IMPACT OF EDUCATION ON THE PRODUCTION AND

USE OF HERBAL DECOCTIONS AND CONCOCTIONS

BY NIGERIANS
(A CASE STUDY OF ONDO TOWN)

A RESEARCH PROJECT

SUBMITTED TO

BIOLOGY DEPARTMENT,
OBAFEMI AWOLOWO UNIVERSITY,
ADEYEMI COLLEGE OF EDUCATION,
ONDO, ONDO STATE

BY

AKINLOSOTU AYOKUNLE OLALEKAN

050584D

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS

FOR THE AWARD OF A BACHELOR OF SCIENCE
IN BIOLOGY EDUCATION (B.Sc ED)

FEBRUARY, 2010
1
 CERTIFICATION

This is to certify that this research project was carried out by Akinlosotu
Ayokunle Olalekan and submitted to the department of Biology, Obafemi
Awolowo University, Adeyemi College of Education, Ondo, Ondo state.

……………………
Adenegan-Alakinde T.A.
Supervisor

……………………….
Dr. Femi Olajuiyegbe
Head of Department

2
 DEDICATION

This project work is dedicated to God Almighty who is the giver of all
wisdom and excellence. And to the memory of my loving mother Mrs.
Florence Olufunke Akinlosotu.

3
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my profound gratitude to my father Mr. S.A Akinlosotu and

siblings Mr. Olarewaju Akinmade , Mrs. Caroline Arowosebe and Mrs.
Victoria Adetoyinbo who have contributed immensely to the successful
completion of my studies.

Much thanks to my supervisor, Mrs. Adenegan-Alakinde whose useful

advice and constructive criticism has contributed in no small measure to the
success of this research project.

Space and time will fail me to mention everyone that has been there for me
in one way or the other, however, I must acknowledge my Head of
Department, Dr. Femi Olajuyigbe for his fatherly advice and role in my
studentship, Mr. Ilori, Mr. Sanni, Mr. Sabejeje, Dr. (Mrs) Oni, Mrs.
Akinkuolie, Mr. Olaniyan, Mrs Awe Dr (Mrs) Ayoola, Mrs. Adebola.

There is no self-made man on earth. In my journey so far , I have met

individuals who have helped in building a destiny. I greatly appreciate
Olatunde Folarin Ferdinand, Adeoye Tobi, Abesin Temitope, Winney Ben-
Abba and of course my best friend, Pelemo Toluwalope Omotola.

4
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

TITLE PAGE. . . . . . . . . i
CERTIFICATION. . . . . . . . ii
DEDICATION. . . . . . . . . iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT. . . . . . . iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS. . . . . . . v-vi
ABSTRACT. . . . . . . . . vii

CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . 1
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY. . . . . 2
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM. . . .
1.3 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY.. . . . . 1
1.4 SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY. . .
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY. . . . .
1.6 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESIS. . .
1.7 DEFINITION OF TERMS. . . . . .

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE.. . .

2.1 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF HERBAL DECOCTION.
2.2 HEALTH EFFECTS OF HERBAL DECOCTION. . .
2.3 SOCIAL EFFECTS OF HERBAL DECOCTIONS. .
2.4 EDUCATIONAL PATTERNS AND HERBAL
DECOCTION CONSUMPTION AMONG NIGERIANS. .

5
CHAPTER THREE

3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. . . . .

3.1 STUDY AREA. . . . . . . .
3.2 DESIGN OF THE STUDY METHOD. . . .
3.3 THE STUDY SAMPLE.. . . . . .
3.4 SAMPLING TECHNIQUE. . . . . .
3.5 DESCRIPTION OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENT. . .
3.6 FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS. . .. . .
3.7 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS. . . . .

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULTS PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION. .

4.1 RESULT OF RESEARCH STUDY.. . . .
4.2 DATA ANALYSIS. . . . . . .
4.3 TEST AND INTERPRETATION OF HYPOTHESIS. .

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSION, SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION
5.2 SUMMARY
5.3 RECOMMENDATION
REFERENCES

APPENDIX
- QUESTIONNAIRES

6
 ABSTRACT

Herbal trade has been on the increase in Nigeria in recent times not only
because it is cost effective but also because of easy accessibility and
reported efficacy. Herbal medicines may be dispensed in refined ways by
display in supermarkets and drug stores, and sometimes in hospitals and by
crude means involving hawking directly to customers in various forms as
ground powder, cooked decoction and concoction. The business is branded
“paraga” in the parlance of the consumers. This complementary health care
endeavour of the people encouraged the present study with the aims to
relate educational status of a consumer to the knowledge and its safety.
Well structured questionnaires were used to elicit information from
respondents. Five hundred (500) questionnaires were distributed and four
hundred and eighty five (485) were returned. The result revealed that 70%
of the total sample size are consumers, of which 14% of them are educated.
Data analysis of responses were done using simple descriptive statistics.
Recommendations were however made that self medication is a risk of
getting some complications. So , it is important for one to consult one’s
doctor and pharmacist before taking herbal medicine.

