ADVENT OF MODERN PHYSICS

(CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS)
THEORY OF RELATIVITY:
1. Frame of Reference: A frame with reference to which a vector quantity can be expressed
is called frame of reference.
2. The simplest frame is a system of Cartesian co-ordinates consisting of three mutually
perpendicular axes originating from a common origin.
3. An accelerated frame of reference is called non-inertial frame. For example a rotating
frame or a frame moving with increasing or decreasing velocity is non-inertial.
4. A frame at rest or moving with uniform velocity is called inertial frame. It is a frame in
which Newton’s first and second law holds true but the third law in general is not valid.
For example, a car moving with uniform velocity on a smooth and level road or a rocket
whose engine is off, moving in free space etc.
5. Theory of relativity: German Physicist and philosopher Albert Einstein while working as a
clerk in Switzerland developed two theories about space, time, motion and matter.
Einstein proposed his theories of relativity in different years,
i. Special theory in 1905
ii. General theory in 1916
6. General theory of relativity: The general theory of relativity is a theory of non-inertial
frames. It deals with the Physics of strong gravity, because an accelerated frame is
equivalent to a frame in gravitational field.
7. Special theory of relativity: The theory of relativity which deals with inertial frames is
called special theory. It is based on two postulates:
i. Principle of equivalence or relativity: uniform motion is relative so that the
same laws of Physics are valid for bodies at rest or moving with uniform velocity.
ii. Principle of constancy: speed of light in free space is a universal constant and its
value is independent of the relative motion of the source and observer.
8. Consequence of Special theory of relativity:
i. Mass variation: Mass of an object is a relative quantity and the relativistic mass is
𝑚𝑜
given by equation: 𝑚 = 2
. It is clear from this equation that 𝑚 > 𝑚𝑜 . Thus, mass
�1 − 𝑣2
𝑐
of an object depends upon:
i. The frame from where it is measured.
ii. The speed of frame relative to object.
ii. Length contraction: Length of an object is a relative quantity and the relativistic
𝑣2
length is given by equation: 𝑙 = 𝑙𝑜 �1 − . It is clear from this equation that 𝑙 < 𝑙𝑜 .
𝑐2
Contraction is measured only in that dimension of the body which is parallel to the
direction of motion.
iii. Time dilation: Time of an event is a relative quantity and the relativistic time is
𝑡𝑜
given by equation: 𝑡 = 2
. It is clear from this equation that 𝑡 > 𝑡𝑜 i.e, moving
�1 − 𝑣2
𝑐
clock runs slow.
iv. Mass-Energy relation: The equivalence of matter and energy is given by the
famous equation: 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 . This equation means that a body of mass ‘𝑚’ is
equivalent to energy ‘𝐸’. Some common deductions of above equations are:
Rest mass energy, 𝐸𝑜 = 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2
Total (relativistic) energy, 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 + 𝐾. 𝐸
Relativistic kinetic energy, 𝐾. 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 − 𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2
v. Speed of a material object can never exceed the speed of light.
THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT:
1. Photon: Discrete packets (amounts) of electromagnetic energy are called photons or
quanta. These are the carries of electromagnetic forces.
2. Characteristics of Photon:
i. Charge: A photon has no charge. It can interact with all charged and some of
neutral particles.
ii. Stability: It is a stable particle with infinite life time, until it interacts with other
particles.
iii. Energy: Energy of a photon is given by: 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓.
iv. Speed: Photons may have different energies but they always move with speed of
light.
v. Mass: Rest mass of a photon is zero i.e., it is a massless particle, It exists due to its
motion.
ℎ𝑓 ℎ
vi. Momentum: P = =
𝑐 𝜆
3. Photoelectric effect: Emission of electrons from a metal surface when it is exposed to
