the rope. Now, if that person moves his end of the rope faster, more
waves are created. What has just been illustrated is that they have gone from a lower frequency
to a higher frequency. In other words: from a lower pitch to a higher pitch. But, the length of the
rope did not change. This is important to realize because it is also a demonstration of how all
sound travels at the same speed5.
4 Gary Davis and Ralph Jones, Sound Reinforcement Handbook (Buena Park, CA, 1989), 15-16.
5The Speed of sound is influenced by several things, as will be discussed later, but in a very controlled environment,
all pitches travel at the same speed.
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Another way of understanding frequency (pitch) is to understand the following formula: t
= 1/f where t is time and f is frequency. At first glance, it may be difficult to realize how this
formula helps to understand frequency. As stated above, sound is measured by how many cycles6
occur in one second (how many waves are created in the rope), which the “1” in the formula
represents (the length of the rope). Then, if you know either the frequency or time it takes for one
cycle, you can solve for the unknown. An equation representing 2 Hz is as follows:
Example 1: t (seconds) = 1 / 2 Hz
t = .5 seconds
What this demonstrates is that every .5 seconds, the wave repeats. Now, take another
look, this time at 440 Hz.
Example 2: t (seconds) = 1 / 440 Hz
t = 0.0022727... seconds
So, in this first examination of pitch and sound waves, we see that the pitch rises as the
frequency of cycles per second also rises, thereby affirming what we know to be true.
Consequently, as the frequency of the waves decreases, the pitch goes down.
As the amplitude of a wave increases or decreases, the relative loudness also increases or
decreases, respectively. Loudness is measured in decibels. The decibel is a logarithmic function.
So, for every rise of ten decibels, there is a doubling in perceived loudness. The threshold of
hearing (e.g. a young person with no hearing loss) is 0 dB SPL. So, this is the level of perceived
absolute silence7. Appendix A has a more complete listing, but here is a brief look at what a
6 Cycle: Every time the sine wave repeats

7 Gary Davis and Ralph Jones, Sound Reinforcement Handbook (Buena Park, CA, 1989), 25-26.
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couple decibel levels are: 70 dB SPL is an average volume conversation at three feet and 100 dB
SPL would be a gas lawn mower at about three feet away.
The Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OSHA) has some requirements
about volume levels that are safe for people to work or be in. What does safe or unsafe mean
though? When prolonged noise levels cause hearing loss 8, the environment is deemed unsafe at
some level. For example, OSHA’s website states, “Employers must provide hearing protectors to
all workers exposed to [an] 8-hour [Time Weighted Average] noise levels of 85 dB or above.”9
Because a doubling of that volume is 95 dB SPL, at 95 dB SPL, the noise level is then only safe
for four hours—half the time. This math continues to hold true and at 115 dB SPL, permanent
hearing loss takes place in just a few minutes. Should these levels or time frames be exceeded, it
is the lawful responsibility of whatever organization is responsible for the event or work to
provide hearing protection to whomever is subjected to these levels, as previously stated.
Unfortunately, due to a lack of understanding about noise levels and a lack of test equipment to
monitor these levels, these laws are difficult for organizations to follow and for OSHA to
enforce.
So, we know we need to protect our hearing and we know what levels are unsafe, but dB
are still somewhat abstract as it relates to music. What are some common levels of instruments or
ensembles? One music and acoustic enthusiast wrote about an experience he had at a violin and
piano recital performed by Yuri Cho and Michael Tan. He had an SPL meter (a measurement
device to determine loudness in dB SPL) and sat about 15 feet from the performers in Merkin
8 Temporary hearing loss usually results in permanent damage. So to say that the hearing loss was temporary may be
true, there are almost always permanent ramifications that go with temporary hearing loss.
9Occupational Safety and Health Administration, Hearing Conversation (Washington DC: OSHA, 2002), http://
www.osha.gov/Publications/OSHA3074/osha3074.html (accessed March 21, 2010).
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Concert Hall in New York. During the first half of the recital, he recorded an average of 70 dB
and peaks of 89 dB.10 Though these levels are not astonishing, they are incredible in that it is
only a violin and a piano. These instruments are not necessarily known for being especially loud.
What about an orchestra? How loud can that be? Jürgen Meyer wrote an article for the AES and
recorded levels for individual instruments as well as for the entire ensemble of 49 players. The
dynamic range of this orchestra was anywhere from 60 dB up to 118 dB (Figure 2)11. Of course,
the higher levels are not sustained for very long and should probably not be terribly worrisome.
However, it is possible to have hearing damage from orchestral playing or listening.
Figure 2
Sound is often represented by a sine wave, which is the most succinct and simple
representation of a sound wave. In Figures 3 and 4, the x-axis represents time and the y-axis
represents amplitude (loudness). Every time the figure repeats is one cycle, or 1 Hz. Moreover,
the number of repetitions per second is the pitch. So, in Figure 3, the sound that is represented is
10 Alan
Lofft, “The Decibel (dB) and the Violin/Piano Recital,” Axiom Audio, http://forum.ecoustics.com/bbs/
messages/34579/489484.html (accessed March 23, 2010).
11Jürgen Meyer, “The Sound of the Orchestra,” Journal of the Audio Engineering Society 41, no. 4 (April 1993):
210-211.
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1 Hz because the wave crosses the x-axis on every mark that is a multiple of 1. If the frequency
were to double, it would be 2 Hz (Figure 4). If the cycle repeated 440 times per second, the
sound’s pitch would be 440 Hz, or a standard ‘A’ to tune an orchestra. To understand this a little
easier, think back to the rope example.
Figures 3 and 4 are good ways to think
of a pure tone. A pure tone is only one
frequency, with no overtones or other
frequencies imposed on the sound.

Figure 3
X = Time Speech and other sounds become much
Y = Amplitude
more complicated much more quickly.
This complication can be understood by
studying overtones. Because this
presentation is mean to only prompt
curiosity and provide a basic

Figure 4
X = Time
understanding, overtones will not be
Y = Amplitude
covered in this discussion.
Before we consider the next facet of sound wave travel, we must understand the speed
and physical size of sound waves. Sound waves move at 344 meters per second12. The equation
to find the size of a wave, or wavelength, is13:
Wavelength (in meters) = 344 meters per second/ frequency (Hertz)
12 Since most of physics, science, and engineering uses the metric measurement system, this paper will also follow
that format for ease of referencing with other sources.
13 Pat Brown, “Investigating Standing Sound Waves,” Syn-Aud-Con Tech Topic 28, no. 3 (Summer 2000): 1.
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In the examples below, an 80 Hz wave is examined. Figuring out the size of an 80 Hz
wave is a relatively easy process.
Example 3: ! (wavelength) = 344 meters per second / 80 cycles per second
! = 4.3 meters
Now, a look at the pitch ‘A’ (440 Hz) that an orchestra may tune to.
Example 4: ! (wavelength) = 344 meters per second / 440 cycles per second
! = 0.7818 meters
! = 78.18 centimeters
These two wavelength distances are equivalent to 14.108 feet and 2.56 feet respectively.
So, as is quickly seen, as the frequency rises, the wavelength decreases.
Another important consideration in wave travel is the speed of sound. The speed of sound
can be expressed by the following equation: v20 = 344 m/s (1130 feet per second)14 where v is the
speed of sound. The caveat is that this is the speed of sound through dry air at room temperature,
20ºC (68ºF).
As we can begin to see, there are three elements that influence the speed of sound: 1)
material (vapors, etc.), 2) humidity, and 3) temperature. Sound travels in different paths and at
different speeds when one of these variables is changed. For example, sound will travel faster
through humid air than through dry air. 15 Also, the correlative relationship that temperature has

15 Dennis Bohn, “Environmental Effects on the Speed of Sound,” Journal of the Audio Engineering Society 36, vol.
4 (1988), http://www.rane.com/pdf/ranenotes/Enviromental%20Effects%20on%20the%20Speed%20of
%20Sound.pdf (accessed February 5, 2010).
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with sound is simple: for every one degree Celsius increase, the speed of sound increases 0.6
meters per second. This means that v30 would equal 350 m/s16.
Now this is all very interesting, to some of you anyway, but what does it have to do with
music? Why must musicians know that when the temperature and or humidity changes, the speed
of sound also changes? If the sound coming from a wind instrument originated in colder air, the
sound will be slower and will sound flat compared to the sound that is already in the room from
other instruments. “This is…why wind instrument players sometimes blow gently and
soundlessly through their instruments to warm them up (that is, fill them with air at operating
temperature) before making an important entrance during a performance”17. One could also think
about how a concert hall is kept at or below 20ºC before the audience arrives. However, the
audience fills in, the lights come up, and the musicians begin playing. What happens to the
temperature? It can rise to or above 30ºC. That rise in temperature may affect the tuning of a
wind instrument much more than that of a stringed instrument or piano. This rise in temperature
is a third of a semitone18 , which is a difference that is noticeable to the average ear.
In large spaces out of doors, where there are very few barriers to sound, temperature and
humidity differences must be taken into account in different layers of the atmosphere. Indoors,
there are many barriers that factor in such as structural surfaces (walls, floor, or ceiling);
movable surfaces (people, chairs, other furniture); absorptive surfaces (carpet, rugs, paint,
clothes, et cetera); and reflective surfaces (rough concrete, wood, metal, plastics).