7
 CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Herbal medicine - also called botanical medicine or phytomedicine - refers

to using a plant's seeds, berries, roots, leaves, bark, or flowers for medicinal
purposes. Herbalism has a long tradition of use outside of conventional
medicine. It is becoming more mainstream as improvements in analysis and
quality control along with advances in clinical research show the value of
herbal medicine in the treating and preventing disease (Gillespie, 1997).

Plants had been used for medicinal purposes long before recorded history.
Ancient Chinese and Egyptian papyrus writings describe medicinal uses for
plants. Indigenous cultures (such as African and Native American) used
herbs in their healing rituals, while others developed traditional medical
systems (such as Ayurveda and Traditional Chinese Medicine) in which
herbal therapies were used. Researchers found that people in different parts
of the world tended to use the same or similar plants for the same purposes.

Traditional medicine can be described as the total combination of

knowledge and practice, whether explicable or not, used in diagnosing,
preventing or eliminating a physical, mental or social disease and which
may rely exclusively on past experience and observation handed down from
generation to generation, verbally or in writing (Sofowora, 1982). A
medicinal plant is any plant which in one or more of its organs contains
substances that can be used for therapeutic purposes or which are
precursors for the synthesis of useful drugs. The use of medicinal plants as
remedies is common and widespread in Nigeria. Currently, the society at
large appreciates natural cure, which medicinal plants provide compared to
synthetic cure. The plants parts used in remedies include the bark, leaves,
roots, flowers, fruits and seeds (Sofowora, 1982).

8
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The discoveries of the use of plant for food and as medicine began at a very
early stage in human evolution. The history of the use of plants dates back
to the time of the early man. The art of using plants to enhance his health
must have come to the early man in the most unscientific way. Some people
may want to believe that he used his instinct to identify poisonous and non-
poisonous plants while some accept that there were external forces or
invisible help guided him to know what he could eat freely to keep fit. No
matter which one is accepted the truth is that the early man used plants in
the raw form and cooked form to keep fit. Since that time, the
use/consumption of herbs has been known and accepted by all nations on
the surface of the earth. (Kafaru, 1994). Herbal trade is on the increase in
Nigeria in the recent times not only because it is cost effective but also
because of easy accessibility and reported efficacy.

In the early 19th century, when chemical analysis first became available,
scientists began to extract and modify the active ingredients from plants.
Later, chemists began making their own version of plant compounds, and
over time, the use of herbal medicines declined in favor of drugs. Recently,
the World Health Organization estimated that 80% of people worldwide rely
on herbal medicines for some part of their primary health care. In Germany,
about 600 - 700 plant-based medicines are available and are prescribed by
some 70% of German physicians. In the last 20 years in the United States,
public dissatisfaction with the cost of prescription medications, combined
with an interest in returning to natural or organic remedies, has led to an
increase in herbal medicine use.

In many cases, scientists are not sure what specific ingredient in a particular
herb works to treat a condition or illness. Whole herbs contain many

9
ingredients, and they may work together to produce a beneficial effect.
Many factors determine how effective an herb will be. For example, the type
of environment (climate, bugs, soil quality) in which a plant grew will affect it,
as will how and when it was harvested and processed.

The use of herbal supplements has increased dramatically over the past 30
years. Herbal supplements are classified as dietary supplements by the
U.S. Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA) of 2004. That
means herbal supplements -- unlike prescription drugs -- can be sold
without being tested to prove that they are safe and effective. Herbal
medicines are used to treat many conditions, such as asthma, eczema,
premenstrual syndrome, rheumatoid arthritis, migraine, menopausal
symptoms, chronic fatigue, and irritable bowel syndrome, among others.