light of suitable frequency is called photoelectric effect.
4. Experimental Observations:
i. Increasing the intensity of the source of light, increases the number of
photoelectrons, but not the velocity with which they leave the surface of the metal.
ii. For each substance there is a certain frequency called the threshold frequency
below which the effect does not occur.
iii. The higher the frequency of the incident light the greater the kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons.
5. Important terms:
i. Saturation Current: When positive potential of collector ‘c’ is made large enough,
the photoelectric current reaches a constant value, at which all the photoelectrons
ejected from metal plate ‘p’ are collected by ‘c’. This is called saturation current.
ii. Stopping Potential: The minimum negative voltage on ‘c’ with respect to ‘p’ required
to stop photoelectrons is called stopping potential 𝑉𝑜 . This potential difference
multiplied by electron charge ‘e’, gives the K.E of the most energetic
photoelectrons. 𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒𝑉𝑜
iii. Threshold Frequency: The minimum frequency of incidence light required to eject
electrons from metal surface without any K.E is called threshold frequency 𝑓𝑜 . It
depends upon the nature of metal.
iv. Work Function: the minimum energy required to eject an electorn from metal
surface i.e, to overcome the binding force of the nucleus is called work function 𝜙.
Mathematically, 𝜙 = ℎ𝑓𝑜
6. Failure of Classical Wave theory of light:
i. According to wave theory, the photoelectric effect should occur for any frequency of
the light, because electrons may come out by absorbing enough energy from
incident light.
ii. The velocity and hence 𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 of photoelectrons should depend upon the amplitude
i.e., the intensity of light beam rather than the frequency.
iii. For weak intensity of light, there should be a time lag between the impinging of
light on the surface and the ejection of the photoelectrons.
7. Einstein explanation on the basis of Quantum theory: Einstein in 1905 explained the
photoelectric effect based on Planck’s idea of quantum theory of light. According to
Einstein, when a photon collides with an electron in the metal, it transfer whole of its
energy ‘ℎ𝑓’ to the electron and the electron is ejected out of the metal. If mass of electron
is ‘m’ then we can write:
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 + 𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥
ℎ𝑓 = 𝜙 + 𝐾. 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥
ℎ𝑓 = ℎ𝑓𝑜 + 𝑒𝑉𝑜
𝑒𝑉𝑜 = ℎ𝑓 − ℎ𝑓𝑜
ℎ𝑐
𝑒𝑉𝑜 = − ℎ𝑓𝑜
𝜆
 These are called Einstein’s photoelectric equations.
THE COMPTON EFFECT:
1. Arthur H. Compton discovered in 1923 that the wave-lengths of X-rays change after they
are scattered from electrons.
2. The phenomena in which a photon of wave-length 𝜆1 , is scattered by an electron and the
scattered photon has a wave-length 𝜆2 greater than 𝜆1 is called Compton effect.
3. The Compton Effect confirms the particle nature of light.
4. Mathematically, the change in wave-length during this phenomenon is given as:
ℎ
𝜆2 − 𝜆1 = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) . This equation shows that Compton shift ∆𝜆 depends only upon
𝑚𝑜 𝐶
scattering angle ‘𝜃’ of photon.
ℎ
5. When the scattered photons are observed at 𝜃 = 90° equation gives ∆𝜆 = = 2.43 ×
𝑚𝑜 𝐶
10−12 𝑚. This is called the ‘Compton wave-length’ of the electron. It is denoted by 𝜆𝐶 .
ℎ
Hence, 𝜆𝐶 = .
𝑚𝑜 𝐶
PAIR PRODUCTION:
1. A phenomenon in which a photon passes very close to a heavy, stable nucleus and
disappears producing a particle-antiparticle pair, is called pair production.
2. This process is also called materialization of energy in conformity with the mass-energy
equivalence.
3. This process obeys following conservation laws:
i. Conservation of charge
ii. Conservation of momentum
iii. Conservation of energy: if a photon disintegrates and a pair of electron-positron is
created then the energy ℎ𝑓 of photon is given as:
ℎ𝑓 = 2𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 + 𝐾. 𝐸𝑒 − + 𝐾. 𝐸𝑒 +
2
Where 2𝑚𝑜 𝑐 is the rest mass energy of electron-positron pair. Hence the minimum