18 A semitoneis “[t]he smallest interval in use in the Western music tradition. There are twelve such intervals to the
octave” (Randel, 768)
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The absorption coefficient (AC) is the amount that a material absorbs sound. The AC is
not a percentage. Instead, it is a comparative measure that is not meant to be completely precise.
The scale is from 0.00 to 1.00, with 0.00 being totally reflective and 1.00 totally absorptive,
relatively speaking (see Appendix B). You will notice some materials have an AC greater than
1.00. This does not mean that they are more than 100% absorptive. This means that a material
that has an absorption coefficient of 1.05 is more absorptive than a material at 1.0.19
The AC can be very complicated and confusing. How does one know how to rate a
substance or material? What about a room made up of a multitude of materials? How would .45
absorptive sound different than .65 absorptive? What impact does this have on a musician?
Unfortunately these questions do not have easy answers. Most of the time, a professional who
designs rooms for acoustics and has the proper software to perform this task is best equipped to
handle most of these questions. Nonetheless, the absorptive coefficient is important to “average
Joe” and chances are many people have discussed the AC without even realizing it. Every time
someone says a room is extremely “live,” he would in effect be saying that most of the materials
used in the room have a very low absorption coefficient and the result is that the room is very
reflective.
If one is somewhat familiar with the AC chart, he may be able to recognize quickly what
a rehearsal or performance space may sound like and which frequencies are most likely to be
absorbed or reflected. A knowledge of the chart is not completely necessary, however. An
element of common sense can be applied and one will not need to be bogged down by the
dreariness associated with memorizing a chart, especially a chart of that size. Common sense can
19Eric T. Smith, Acoustics 101: Practical Guidelines for Constructing Accurate Acoustical Spaces, Including Advice
on the Proper Materials to Use, (Indianapolis: Auralex Acoustics, Inc., 2004): 12, http://www.acoustics101.com/
common/acoustics101v3_0.pdf (accessed February 1, 2010).
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tell someone that any surface that is hard and smooth is more reflective than a surface that is
padded in some way. In the same way, people act as a surface, but they are not often factored in.
People are, in fact, somewhat absorptive and as a “live” venue fills with people, sound will
“deaden.”
As mentioned before, indoors versus outdoors can make a difference. Outdoors, sound
has virtually no surface to bounce off of, but wind can carry or distort sound. Indoors, sound
bounces off of almost any kind of surface, but the sound is not usually distorted by wind.
Reflection is one of the biggest influences in indoor sound and also one of the most
complicated. With reflection there are two main variables: reflection and absorption. Almost no
material is fully reflective and only seldom is a material fully absorptive. But, the more rigid and
hard a surface or material is, the less energy (sound) it will absorb.
Many people wrongly assume that a recording or broadcasting studio is totally sound
proof. In all actuality, there is still some acoustical energy reflected as not all surfaces can be
acoustically treated, humans for example. These reflections are very minor compared to the
reflection magnitude necessary for reverberation or an echo to be present. Echos are usually
heard approximately 50 to 100 meters from the surface and the smooth surface must be very
large, relative to the size of the sound wave.
What constitutes a smooth surface though? A surface is considered smooth when the size
of the bumps are the same size or larger than the wave interacting with the surface. “It takes
irregularities several centimeters in size to diffuse high treble notes, and any bump less than one
or two meters in size will seem quite smooth to the lowest bass notes”20. Reflected waves are

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“always weaker than the original(s), because part of the sound energy is absorbed at the
reflecting surface”21. To reiterate, the wave must be reflected in its entirety 22 for an echo to be
present.
Sound also travels by diffraction. Diffraction occurs when sound travels around corners
and objects or through openings. Two variables on which diffraction depends are the size of the
opening the wave is moving through and the size of the wave itself. If a large wave23 , say about
80 Hz (! = 4.3 m), encounters an object that is 10 cm wide, the wave will diffract around the
object and proceed completely unaffected by the object 24. The object did not act as a sounding
board, retransmitting the acoustical energy on the opposite side of the object. Rather, the sound
encompassed the entire area around the object. In other words, as the wave reached the other side
of the obstacle, the wave reaches its full size again since the wave is larger than the object it just
diffracted around. However, when a small wave, say 15 KHz (! = 2.29 cm), encounters the same
object that is 10 cm, the sound wave will have a “shadow” on either side of the object. The wave
is not large enough to diffract around the object and “the object becomes an obstruction and
reflects the wave and a shadow is formed behind the object”25. Basically, when the wave is the
same size or larger than the object it encounters, the wave will be unaffected by the object or
opening26 .

22 No diffusion of the wave whatsoever can occur
23 See above section on size of waves for a detailed explanation
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Here are some real life examples. Think back to a time when you heard a very low sound,
like a deep boom of thunder. Could you identify where the sound was coming from? Now think
of a high sound, such as the jingling of keys. How easy was it to identify the general direction
the sound was coming from? When the sound is low enough, it is difficult to identify the
direction from which the sound came.
Diffraction helps us identify this phenomenon. Not only are our ears more sensitive to
higher sounds, but the wavelength of the lower sound is much larger than the human head.
Therefore, the sound is basically equal in both ears. Whereas the shorter wavelength of the
higher pitch cannot diffract around both sides of the head and is therefore heard in only or is
heard predominantly in one ear. There are occasions when shorter wavelengths are heard in both
ears. This is due to reflections or the angle of the head in reference to the source of the sound.
The sound is still much more clear in one ear, if the sound is not straight in front of or behind the
listener.
What impact does diffraction have on musicians? The implications are different,
depending on the instrument. Since the sound waves are smaller for higher instruments, the
waves will not diffract around medium and large objects27. Musicians that play higher pitched
instruments (e.g. flutists and violinists) should seek to send their sound over and above any
obstacle. One obstacle that flute players face is the string sections that sit in front of them in an
orchestra. This is why in a band or wind ensemble flutes are seated toward the front of the
ensemble. The upper string musicians 28 should also seek to send their sound over their own
bodies and sections and toward the audience. Violists often struggle with this due to the typical
27 People, music stands, et cetera.

28 Violinists and violists
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seating arrangement of orchestras as the placement of their seats sends their sound into the
orchestra, rather than into the audience.
Posture also plays an important role in the projection of sound. If slouched, an
instrumentalist will actually absorb much of his own sound. By sitting up straight, he can direct
sound over his body. Cello, bass, trombone, and bass clarinet players for example, do not need to
worry as much about the direction of their sound. However, some attention should be paid, as a
reduction in volume is much more noticeable to the audience than to the musicians.
As well, if the floor in a performance venue is flat, those in the back of the audience may
lose some of the high pitches. This is due to the higher frequencies being absorbed, reflected, and
not traveling around whatever obstacles may be between the instrument and the audience, such
as musicians, other instruments, audience members, chairs, poles, pillars, et cetera. The low
pitches will not be impeded much and may therefore be overwhelming to the audience.
This is how amphitheaters came about and why the amphitheater design is advantageous.
If the audience has a clear line of sight to the musician, they will receive sound directly. No
acoustical energy is wasted and more of the audience is able to enjoy the full spectrum of music.
Some groups, such as the New York Philharmonic, use the amphitheater design with a twist. The
performers are seated in an amphitheater style stage. This allows most of the performers to have
a line of sight from their instruments to the ears of the audience.
As mentioned previously, violists often struggle to send their sound over obstacles to
their audience. This dilemma is a result of diffraction, or rather a lack thereof. The sound waves
from the viola are not large enough to diffract around the performer’s body to reach the listeners.
So, the sound from the viola goes away from the audience, rather than towards the audience
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(Figure 5). In an attempt to solve this problem in a string quartet situation, the violist will face
out towards the audience as much as possible (Figure 6). Rather than facing in towards the rest of
the quartet. This does not completely solve the problem, but more sound from the viola is
directed towards the audience with the seating arrangement shown in Figure 6.
Violin 2 Viola Violin 2 Viola
Violin 1 Cello Violin 1 Cello