energy of photon (ℎ𝑓) must be 2𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 (1.02MeV). The excess energy becomes K.E of
pair.
ANNIHILATION OF MATTER:
1. This is the reverse process of pair production in which energy is created from mass.
2. A phenomenon in which a positron is in the vicinity of an electron, and the two particles
vanish, forming two photons is called annihilation of matter.
3. This phenomenon proves that matter and antimatter cannot co-exist in the same frame.
4. This process obeys following conservation laws:
i. Conservation of charge
ii. Conservation of momentum
iii. Conservation of mass and energy
(𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 )𝑒 − + (𝑚𝑜 𝑐 2 )𝑒 + + 𝐾. 𝐸𝑒 − + 𝐾. 𝐸𝑒 + = ℎ𝑓
Wave-Particle duality:
1. In 1924 De Broglie suggested that if light a wave can act as a particle, then most probably
a particle can also act as a wave under certain circumstances.
ℎ
2. The momentum ‘P’ of the particle is given by the same relation as that of photon: 𝑃 = ⇒
𝜆
ℎ ℎ
𝑚𝑣 = . Thus the wave-length associated with the particle is given by: 𝜆 = . This wave-
𝜆 𝑚𝑣
length is called De Broglie wave or matter wave.
3. The wave and particle aspects of a moving body can never be observed at the same time.
In certain situation a moving body exhibits wave properties and in others it exhibits
particle properties.
4. The De Broglie hypothesis is confirmed by Davisson and Germer in their famous
experiment in the year 1927. In this experiment they showed that electron i.e., particle
are diffracted which is property of waves not these of particle.
 5. The wave-length of electron (particle) obtain from Davisson and Germer experiment is
ℎ
given by: 𝜆 = .
�2𝑒𝑉𝑚𝑜
HEISENBERG UNCERTANITY PRINCIPLE:
1. German Physicist Werner Heisenberg had showed, we are fundamentally limited in our
ability to gather knowledge about the subatomic world. His quantitatively result is known
as ‘the Uncertainty Principle’.
2. It is impossible to know precisely and simultaneously both the position and the momentum
of a particle. The product of uncertainties in position and momentum is of the order of ℏ
i.e., ∆𝑝. ∆𝑥 ≥ ℏ .
3. This principle can also be stated as: the product of uncertainties in the energy and time
available for the measurement of energy is of the order of ℏ i.e., ∆𝐸. ∆𝑡 ≥ ℏ
BLACK BODY RADIATION:
1. Radiation given off by a body because of its temperature is called thermal radiation. All
bodies not only emit such radiation but also absorb such radiation from other bodies in
their surroundings.
2. An object that can absorb all the radiation falling on it is called a black body. Just as a
black body is perfect absorber, so it the perfect emitter when heated.
3. The absorption power of a perfect black body is unity i.e., 100%.
4. Laws of black body radiations: To describe the black body radiations curves following
laws were proposed.
i. Wien’s Displacement Law: This law states the wave-length of maximum intensity of
radiation is inversely proportional to the absolute temperature f hot black body i.e.,
1
𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∝ ⇒ 𝜆𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑇
ii. Stefan-Boltzmann Law: This law states that the total energy radiated per second
per unit surface area is proportional to the fourth power of absolute temperature
i.e., 𝐸 ∝ 𝑇 4 ⇒ 𝐸 = 𝜎𝑇 4 . Where 𝜎 is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant and its value is
5.67x10-8Watt/m2-K4.
iii. Rayleigh-Jeans Law: According to this law the energy associated with a particular
wave-length is inversely proportional to the fourth power of wave-length i.e.,
1
𝐸 ∝ 4 ⇒ 𝜆4 𝐸 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡. This law is valid only for long wave-length.
𝜆
iv. Planck’s Law: Planck proposed his law in 1990. According to him, the energy
radiated in discrete packets called quanta. The energy of each quanta is directly
proportional to the frequency i.e., 𝐸 ∝ 𝑓 ⇒ 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓.
On the basis of above mentioned assumption that energy radiated or absorbed by
atomic oscillators only in discrete set given by: 𝐸 = 𝑛ℎ𝑓. Where n = 0, 1, 2, 3 …