The direction of each
arrow represents the
direction of the sound
from the respective
instrument.
Audience Audience
Figure 5 Figure 6
Sound experienced outdoors is easier to understand than sound experienced indoors. This
is mostly due to a lack reflective objects. However, waves are still influenced by atmospheric
variables. Just like light, sound waves can be bent. It may not be obvious that light bends, but
bending light waves are experienced every day. Light from space is bent as it travels through our
atmosphere and is also influenced by the gravitational pull of planets or other stars or galaxies it
passes by. This includes our sun. Bent light waves are most obvious anytime you see a straw in a
glass of water or other liquid clear enough to see through. You can see that the straw seems to be
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cut into a separate part as it enters the water (Figure 7).
This is light bending due to different densities of the
different materials: air and water. In the air, the density of
water is very thin and the molecular make up is much
lighter than water. In the glass, the water is obviously
very abundant and relatively dense. The difference in
materials causes the straw to appear bent or broken
because the speed of light changes as it passes through

Figure 7: Note how the straw
looks like two separate straws due the different mediums.
to refraction.
That begs the question, how does sound bend then?
Sound bends in much the same way. Some contributory influences in the bending of sound
waves include: different different densities of water vapor29, a change in substances through
which the sound is traveling, and temperature differences. Think again of the slinky. If you bend
it, the compression of the coils will still travel from one end to the other. The same thing happens
with sound (and waves in general) in the atmosphere. When the air closer to the ground is colder
than the air above it, waves will be directed back toward the ground. This means when the
ground is colder, it is easier to hear sounds from far away because the sound is bent back toward
the earth. Likewise, the opposite is true. If the air near the ground is warmer, it will be harder to
hear sounds from far away because less sound will be bent back toward the earth30. An
interesting example of this, think of a road trip. If you drive to a city on a clear, mild day, you
can pick up an FM radio station that is 100 miles away. This is probably because the air nearer
29 Humidity
30 Donald E. Hall, Musical Acoustics: An Introduction (Belmont, CA,1980), 63-64.
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the ground is the same temperature or colder than the air several hundred or thousand feet above
the ground. However, if there is a sudden rise in temperature on the ground or a sudden drop in
temperature above the ground, the radio station you had been enjoying would no longer be
accessible.
What are the musical implications of this? The practical application in musical
performances is seldom realized. Refraction is not an incredibly influential factor in indoor
situations. However, it may be noticed in some very large concert halls or arenas. When the air is
warmer on the floor, sound will refract towards the upper seats. This could be a desired effect to
utilize a force of nature for natural sound reinforcement. If the temperature is consistent
throughout the venue, the sound can be controlled much more easily with acoustical treatment or
with a sound system. This is a perfect case for a good HVAC system. An efficient, powerful,
quiet air handling system is key to keeping the music heard clearly in all seats.
One variable that refraction counts on is no wind or air current in the performance venue.
If there is an aggressive ventilation system31 installed in the venue, this will greatly influence the
sound32. If you have been at a concert held outside, you may have noticed that when the wind
was calm the source was easy to hear—and understand if it was spoken word. But, if a crosswind
picked up, it became difficult to hear whatever the source was: whether it be projected sound
from a loudspeaker, a person speaking, a musical instrument, et cetera. The same can occur at a
concert held inside. The effect will not be as extreme, where it becomes difficult to understand a
person or hear an instrument, but the sound is influenced by air currents. Depending on which
31 This would be an HVAC system in which you can actually feel a breeze.
32Eric T. Smith, Acoustics 101: Practical Guidelines for Constructing Accurate Acoustical Spaces, Including Advice
on the Proper Materials to Use, (Indianapolis: Auralex Acoustics, Inc., 2004): 33, http://www.acoustics101.com/
common/acoustics101v3_0.pdf (accessed February 1, 2010).
Chin 20
way the air is being forced, sound will change its direction from when it leaves the source of the
sound and when the sound reaches the ears of the audience.
Therefore, this means that all musicians, despite being told to “use their eyes, not their
ears” must take this saying with the correct understanding. Depending on the orchestra, a
conductor may stop the ensemble to say, “Really listen to this chord, make sure that the C is a
perfect fifth about the F.” The conductor may stop a couple minutes later and say, “You cannot
rely on your ears. You have to watch!” At first, without the correct frame of reference, it appears
as though their beloved conductor has lost his mind. What he really means to say is that
musicians must use their ears to stay in tune with one another, yet use their eyes to stay in tempo.
This duality can be a difficult to master and is yet another avenue for musicians to divide their
attention. Nevertheless, it is vital to the musical integrity of the ensemble.
The musical integrity of the ensemble or any performance is utmost and forefront. It is
because of this that musicians should understand how sound waves travel. Refraction helps
explain how sound can bend due to atmospherics such as humidity and temperature. Diffraction
helps explain how it is much easier to tell where a soprano is on stage than where a bass player is
playing from. Reflections and absorptions are absolutely key to a musician’s understanding of
how to predict what a venue will sound like. Likewise, performers should understand that as the
hall fills with people, the sound will change drastically and be less reflective. Also, as the hall
fills with people, the temperature will probably rise and humidity may change, which also affects
the sound of the performance and venue. Understanding what sound is, how it works, and seeing
even just a small amount of how it applies to musicians, can lead to improved sound of a
Chin 21
performance. The improved sound heightens the enjoyment of the music to a whole new level for
both musician and audience member.

Chin 22
Appendix A
Sound Pressure Approximate

Sound Environment
Level Loudness
Thershold of hearing 0 dBA SPL Don’t Hear anything
Broadcast Studio 10 1/32 of conversation
Quiet house, rural night 20 1/16th as loud
Quiet office interior 30 1/8th as loud
Quiet rural area/small

40 1/4th as loud
theatre
Dishwasher in other room 50 1/2 as loud
Ordinary Conversation 60 Ordinary conversation
Vacuum cleaner at 10 ft. 70 Twice as loud
Passing car at 10 ft. 80 4 times as loud
Blender at 3 ft. 90 8 times as loud
Gas lawn mower at 3 ft. 100 16 times as loud
Night club w/ band playing 110 32 times as loud
64x as loud (2x night

Threshold of pain 120
club)
Appendix B
MFG Description Thickness Mounting Unit Size 125Hz 250Hz 500Hz 1kHz 2kHz 4kHz
Alpro Flat Baf Perforated steel panel, 1.5 pcf. fiberglass backing 2" thick, covered
2.00by .75 A
mil PVC 24 x 108 0.44 0.62 0.94 0.99 0.79 0.59
Alpro Flat Baf Perforated steel panel, 1.5 pcf fiberglass backing, 2" thick 2.00 A 24 x 108 0.21 0.66 1.13 1.14 1.00 0.90
Alpro Flat Baf Perforated A1. panel, with corrugations .63" deep, 1.5 pcf 2" fiberglass
2.00 backing
E-400 36 x 96 0.72 0.98 1.00 1.07 1.02 0.84
ASCPac AcustadekSteel
B deck, perforated webs, absorptive backing 1.50 A 108 x 96 0.23 0.67 1.21 0.82 0.46 0.24
B deck, total perforated absorptive backing 1.50 A 108 x 96 0.23 0.48 0.92 0.97 0.95 0.76
BF deck, pan perforated absorptive backing 1.50 A 108 x 96 0.53 0.58 0.75 0.97 0.86 0.57
N deck, perforated webs, absorptive backing 3.00 A 108 x 96 0.38 0.94 1.18 0.90 0.44 0.24
N deck, total perforated absorptive backing 3.00 A 108 x 96 0.43 0.61 1.01 1.05 1.00 0.76
NF deck, pan perforated absorptive backing 3.00 A 108 x 96 0.80 0.78 1.16 0.88 0.69 0.47
AWI Type 2906 Fiberglass panel with perforated vinyl film facing 0.63 E-400 24 x 48 0.68 0.68 0.67 0.84 0.86 0.71
AWI Type 2907 Vinyl-faced fiberglass with vinyl film facing 0.63 E-400 24 x 48 0.53 0.37 0.50 0.82 0.82 0.72
AWI Type 2921 Vinyl membrane facing over fiberglass lay-in panel 1.50 E-400 24 x 48 0.57 0.79 0.77 0.90 0.71 0.47
AWI Type 2925 Vinyl-film-faced, fiberglass lay-in panel 1.00 E-400 24 x 48 0.55 47.00 0.72 0.80 0.74 0.54
AWI Type 2942 Fiberglass lay-in panel with microperforated vinyl facing 1.50 E-400 24 x 48 0.62 0.83 0.90 1.10 1.06 0.94
AWI Type 2946 Microperforated vinyl film-faced fiberglass panel 1.00 E-400 24 x 48 0.77 0.89 0.75 1.01 1.04 0.93
AWI Type 3101 Cloth-faced, fiberglass lay-in panel, painted 0.75 E-400 24 x 48 0.71 0.87 0.62 0.86 0.96 1.07
AWI Type 3103 Woven glass fibers adhered to fiberglass board, painted 1.00 E-400 24 x 48 0.70 0.95 0.75 0.99 1.04 1.01
AWI Type 3105 Cloth-faced fiberglass lay-in panel, factory painted 1.50 E-400 24 x 48 0.74 0.97 0.85 1.03 1.05 1.00
AWI Type 3301 Cloth-faced, fiberglass lay-in panel, painted 0.75 E-400 24 x 48 0.48 0.35 0.71 0.96 1.05 1.04
AWI Type 537 Fissured mineral fiber, fire-resistive lay-in panel 0.63 E-400 24 x 48 0.35 0.34 0.48 0.69 0.88 0.92
AWI Type 584 Mineral fiber lay-in panel with factory-applied paint 0.75 E-400 24 x 48 0.29 0.33 0.53 0.73 0.86 0.92
AWI Type 602 Ceramic and mineral fiber, non-combustible, lay-in panel 0.63 E-400 24 x 48 0.23 0.24 0.50 0.77 0.91 0.86
AWI Type 704 Fissured mineral fiber, "Cortega" lay-in panel 0.63 E-400 24 x 48 0.35 0.27 0.47 0.65 0.74 0.82
AWI Type 737 Surface-textured, mineral, "Minatex" lay in panel 0.63 E-400 24 x 48 0.36 0.28 0.47 0.65 0.76 0.82
AWI Type 769 Fissured mineral fiber, "Cortega" lay in panel 0.63 E-400 24 x 48 0.31 0.32 0.51 0.72 0.74 0.77
AWI Type 775 Surfaced-textured, mineral, "Minatex" lay in panel 0.63 E-400 24 x 48 0.30 0.28 0.43 0.64 0.76 0.68
AWi Type 821 Mineral fiber, lay-in, with polymeric membrane 0.63 E-400 24 x 48 0.29 0.54 0.30 0.79 0.78 0.60
AWI Type 823 Fissured mineral fiber, fire-resistive lay-in panel 0.63 E-400 24 x 48 0.33 0.36 0.50 0.78 0.84 0.84
AWI Type 863 Vinyl-faced aluminum surface mineral fiber, lay-in panel 0.63 E-400 24 x 48 0.35 0.36 0.55 0.90 0.74 0.46
BHS Limpet Spray-on mineral-fiber material 2.50 A NONE 0.05 0.30 0.75 1.00 1.07 1.05
BHS Pyrok Spray-on, medium structure material 2.00 A NONE 0.06 0.14 0.30 0.59 0.92 0.56
BradIns Glasswool building blanket (50) A 120cm x 15m 0.68 0.75 1.05 1.04 1.05 1.11
BradIns Glasswool building blanket with perforated foil facing (50) A 120cm x 15m 0.55 0.69 1.07 1.07 0.99 1.00
Chin 23
BradIns Suspended rockwool panels enclosed in polypropylene film (50) hung 50cm x 120cm 0.18 0.44 0.83 1.25 1.14 0.96
BradIns Fibertex 350
Rockwool blanket (25) A 90cm x 150cm 0.18 0.29 0.69 0.86 1.05 1.20
BradIns Fibertex R4
Duct liner (25) A 120cm x 150 cm 0.18 0.29 0.69 0.86 1.05 1.20
BradIns Fibertex R4
Duct liner (50) A 120cm x 150cm 0.29 0.70 1.20 1.04 1.14 1.06
BradIns Fibertex R4
Duct liner, perforated foil facing (25) A 120cm x 150cm 0.36 0.21 0.30 0.97 1.06 0.67
BradIns Fibertex R4
BradIns Fibertex R6
BradIns Fibertex R6
BradIns Fibertex R6
BradIns Fibertex R6
BradIns Flexitel Glasswool building blanket (25) A 120cm x 15m 0.33 0.28 0.61 0.89 1.01 1.05
BradIns Supertel Glasswool blanket (25) A 120cm x 240cm 0.12 0.41 0.63 0.90 1.01 0.99
BradIns Supertel Glasswool blanket with perforated foil facing (25) A 120cm x 240cm 0.08 0.39 0.73 1.02 1.12 0.84
BradIns Supertel Glasswool blanket with perforated foil facing (25) A 120cm x 240cm 0.13 0.32 0.59 0.83 0.99 0.97
BradIns Supertel Glasswool blanket with 23um Mylar film facing (25) A 120cm x 240cm 0.15 0.45 0.67 1.07 1.08 0.71
BradIns Supertel Glasswool blanket with 50 um Mylar film facing (25) A 120cm x 240cm 0.13 0.44 0.92 1.14 0.82 0.45
CA Perforated steel panel backed by 4" layer of 3.5 pcf USG Thermafiber
4.50 in Mylar
A 48 x 108 0.52 0.37 0.64 0.60 0.56 0.29
CA Perforated steel panel backed by 2" layer of 2 pcf OCF Type RA-23
2.50
Fiberglas
A 96 x 108 0.31 0.82 1.19 1.12 1.07 1.06
CA Perforated steel panel backed by 4" layer of 2 pcf OCF Type RA-23
4.50
Fiberglas
A 48 x 108 0.86 1.09 1.22 1.06 1.05 1.04
Conweb Tufflex G-37
Cellulose, nonwoven panel core 1.00 A NONE 0.12 0.29 0.65 0.94 1.05 0.91
Conweb Tufflex G-37
Conweb Tufflex G-40
CTeed Ib150 Unfaced fiberglass board, bonded with thermosetting resin 1.00 A 24 x 48 0.19 0.62 0.72 0.82 0.88 0.89
CTeed IB150 Unfaced fiberglass board, bonded with thermosetting resin 1.50 A 24 x 48 0.19 0.51 0.82 0.86 0.95 0.97
CTeed IB150 Unfaced fiberglass board, bonded with thermosetting resin 2.50 F-25 24 x 48 0.54 0.85 0.97 0.96 0.93 0.97
Chin 24
CTeed MBP Fiberglass blanket, flexible, unfaced 3.50 A rolls 0.38 0.90 1.00 0.93 0.94 0.99
CTeed UltracousticFiberglass blanket with flexible internal septum 3.00 A roll 0.43 0.91 0.99 0.98 0.95 0.93
CTeed Ultralite Fiberglass duct liner with surface coating 1.00 F-25 roll 0.34 0.42 0.47 0.84 0.80 0.79
CTeed Ultralite Fiberglass duct liner with surface coating 1.00 A roll 0.10 0.28 0.50 0.70 0.82 0.83
CTeed Ultralite Unfaced fiberglass blanket 1.00 A roll 0.06 0.20 0.29 0.40 0.50 0.54
CTeed WP16 Unfaced semirigid fiberglass board 3.00 A 24 x 48 0.43 0.83 1.02 0.95 0.97 0.99
Chin 25
Drupa Silencio Perforated steel panel with acoustic resonators 3.00 UNE 74041 90 x 90 0.05 0.15 0.45 0.90 0.90 0.75
E-A-R Tufcote Type E-100Sm polyether urethane foamA1. polyester surface 1.00 A 54 x 22ft 0.20 0.81 0.61 0.73 0.71 0.69
E-A-R Tufcote Type E-100Cm polyether urethane foam, 1 mil clear polyester surface
1.00 A 54 x 22ft 0.17 0.74 0.63 0.78 0.69 0.73
E-A-R Tufcote Type E-100RM polyether urethane foam, reinforced polyester surface
1.00 A 54 x 22ft 0.21 0.52 0.71 0.87 0.75 0.66
E-A-R Tufcote Type E-100SF polyether urethane foam, textured surface 1.00 A 54 x 22ft 0.17 0.25 0.73 1.14 0.99 1.02
EAS M-90 Panel Perforated steel panel backed with 6 pcf mineral fiber 2.50 A NONE 0.36 1.01 1.23 1.14 1.02 0.78
EAS M-90 Panel Perforated steel panel backed with 6 pcf mineral fiber 3.50 A NONE 0.81 1.25 1.17 1.16 1.05 0.82
Epic E450A Perforated steel roof deck, backed by fiberglass 4.50 A NONE 0.37 0.57 0.91 0.70 0.52 0.49
Epic EP150A Perforated steel roof deck, backed by fiberglass 1.50 A NONE 0.20 0.33 0.74 1.00 0.57 0.41
Epic EP300K Perforated steel roof deck, backed by fiberglass 3.00 A NONE 0.44 0.89 1.06 0.73 0.47 0.25
Epic EPICORE-A Perforated steel roof deck, backed by fiberglass 2.00 A NONE 0.10 0.21 0.79 0.98 0.95 0.86
Epic ER2RA Perforated steel roof deck, backed by fiberglass 2.00 A NONE 0.26 0.60 1.18 0.98 1.00 0.91
Epic ESC2SSA Perforated steel roof deck, backed by fiberglass 2.00 A NONE 0.96 1.02 1.02 1.08 0.95 0.79
Farbo VicracousticTrimline panel, polyester covering 0.50 A 96 x 108 0.04 0.11 0.38 0.80 0.98 1.04
Farbo VicracousticTrimline panel, perforated vinyl wall covering 0.50 A .96 x 108 0.00 0.15 0.56 0.93 0.94 0.78
Flumroc Ecco Dammplatte, rockwool fiber (30) A 6cm x 10cm 0.08 0.34 0.81 0.97 1.02 0.98
Flumrock 341 Dachdammplatte, rockwool fiber (60) A 6cm x 10cm 0.40 0.66 0.73 0.81 0.85 0.91
Flumrock Iglu Dammplatte, rockwool fiber (30) A 6cm x 10cm 0.08 0.38 0.85 0.98 0.99 1.00
G+H Isover Type P3/V mineral wool (200) A various 0.10 0.26 0.53 0.71 0.84 0.96
G+H Isover Type P4/TRHV 50 mineral wool (50) A various 0.19 0.58 0.95 1.01 0.98 0.96
IAC Mark III Perforated metal ceiling panel backed with fiberglass 2.00 E-400 24 x 48 0.63 0.71 0.98 1.11 1.03 1.08
IAC Mark III Perforated metal ceiling panel backed with fiberglass 3.00 E-400 24 x 48 0.56 0.84 1.16 1.16 0.92 0.82
Chin 26
ICC K13 Cellulose-base fiber, white sprayed-on "carpet" finish 1.00 A NONE 0.19 0.60 1.05 1.11 1.03 0.98
ICC K13 Cellulose-base fiber, white sprayed-on "carpet" finish 3.00 A NONE 0.59 0.99 1.04 1.03 1.00 0.98