ADVENT OF MODERN PHYSICS

(Practice MCQ’s Problem)

1. Will observers A and B agree on measurements of time if A moves at half the speed of light relative to B? If both A
and B move together at half the speed of light relative to the Earth? (Yes/No)
2. Rectangular billboard in space has the dimension 10mx20m. How fast and in what direction with respect to the
billboard would a space traveler have to pass for the billboard to appear square?
3. When a light source approaches you, your measurements of it show an increase in its:
a) Momentum b) Kinetic energy
c) Temperature d) All of them
e) None of them
4. Relativistic equations for time, length and mass hold true for:
a) Speeds near that speed of light b) Everyday low speeds
c) Both d) Neither
5. Compared with special relativity, general relativity is more concerned with:
a) Acceleration b) Gravitation
c) Space-time geometry d) All of these
6. Photoelectric effect supports the quantum nature of light because (select all that apply):
a) There is a minimum frequency of light below which b) The maximum K.E of photoelectrons depends only
no photoelectrons are emitted on the frequency of light and not on its intensity
c) Even when the metal surface is faintly illuminated, d) Electric charge of the photoelectrons is
the photoelectrons leave the surface immediately quantized
7. The maximum energy of the electron released in a photocell is independent of:
a) Frequency of incident light b) Intensity of incident light
c) Nature of cathode rays d) None of these
8. In order to increase the K.E of ejected photoelectrons, there should be an increase in:
a) Intensity of radiation b) Wavelength of radiation
c) Frequency of radiation d) Both wavelength and intensity of radiation
9. The energy of a photon corresponding to the visible light of maximum wave-length is approximately:
a) 1eV b) 1.7eV
c) 3.2eV d) 7eV
10. The work function of a metal is 4eV. For the emission of photoelectrons of zero velocity from the metal surface, the
wavelength of the incident radiation should be:
a) 1700oA b) 2700oA
o
c) 3100 A d) 5900oA
11. Light of frequency 1.5times the threshold frequency is incident on a photo-sensitive material. If the frequency is
halved and the intensity is doubled, the photoelectric current becomes:
a) Four times b) Double
c) Half d) Zero
12. The threshold wavelength for a photosensitive surface is 6000 A and the wavelength of incident light is 5000oA.
o

Then the maximum energy of emitted electron would be:

a) 0.041eV b) 0.41eV
c) 4.1eV d) None of these
o
13. Work function of a metal is 1eV. Light of wavelength 3000 A falls on it. The photoelectrons come out with
approximate speed equal to:
a) 10 m/sec b) 100 m/sec
c) 10000 m/sec d) 1000000 m/sec
14. The work function of a metallic surface is 5.01eV. Photoelectrons are emitted when light of wavelength 200oA falls
on it. The potential difference required to stop the fastest photoelectrons is (h = 4.14x10-15eV-sec)
a) 1.2V b) 2.4V
c) 3.6V d) 4.8V
15. A photon of energy 3.4eV is incident on a metal having work function 2eV. The maximum K.E is equal to:
a) 1.4eV b) 1.7eV
c) 5.4eV d) 6.8eV
16. The threshold wavelength for photoelectric emission from a material is 5200oA. photoelectrons will be emitted
when this material is illuminated with monochromatic radiation from a:
a) 50 watt infrared lamp b) 1 watt infrared lamp
c) 50 watt ultraviolet lamp d) 1 watt ultraviolet lamp
17. A photocell is illuminated by a small bright source placed 1m away. When the same source of light is placed 2m
away, the electrons emitted by the photoelectron:
a) Carry one quarter of their previous energy b) Carry one quarter of their previous momenta
c) Are half as numerous d) Are one quarter as numerous
18. When a monochromatic point source of light is at a distance of 0.2m from a photoelectric cell, the cut-off voltage
and the saturation current are respectively 0.6volt and 18mA. If the same source is placed 0.6m away from the
photoelectric cell, then:
a) The stopping potential will be 0.2volt b) The stopping potential will be 0.6volt
 c) The saturation current will be 6mA d) The saturation current will be 2mA
19. Light of two different frequencies whose photons have energies 1eV and 2.5eV successively illuminate a metal of
work function 0.5V. The ratio of the maximum speeds of the emitted electrons will be:
a) 1:5 b) 1:4
c) 1:2 d) 1:1
20. If the wavelength of incident radiation in a photoelectric experiment is decreased then:
a) The photoelectric current will decrease b) The photoelectric current will increase
c) The stopping potential will decrease d) The stopping potential will increase
21. The maximum K.E of photoelectrons emitted in a photoelectric cell varies with frequency as shown in the graph. The
slope of the graph is equal to

a) Charge of the electron b) e/m of the electron

c) work function of electron d) Planck’s constant
22. In photoelectric effect, the graph showing the variation of cut-off voltage with frequency of incident radiation is:
a) b)

c) d)

23. Photons of frequency f fall on a metal surface for which the threshold frequency is fo. Then:
a) All ejected electrons have the same K.E h(f – fo) b) The ejected electrons have a distribution of K.E
from zero to h(f – fo)
c) The most energetic electrons have K.E hf d) The average K.E of ejected electrons is hfo
24. Which of the following graphs fives the variation of photoelectric current (I) with the voltage (V) applied to the
electrodes of a photo cell?
a) b)

c) d)

25. The work functions for three different metals A, B and C are ∅𝐴 , ∅𝐵 , and ∅𝐶 respectively with ∅𝐴 > ∅𝐵 > ∅𝐶 . The
graphs between stopping potential and frequency of incident radiation for them would look like:
a) b)
 c) d)