ICC K13FC Cellulose-base fiber, white, sprayed on, textured finish 0.75 E-400 NONE 0.25 0.36 0.74 0.98 0.99 0.99
ICC K13FC Cellulose-base fiber, white, sprayed on, textured finish 1.00 A NONE 0.12 0.38 0.88 1.16 1.15 1.12
ICC K13FC/Dura-K
Cellulose-base fiber, white, sprayed on, textured finish 0.50 A NONE 0.15 0.16 0.46 0.87 1.07 1.12
ImiTech Solimide AC-403
Polimide foam 2.00 A 96 x 96 0.23 0.51 0.96 1.04 0.93 0.96
ImiTech Solimide TA-301
Polimide foam 2.00 A 96 x 96" 0.30 0.49 0.89 0.97 0.84 0.88
INC 24G baffles Hanging panels, 1.55 pef fiberglass in polyethylene casing 0.002"
1.50
thick hung 24 x 48 0.32 0.59 1.49 1.53 1.36 0.59
INC 27E baffles Hanging panels, 2.70 pef fiberglass in polyethylene casing 0.003"
1.50
thick hung 24 x 48 0.32 0.62 1.27 1.48 0.86 0.46
INC 27G baffles Hanging panels, 2.70 pef fiberglass in polyethylene casing 0.002"
1.50
thick hung 24 x 48 0.31 0.61 1.28 1.64 1.42 1.03
INC K-10M Aluminated mylar-faced polyether foam 1.00 A 1 x 54 or 100ft 0.10 0.57 0.57 0.39 0.68 0.35
Isover Climatel S Fiberglass construction (25) NONE 1.2m x 12m 0.14 0.25 0.56 0.81 0.88 0.90
Isover PB A Fiberglass construction (50) NONE 0.6m x 1.25m 0.59 0.75 0.63 0.60 0.39 0.26
Isover PB R Fiberglass construction (80) NONE 0.6m x 1.25m 0.60 1.10 1.07 0.94 0.96 0.94
Knauf Rigid plenum liner 1.00 A 24 or 48 x 36 to 120 0.13 0.24 0.56 0.83 0.92 0.98
Knauf Fiberglass insulation board, unfaced 0.75 A 48 x 96 / 48 x 120 0.00 0.15 0.48 0.72 0.86 0.97
Knauf Fiberglass insulated board, unfaced 1.00 A 48 x 96 / 48 x 120 0.19 0.32 0.71 0.98 1.10 0.98
Knauf Fiberglass insulated board, unfaced 1.00 A 48 x 96 / 48 x 120 0.07 0.24 0.69 0.88 0.98 1.03
Knauf Metal Bldg Insulation
Fiberglass blanket, max width: 72", max length: 150' 2.00 A roll 0.25 0.48 0.81 0.90 0.97 0.94
Knauf Type EI475 Air duct board, one side faced with foil-scrim-Kraft vapor retarder
1.00 A 48 x 96 / 48 x 120 0.27 0.46 0.64 0.90 0.98 0.96
Knauf Type KN Fiberglass acoustical blanket, max width: 96", max length: 125' 1.00 A roll 0.12 0.18 0.51 0.72 0.78 0.86
Knauf Type KN Fiberglass acoustical blanket, max width: 96", max length: 125' 1.50 A roll 0.20 0.42 0.82 0.87 0.94 0.91
Knauf Type KN Fiberglass acoustical blanket, max width: 96", max length 125' 1.00 A roll 0.17 0.24 0.62 0.79 0.88 0.96
Knauf Type KN Fiberglass duct, wrap 1.50 F-25 roll 0.35 0.64 0.69 0.76 0.79 0.81
Chin 27
Knauf Type M Duct liner, matte facing 1.00 A roll 0.17 0.35 0.59 0.81 0.90 0.94
MFG Fibroplank Type M-173, wood fibers with portland cement binder 1.50 A 96 x 108 0.09 0.21 0.42 1.00 0.58 0.80
MFG Fibroplank Similar to above but with 2.5 fiberglass batts in cavities between1.50
furring A 96 x 108 0.39 0.82 1.23 0.75 0.81 0.92
MvL Linacoustic Mat-faced, smooth; duct liner 1.00 A rolls 0.08 0.26 0.58 0.84 0.96 0.99
MvL Linacoustic Mat-faced, smooth, R duct liner 1.00 A rolls 0.09 0.32 0.68 0.88 0.97 1.03
MvL Linacoustic Mat-faced, smooth, R duct liner 1.50 A rolls 0.07 0.52 0.94 1.02 1.02 1.04
MvL Linacoustic Permacote, coated, smooth duct liner 1.00 A rolls 0.99 0.09 0.67 0.89 1.03 0.99
MvL Linacoustic Permacote, coated, smooth HP duct liner 1.00 A rolls 0.09 0.31 0.69 0.91 1.02 1.03
MvL Linacoustic Permacote, coated, smooth R-300 duct liner 1.00 A rolls 0.08 0.32 0.72 0.99 1.07 1.00
MvL Linacoustic Permacote, coated, smooth R-300 duct liner 1.00 F-25 rolls 0.53 0.39 0.70 1.00 1.09 1.01
MvL Micro-Aire Type 475 FSK, coated duct board 1.00 A to 48 x 120 0.06 0.22 0.61 0.86 1.00 1.04
MvL Micro-Aire Type 475 FSK, coated duct board 1.00 F-25 to 48 x 120 0.46 0.30 0.58 0.85 1.00 1.03
MvL Microlite Fiberglass blanket 1.00 A roll 0.12 0.31 0.56 0.73 0.83 0.88
Chin 28
MvL Microlite Fiberglass blanket 1.00 F-25 roll 0.17 0.59 0.57 0.65 0.75 0.83
MvL Spin-Glas Fiberglass board 1.00 A various 0.07 0.30 0.71 0.96 1.03 1.05
MvL Spin-Glas Fiberglass board, Percipitator series 2.00 A various 0.20 0.85 1.11 1.11 1.07 1.07
MvL Spin-Glas Fiberglass board, 1000 Series 2.00 A various 0.24 1.05 1.16 1.12 1.08 1.07
MvL Spin-Glas Fiberglass board, 1000 Series 3.00 A various 0.58 1.21 1.11 1.08 1.07 1.08
MvL SuperDuct Type 475 FSK coated duct board 1.00 A to 48 x 120 0.11 0.29 0.81 1.05 1.09 1.01
MvL SuperDuct Type 800 FSK, coated duct board 1.00 A to 48 x 120 0.09 0.22 0.78 1.00 1.08 1.02
MvL SuperDuct Type 800 FSK, coated duct board 1.50 A to 48 x 120 0.17 0.61 1.03 1.12 1.02 0.89
MvL SuperDuct Type 475 FSK, coated duct board 1.00 F-25 to 48 x 120 0.52 0.40 0.74 1.03 1.06 1.02
MvL Tuf-Skin Semirigid fiberglass blanket 1.00 A roll 0.10 0.34 0.64 0.85 0.98 1.04
MvL Tuf-Skin Semirigid fiberglass blanket 2.00 A roll 0.19 0.71 1.02 1.14 1.07 1.05
MvLc Linacoustic Mat-faced, smooth, HP duct Liner 1.00 A rolls 0.05 0.29 0.61 0.87 0.98 0.98
OC Aeroflex Plus Type
Fiberglas
150 duct liner with surface coating 1.00 A rolls 0.18 0.19 0.48 0.65 0.78 0.88
Fiberglas
Fiberglas
Chin 29
Fiberglas
Fiberglas
Fiberglas
Fiberglas
OC Duct Board Fiberglas duct liner board 1.00 A 24 x 48 / 48 x 96 0.03 0.22 0.60 0.84 0.98 0.97
OC Type 701 Flexible insulation board 1.00 A 24 x 48 0.17 0.33 0.64 0.83 0.90 0.92
OC Type 701 Flexible insulation board 1.00 E-405 24 x 48 0.32 0.41 0.70 0.83 0.93 1.02
OC Type 703 Semirigid insulation board 1.00 A 24 x 48 0.11 0.28 0.68 0.90 0.93 0.96
OC Type 703 Semirigid insulation board 1.00 E-405 24 x 48 0.32 0.32 0.73 0.93 1.01 1.10
OC Type 705 Rigid insulation board 1.00 A 24 x 48 0.02 0.27 0.63 0.85 0.93 0.95
OC Type 705 Rigid insulation board 1.00 E-405 24 x 48 0.30 0.34 0.68 0.87 0.97 1.06
PAVAROC Fissura Acoustical panels, lay-in (16) E-300 62.5cm x 62.5cm 0.38 0.44 0.50 0.77 0.98 1.08
PAVAROC Orion Acoustical panels, lay-in (16) E-300 62.5 cm x 62.5cm 0.33 0.53 0.52 0.68 0.82 0.80
PAVAROC Stria 2 Acoustical panels, lay-in (16) E-300 62.5 cm x 62.5cm 0.52 0.43 0.49 0.65 0.71 0.61
Peer Almute Type A300c, porous sintered metal panel .1/(3mm) E-200 24 x 48 0.44 0.81 0.87 0.52 0.69 0.80
Peer Almute Type A300c, porous sintered metal panel .1/(3mm) E-400 24 x 48 0.85 0.80 0.46 0.60 0.70 0.80
Chin 30
Peer Almute Same as above but backed with 2" fiberglass 2.1 E-400 24 x 48 0.77 1.03 0.93 1.07 1.03 1.07
Peer Almute Same as above but 2" fiberglass spaced .25"from porous metal panel
2.35 E-400 24 x 48 0.88 0.92 0.99 1.09 1.05 1.06
Peer Alumute Type A250c, porous sintered metal panel .01/(3mm) E-400 20 x 20 0.95 0.88 0.60 0.74 0.88 1.07
Peer Alumute Sames as above but backed with 4" fiberglass 4.10 E-400 20 x 20 1.01 0.97 0.86 0.90 0.99 1.19
Perdue LSS-AT Perforated steel facing over 6 pcf rockwool core 2.00 A 24 x 48/48 x 48 0.38 0.83 1.18 1.05 0.95 0.91
Perdue LSS-RHRF Fabric-covered panel, 8 pcf rockwool core 1.00 A 24 x 48/48 x 48 0.21 0.66 1.04 1.05 0.97 0.98
Perdue LSS-RHRF Fabric-covered panel, 6 pcf rockwool core 2.00 A 24 x 48/48 x 48 0.46 0.93 1.26 1.10 1.00 1.00
Perdue RHH/7FP Fabric-covered panel, 8 pcf rockwool core 1.00 A 24 x 48/48 x 48 0.28 0.67 1.11 1.05 0.98 0.98
Perdue RHHVP Vinyl-covered panel, 8 pef rockwool core 1.00 A 24 x 48/48 x 48 0.27 0.66 1.09 1.01 0.87 0.65
Perdue RHVP Vinyl-covered panel, 8 pcf rockwool core 1.00 A 24 x 48/48 x 48 0.23 0.67 1.09 1.00 0.87 0.69
PI Pyrok Acoustement
Acoustical
40 plaster, Portland cement-base 1.00 A NONE 0.18 0.35 0.64 0.73 0.73 0.77
Prdfoot Baffles Fiberglass core with polyethylene cover 1.50 hung 24 x 48 0.24 0.66 1.31 1.74 1.49 1.03
Prdfoot SoundbloxType A-1 slotted concrete masonary block, unfilled 4.00 A 8 x 16 0.12 0.85 0.36 0.36 0.42 0.45
Prdfoot SoundbloxType Q, same as above but with metal septa in cavities 8.00 A 8 x 16 1.07 0.97 0.61 0.37 0.56 0.55
Prdfoot SoundbloxType R, similar to above with cavities filled with fiberglass 12.00 A 8 x 16 0.48 0.83 0.86 0.54 0.47 0.44
Prdfoot SoundbloxType RSC, fiberglass filled cavities, metal septa 12.00 A 8 x 16 0.57 0.76 1.09 0.94 0.54 0.59
Rockfon Cadral Smooth, white-painted acoustic tiles (12) E-200 60cm x 120cm 0.48 0.60 0.65 0.57 0.73 0.82
Rockfon Classic White-painted acoustic panels (18) E-200 60cm x 120cm 0.43 0.65 1.03 0.72 0.90 0.94
Rockfon Dekor Textured, white-painted acoustic tiles (12) E-200 60cm x 120cm 0.52 0.45 0.40 0.41 0.49 0.57
Rockfon Fibral White-painted acoustic panels (25) E-200 60cm x 120cm 0.40 0.76 1.01 0.76 0.96 0.97
Rockfon Foil Black plastic, industrial panels (50) E-200 60cm x 120cm 0.46 0.88 1.03 0.84 0.85 0.75
Rockfon Hygienic White-painted industrial panels (40) E-200 60cm x 120cm 0.38 0.87 1.01 0.82 0.88 0.88
Rockfon Koral White-painted acoustic panels (25) E-200 60cm x 120cm 0.53 0.81 0.88 0.82 0.93 0.87
Rockfon Paral White-painted acoustic panels (20) E-200 60cm x 120cm 0.35 0.76 0.99 0.70 0.88 0.93
Rockfon Polar White-painted acoustic panels (20) E-200 60cm x 120cm 0.47 0.72 0.92 0.70 0.89 0.93
Rockfon Sonar White-painted acoustic tiles (18) E-200 60cm x 120cm 0.53 0.61 0.65 0.65 0.85 0.95
RPG Diffusorblox Unpainted concrete masonry unit 12.00 A 8 x 16 0.98 0.90 0.93 0.77 0.80 0.77
RPG Diffusorblox Painted concrete masonry unit 12.00 A 8 x 16 0.76 0.51 0.57 0.34 0.24 0.26
SiegK Baffel Suspended acoustical panels (140) hung 60cm x 120cm 0.30 0.65 0.90 1.10 1.15 1.30
SiegK Pyramid-Platte
Acoustical panels (50) A 98cm x 98cm 0.15 0.40 0.90 1.00 1.10 1.10
Sonex Wedge-shaped polyurethane foam panels 2.00 A 24 x 48 / 48 x 48 0.08 0.25 0.61 0.92 0.95 0.92
Sonex 1 Wedge-shaped melamine foam panels 2.00 A 24 x 48 0.16 0.34 0.81 1.00 0.99 0.97
Chin 31
Sonex 1 Baffles 2-sided wedge-shaped melamine foam, hanging panels 3.00 hung 24 x 48 0.74 0.78 1.42 1.76 1.83 1.84
Sonex 1 Hypalon Wedge-shaped melamine foam panels 2.00 A 24 x 48 0.18 0.65 1.04 0.73 0.68 0.56
Sonex Baffles 2-sided wedge-shaped polyurethane foam, hanging panels 3.00 hung 31 x 48 0.58 0.47 0.84 1.26 1.61 1.80
Sonex Contour Wedge-shaped, melamine foam, ceiling tile 2.00 A 24 x 24 0.08 0.26 0.76 0.96 0.97 1.01
Sonex Mini-SonexWedge-shaped
1 melamine foam panels 1.50 A 24 x 48 0.14 0.21 0.61 0.80 0.89 0.92
Sonex Mini-SonexWedge-shaped
Sonex Panorama Wedge-shaped, melamine foam, ceiling tile 2.00 A 24 x 24 0.22 0.29 0.79 0.93 0.94 1.00
Sonex Sonex Wedge-shaped polyurethane foam panels 6.00 A 12 x 12 0.38 0.99 1.19 1.21 1.14 1.38
Sonex Spectrum Wedge-shaped melamine foam, ceiling tile 2.00 A 24 x 24 0.12 0.33 0.83 0.97 0.98 0.95
Sonex Super-Sonex
Wedge-shaped
Sonex Trim Flat, melamine foam, ceiling tile 1.00 A 24 x 24 0.08 0.17 0.60 0.88 0.88 0.93
Sonex Vision Wedge-shaped, melamine foam, ceiling tile 2.00 A 24 x 24 0.08 0.24 0.73 0.96 0.98 0.99
Soning SONIT Acoustical panel fabricated bonded sand particles (30) D 30cm x 100cm 0.23 0.57 1.00 0.97 0.94 0.71
Stark Starkustic Structural clay hollow tile with perforated ceramic facing; hollows
4.00
filled with
A fiberglass pads
8 x 16 0.19 0.64 0.73 0.62 0.20
TCeram Kawool Ceramic fiber blanket 1.00 A 48 x 107 0.10 0.29 1.00 1.04 0.99 0.98
TCeram Kawool Ceramic fiber blanket 1.00 A 38 x48 0.26 0.41 0.40 0.47 0.58 0.65
Tectum Sound absorption blocks spaced 24" on centers 3.00 A 15.5 x 15.5 0.22 0.32 1.01 1.60 1.66 1.64
Tectum Sound absorption blocks spaced 32" on centers 3.00 A 15.5 x 15.5 0.27 0.43 1.13 1.77 1.75 1.75
Tectum Hanging panels of 1" Tectum, spaced 12" face to face 1.00 hung 24 x 48 0.20 0.16 0.30 0.48 0.60 0.82
Tectum Classic Pre-finished Nubby lay-in board 0.75 E-400 24 x 48 0.33 0.47 0.89 0.97 1.07 0.94
Tectum Classic Prefinished Nubby lay-in board 1.00 E-400 24 x 48 0.83 0.88 0.80 1.05 1.06 1.08
Tectum Classic Prefinished Nubby lay-in board 1.50 E-400 24 x 48 0.71 0.87 0.97 1.10 1.07 1.03
Tectum Classic Painted Linear lay-in board 0.75 E-400 24 x 48 0.27 0.80 0.65 0.98 1.00 0.90
Tectum Classic Painted Linear lay-in board 1.00 E-400 24 x 48 0.37 0.83 0.82 1.07 1.02 0.94
Tectum classic Painted Linear lay-in board 1.50 E-400 24 x 48 0.71 0.83 0.82 1.07 1.02 0.94
Tectum Classic Painted Nubby lay-in board 0.75 E-400 24 x 48 0.33 0.47 0.89 0.97 1.07 0.94
Tectum Classic Film-faced lay-in board 1.50 E-400 24 x 48 0.29 0.80 0.74 0.92 0.85 0.52
Tectum Classic Ultimate Nubby lay-in board 1.38 E-400 24 x 48 0.21 0.47 0.68 1.03 1.09 1.06
Tectum panel Silicate-treated wood fiber, organic binder 1.00 A 24 x 96/24 x 48 0.06 0.13 0.24 0.45 0.82 0.64
Tectum panel Silicate-treated wood fiber, organic binder 1.00 D-20 24 x 96/24 x 48 0.07 0.15 0.36 0.65 0.71 0.81
Tectum panel Silicate-treated wood fiber, organic binder 1.00 C-20 24 x 96/24 x 48 0.16 0.43 1.00 1.05 0.79 0.98
Chin 32
Tectum panel 1"Tectum over 1" layer of 3 pcf fiberglass 2.00 C-40 24 x 48 0.16 0.43 1.00 1.05 0.79 0.98
Tectum panel 1.5" Tectum over 1" layer of 3 pcf fiberglass 2.50 C-40 24 x 48 0.24 0.57 1.17 0.87 0.93 0.87
Tectum panel 2" Tectum over 1" layer of 3 pcf fiberglass 3.00 C-40 24 x 48 0.24 0.67 1.14 0.87 1.06 0.96
Tectum panel 1" Tectum over 2.5" OCF noise barrier batt 3.50 C-40 24 x 48 0.32 0.70 1.09 0.93 0.76 0.94
Tectum panel 1.5 Tectum over 2.5 OCF noise barrier batt 4.00 C-40 24 x 48 0.40 0.84 1.18 0.87 0.93 0.87
Tectum panel 2" Tectum over 2.5 OCF noise barrier batt 4.50 C-40 24 x 48 0.40 0.84 1.18 0.84 0.94 0.88
Tectum Tectum I Structural roof deck 1.50 A 48 x 96 0.07 0.22 0.48 0.82 0.64 0.96
Tectum Tectum II Structural
with Isyo roof deck 4.00 A 48 x 96 0.20 0.31 0.55 0.83 0.74 0.95
Tectum Tectum IIIStructural roof composite 3.50 A 48 x 96 0.16 0.23 0.49 0.78 0.88 0.88
USG "F" Fissured ceiling tile 0.75 E-400 12 x 12 0.49 0.53 0.53 0.75 0.92 0.99
USG Acoustone "F"Fissured, foil-backed tiles and panels 0.75 E-400 24 x 24 0.52 0.38 0.67 0.97 0.98 1.02
USG Acoustone "F"Fissured
Firecodetiles and panels, fire-rated 0.75 E-400 24 x 24 0.52 0.50 0.67 0.95 0.94 0.99
USG Acoustone Chex/16
Foil-backed tiles and panels 0.75 E-400 24 x 24 0.22 0.29 0.66 0.80 0.83 0.89
USG Acoustone Glacier
Foil-backed tiles and panels 0.75 E-400 24 x 24 0.37 0.33 0.61 1.00 0.96 1.03
USG Aratone Fissured acoustical tile 0.75 E-400 12 x 12 0.50 0.36 0.76 0.73 0.69 0.72
USG Auratone Fissured acoustical panels 0.63 E-400 24 x 48 0.42 0.34 0.44 0.72 0.67 0.64
USG Auratone Fissured acoustical tile 0.63 E-400 12 x 12 0.42 0.29 0.52 0.68 0.64 0.69
USG Auratone Firecode
Fissured, fire-rated acoustical tiles and panels 0.63 E-400 24 x 48 0.34 0.30 0.53 0.78 0.73 0.69
USG Auratone Firecode
Fissured acoustical tile 0.63 E-400 12 x 12 0.59 0.33 0.45 0.70 0.79 0.70
USG Glacier Rough textured tile and panels 0.75 E-400 12 x 12 0.56 0.76 0.57 0.80 0.94 1.00
USG Nubby Fiberglass lay-in panels 1.00 E-400 24 x 48 0.55 0.89 0.73 1.03 1.11 1.07
Chin 33
USG Orion Ceiling panel with laminated textured surface 0.50 E-400 24 x 48 0.69 0.76 0.65 0.86 0.83 0.75
USG Orion Ceiling panel with laminated textured surface 1.00 E-400 24 x 48 0.74 0.82 0.82 1.05 1.06 1.09
USG Orion Same as above but with impervious backing 1.00 E-400 24 x 24 0.42 0.43 0.82 1.13 1.09 1.02
Absorber, 1" 1000 0.06 0.20 0.65 0.90 0.95 0.98
Absorber, 2" 1000 0.18 0.76 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99
Absorber, 3" 1000 0.53 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99
Absorber, 4" 1000 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.98
Absorber, 5" 1000 0.95 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99
Absorber, 6" 1000 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99
Absorber, 1P 0.08 0.32 0.99 0.76 0.34 0.12
Absorber, 2P 0.26 0.97 0.99 0.66 0.34 0.14
Absorber, 3P 0.49 0.99 0.99 0.69 0.37 0.15
Absorber, 4P 0.80 0.99 0.99 0.71 0.38 0.13
Absorber, 5P 0.98 0.99 0.99 0.71 0.40 0.20
Absorber, 6P 0.95 0.99 0.98 0.69 0.36 0.18
Brick 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.07
Ceiling Tile, standard 0.10 0.28 0.66 0.91 0.82 0.69
Ceiling Tile, Sonex 0.57 0.61 0.61 0.83 0.90 0.97
Concrete Block, painted 0.10 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.09 0.08
Concrete Block, unpainted 0.36 0.44 0.31 0.29 0.39 0.25
Door, oak 0.58 0.22 0.07 0.04 0.03 0.07
Drywall, 1/2", on 2 x 4's, 16" O.C. 0.10 0.08 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.03
Floor, Concrete 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02
Floor, Linoleum 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02
Floor, wood 0.15 0.11 0.10 0.07 0.06 0.07
Floor, wood parquet 0.04 0.04 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.07
Floor, carpet, 1/8" pile 0.05 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40
Floor, carpet. 1/4" pile 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.30 0.50 0.55
Floor, carpet, 5/16" pile 0.05 0.15 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60
Glass, normal window 0.35 0.25 0.18 0.12 0.07 0.04
Glass, heavy plate 0.18 0.06 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.02
Glass, laminated 0.18 0.06 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.02
Plywood, 1/4" 0.58 0.22 0.07 0.04 0.03 0.07
Plywood, 3/8" 0.28 0.22 0.17 0.09 0.10 0.11
Plaster, rough finish 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.03
Plaster, smooth finish 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.03
Chin 34
Sonex, 2" 0.08 0.25 0.61 0.92 0.95 0.92
Sonex, 3" 0.14 0.43 0.98 1.03 1.00 1.00
Sonex, 4" 0.20 0.70 1.06 1.01 1.01 1.00
SoundTex 0.14 0.35 0.55 0.72 0.70 0.65
spare 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
wood paneling 0.24 0.19 0.14 0.08 0.13 0.10
wood roof decking 0.24 0.19 0.14 0.08 0.13 0.10
Carpet, 3/32" pile 0.10 0.16 0.11 0.30 0.50 0.47
Carpet, 3/4" pile 0.15 0.17 0.12 0.32 0.52 0.57
Carpet, 3/8" pile 0.17 0.18 0.21 0.50 0.63 0.83
Carpet, 6/16" pile, 40oz/yd2, on hair pad 0.03 0.25 0.55 0.70 0.62 0.84
Carpet, 6/16" pike, 86oz/yd2, on hair pad 0.10 0.40 0.62 0.70 0.63 0.88
Carpet, 6/16" pike, 86oz/yd2, on hair and jute pad 0.20 0.50 0.68 0.72 0.65 0.90
Carpet, 20oz/yd2 , loop pile (no pad) 0.04 0.08 0.17 0.33 0.59 0.75
Carpet, 40oz/yd2, hair pad 0.10 0.19 0.35 0.79 0.69 0.79
Mineral Spray on materials, 1/2" mineral fiber 0.05 0.15 0.45 0.70 0.80 0.80
Mineral Spray-on materials, 3/4" mineral fiber 0.10 0.30 0.60 0.90 0.90 0.95
Mineral Spray-on materials, 1" mineral fiber 0.16 0.45 0.70 0.90 0.90 0.85
Mineral Spray-on materials 1/2" on lath 0.25 0.50 0.80 0.90 0.90 0.85
Person, adult 2.50 3.50 4.20 4.60 5.00 5.00