26. In a photoelectric cell, the current stops when the collecting plate is one volt negative with restpect to the emitting
metal. The maximum K.E of the photoelectrons is:
a) 1erg b) 1J
c) 1.6x10-19J d) 1.6x10-19eV
27. De Broglie waves are associated with:
a) Moving charged particles only b) Moving neutral particles only
c) All moving particles d) All particles whether in motion or at rest
28. Matter waves are:
a) Electromagnetic waves b) Transverse mechanical waves
c) Longitudinal mechanical waves d) Neither electromagnetic nor mechanical waves
29. Of the following, the one which has the largest De Broglie wavelength for the same sped is:
a) Electron b) Proton
c) Alpha particle d) Oxygen atom
30. The momentum of a photon of an electromagnetic radiation is 3.3x10-29N-sec. The frequency of the associated
waves is:
a) 3KHz b) 6KHz
c) 7.5THz d) 15THz
31. A proton and an alpha particle are accelerated through the same potential difference. The ratio of their De Broglie
wavelengths is:
1
a) √2 b)
√2
c) 2√2 d) 2
32. Which of the following graphs represents the variation of particle momentum and the associated De Broglie
wavelength?
a) b)

c) d)

33. Stopping potential for photoelectrons:

a) Does not depend on the frequency b) Does not depend on the nature of metal
c) Depends on both frequency and nature of metal d) Depends on the intensity of the incident light
34. Compton’s effect shows that
a) X-rays are waves b) X-rays have high energy
c) X-rays can penetrate matter d) Photons have momentum
35. Which of the following phenomenon confirms the wave nature of electrons in the Davisson-Germer experiment?
a) Refraction of electons b) Transmission of electrons
c) Diffraction of electons d) Dispersion of electrons
36. The curve drawn between velocity and frequency of photon in vacuum will be a
a) Straight line parallel to frequency axis b) Straight line parallel to velocity axis
c) Straight line passing through the origin and making an d) hyperbola
angle of 45o with frequency axis
37. The phenomenon of pair production is the:
a) Formation of an electron-positron pair from 𝛾-rays b) Ejection of an electron from a metal surface
when exposed to ultra-violet light
c) Ejection o f an electron from a nucleus d) Ionization of a neutral atom
38. To produce an electron-positron pair, the minimum energy of 𝛾-ray photon must be:
a) 1.02KeV b) 1.02MeV
c) 1.02TeV d) 1.02eV
39. A 𝛾-ray photon creates an electron-positron pair. If the rest mass of electron is 0.5MeV and the total K.E of the pair
is 0.78MeV, then the energy of the 𝛾-ray photon must be:
a) 0.28MeV b) 0.78MeV
c) 1.28MeV d) 1.78MeV
40. Four rods of the same material but different radii and lengths are used to connect two reservoirs of heat at different
temperatures. The one which will conduct most heat is:
a) R=2cm, l=0.5cm b) R=2cm, l=2cm
c) R=1cm, l=1cm d) R=0.5cm, l=0.5cm
41. In which of the following cases does the thermal conductivity increase from left to right?
a) Al, Cu, Ag b) Ag, Cu, Al
c) Al, Ag, Cu d) Cu, Ag, Al
42. A hot body will radiate maximum energy if its surface is:
a) White and polished b) Black and polished
c) White and rough d) Black and rough
43. A polished metal plate with a rough block spot on it is heated to about 1400K and quickly taken to a dark room.
Then the spot:
a) Will appear brighter than the plate b) Will appear darker than the plate
c) And the plate will appear equally bright d) And the plate will not be visible in the dark
room
44. The absorptive power of a perfect black body is:
a) 1 b) 0
c) ∞ d) None of the above
45. The plots of intensity versus wavelength for three black bodies at temperatures T1, T2 and T3 respectively are as
shown. Their temperature are such that:
a) T1 > T2 > T3 b) T1 > T3 > T2
c) T3 > T2 > T1 d) T3 > T2 > T1
46. Planck’s work was connected with:
a) Wave nature of light b) Photoelectric effect
c) Structure of atom d) Quantum nature of radiation
47. A photosensitive surface is receiving light of wavelength 5000 A at the rate of 10-7J/sec. The number of photons
o

received per second is:

a) 2.5x1012 b) 2.5x1011
c) 2.5x1010 d) 2.5x109
Prepared by,
Nasir Jamal B.E - CIS