Person, child, high school 2.20 3.80 4.50
Person, child, grammar school 1.80 2.80 3.50
Chair, hard seat, up 0.19 0.24 0.39 0.38
Chair, theatre, heavy upholstery 3.40 3.00 3.30 3.60
Air, per 1000 cubic feet 0.90 2.30 7.20
Chin 35
Chin 36
Bohn, Dennis. “Environmental Effects on the Speed of Sound.” Journal of the Audio
Engineering Society 36, vol. 4 (1988), http://www.rane.com/pdf/ranenotes/Enviromental
%20Effects%20on%20the%20Speed%20of%20Sound.pdf (accessed February 5, 2010).
Brown, Pat. “Investigating Standing Sound Waves,” Syn-Aud-Con Tech Topic 28, no. 3 (Summer
2000): 1-6.
Davis, Gary and Ralph Jones. Sound Reinforcement Handbook. Buena Park, CA, 1989.
Hall, Donald E. Musical Acoustics: An Introduction. Belmont, CA,1980.
Lofft, Alan. “The Decibel (dB) and the Violin/Piano Recital,” Axiom Audio, http://
forum.ecoustics.com/bbs/messages/34579/489484.html (accessed March 23, 2010).
Meyer, Jürgen. “The Sound of the Orchestra.” Journal of the Audio Engineering Society 41, no. 4
(April 1993) 203-213.
Occupational Safety and Health Administration, Hearing Conversation (Washington DC: OSHA,
2002), http://www.osha.gov/Publications/OSHA3074/osha3074.html (accessed March
21, 2010).
Smith, Eric T. Acoustics 101: Practical Guidelines for Constructing Accurate Acoustical Spaces,
Including Advice on the Proper Materials to Use. Indianapolis: Auralex Acoustics, Inc.,
2004, http://www.acoustics101.com/common/acoustics101v3_0.pdf (accessed February
1, 2010).

Waves and Wave Travel For The Musician - Toby Chin

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Waves and Wave Travel For The Musician - Toby Chin

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acoustics than reverberation in a space such as a cathedral.

waves travel, or when they are absorbed or reflected.

Audio Engineering Society (AES). Working technical professionals in companies like

do not directly address acoustics.

1 Donald E. Hall, Musical Acoustics: An Introduction (Belmont, CA,1980), 1.

mechanically measured and can be humanly observed as well.

this is what we perceive as amplitude, or loudness.

—if the source exerts enough energy (or is loud enough).

Side B Figure 1 Side A

of how sound waves travel2 .

2 Donald E. Hall, Musical Acoustics: An Introduction (Belmont, CA,1980), 5.

that you may feel in your chest. 4

sound travels at the same speed5.

Another way of understanding frequency (pitch) is to understand the following formula: t

look, this time at 440 Hz.

Example 2: t (seconds) = 1 / 440 Hz

decreases, respectively. Loudness is measured in decibels. The decibel is a logarithmic function.

6 Cycle: Every time the sine wave repeats

SPL would be a gas lawn mower at about three feet away.

provide hearing protection to whomever is subjected to these levels, as previously stated.

However, it is possible to have hearing damage from orchestral playing or listening.

easier, think back to the rope example.

Figures 3 and 4 are good ways to think

of a pure tone. A pure tone is only one

frequency, with no overtones or other

frequencies imposed on the sound.

This complication can be understood by

studying overtones. Because this

presentation is mean to only prompt

curiosity and provide a basic

to find the size of a wave, or wavelength, is13:

Wavelength (in meters) = 344 meters per second/ frequency (Hertz)

In the examples below, an 80 Hz wave is examined. Figuring out the size of an 80 Hz

wave is a relatively easy process.

Example 3: ! (wavelength) = 344 meters per second / 80 cycles per second

So, as is quickly seen, as the frequency rises, the wavelength decreases.

14 Donald E. Hall, Musical Acoustics: An Introduction (Belmont, CA,1980), 11.

is a third of a semitone18 , which is a difference that is noticeable to the average ear.

16 Donald E. Hall, Musical Acoustics: An Introduction (Belmont, CA,1980), 11.

absorbed or reflected. A knowledge of the chart is not completely necessary, however. An

large, relative to the size of the sound wave.

20 Donald E. Hall, Musical Acoustics: An Introduction (Belmont, CA,1980), 62.

21 Donald E. Hall, Musical Acoustics: An Introduction (Belmont, CA,1980), 62.

direction from which the sound came.

27 People, music stands, et cetera.

orchestra, rather than into the audience.

Posture also plays an important role in the projection of sound. If slouched, an

a line of sight from their instruments to the ears of the audience.

Violin 2 Viola Violin 2 Viola

Violin 1 Cello Violin 1 Cello

cut into a separate part as it enters the water (Figure 7).

This is light bending due to different densities of the

different materials: air and water. In the air, the density of

water is very thin and the molecular make up is much

lighter than water. In the glass, the water is obviously

very abundant and relatively dense. The difference in

materials causes the straw to appear bent or broken

because the speed of light changes as it passes through

performances is seldom realized. Refraction is not an incredibly influential factor in indoor

attention. Nevertheless, it is vital to the musical integrity of the ensemble.

both musician and audience member.

Sound Pressure Approximate

Thershold of hearing 0 dBA SPL Don’t Hear anything

Broadcast Studio 10 1/32 of conversation

Quiet house, rural night 20 1/16th as loud