Herbal treatment is one of the primary medicines used to treat HIV in Africa.
It is used more than standard treatment because it is more affordable.
Herbal treatment is more affordable but is not researched and is poorly
regulated. This lack of research on whether the Herbal medicines work and
what the medicines may pose a major flaw in the healing cycle of HIV in
Africa. Because the unprecedented epidemic scourge of HIV/AIDs in Africa,
has made herbal medicine to be embraced by illiterates and the educated
as an alternative curative measure as well as to ameliorate for lack of funds
necessary to access antiretroviral treatment. Difficulties surrounding access
to orthodox treatment has also made a reasonable percentage of the both
educated and illiterates to patronize traditional means of health care delivery
system. Herbal medicines may be dispensed in refined ways by direct
hawking, displayed in supermarkets and drug stores, and sometimes in
hospitals and by crude means involving hawking directly to customers in
various forms as ground powder, cooked decoction and concoction. The
business is branded “paraga” in the parlance of the users. This
complementary health care endeavour of the people encouraged the
10
present study with the aims to evaluate the caliber of people that patronize
it, the trend of incorporation of the approach into health care delivery with
respect to the educational and exposure/awareness level of consumers
impacting on the trend consumption of these herbal/medicinal decoctions
and concoctions.

1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Herbal decoction and concoction consumption is a widespread observable

phenomenon among adult population in Southwestern region of Nigeria,
particularly in Ondo Town. The level of education and exposure to the
orthodox medical implications notwithstanding. Many people irrespective of
being aware of the dangers posed by these mixtures which most often than
not within our area of consideration are poorly and unhygienically prepared
still continue to patronize sellers. These mixtures come in different forms
with several coded names like jembele, kaikan apetesi, 404, karugbojo, and,
lately, paraga and so on. Its sales and consumption has become the norm
and in fact makes for a curious sight if not found at any particular area in
Ondo township and its environs. They are even graded; to know if the one
has purchased a high grade, the consumer could pour a little on the ground
and light a match stick. If it burns with blue flames, then it is of a very high
grade. But if it does not, it is regarded as of a very poor grade. Such is the
profile of some of these drinks.

It is expected that the educated ones know better but as it is, there is much
left to be desired by the prevailing trend of and caliber of consumers as it
cuts across all strata, academics, illiterates, artisans, drivers etc.

Through this study, an attempt would be made to look at this trend of

consumption of herbal decoctions and its corresponding relationship with
education.

11
1.3. PURPOSE OF STUDY

This project is basically to evaluate the extent to which education impacts

on the rate and pattern of consumption of herbal decoctions and
concoctions. Different classes of the society would be examined and their
culpability and or participation in herbal decoction and concoction
consumption highlighted.

1.4 SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF STUDY

This project topic although broad will be limited to what obtains within Ondo
Town. In an attempt to achieve the objectives of this study, the researcher
would consider what herbal decoction and concoction actually is and the
perception of the concept by some authors. The various classes of users
will be examined. Furthermore, the educational impact on this trend of
lifestyle would be put into consideration.

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

This research project is significant in highlighting if the level of exposure and

education of the general populace has a measurable and observable impact
on their behavioural trends especially as relating to the production, selling
and consumption of herbal/medicinal decoctions and concoctions as well as
briefly look at some of the attendant effects this has on their health and
social life.

1.6 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESIS

In this research project, the following questions are posed:

1. Has the level of education been a determinant factor in the

consumption of herbal decoction?
2. What are the benefits of herbal decoction to the society?

12
3. Has the herbal decoction sector had impact on improving health
standard?
4. What are the problems associated with the production, sale and
consumption of herbal concoctions?
5. Should herbal decoction be accepted as an alternative to modern
medicine?
6. Is alcohol a more preferred solvent in the preparation of herbal
concoctions?
HYPOTHESES

I. Ho: Educational level has no significant impact on herbal

decoction consumption.
H1: Educational level has significant impact on herbal
decoction consumption.

II. H0: There is no significant impact in the refining and production

process with exposure to education.
H1: There is significant impact in the refining and production
process with exposure to education.

III. H0: Herbal decoction is complementary to unorthodox medicine.

H1: Herbal decoction is not complementary to unorthodox medicine.

IV H0: Herbal decoction has no serious side effects on consumers.

H1: Herbal decoction has serious side effects on consumers.

1.7 DEFINITION OF TERMS

CONCOCTION: To prepare by combining raw materials e.g. a recipe

DECOCTION: Extract obtained by decocting or boiling

13
HERBAL: Of, Relating to, utilizing, or made of herbs

MEDICINAL: Tending or used to cure disease or relieve pain

PARAGA: Locally brewed gin or any class of herbal concoctions mixed in it.

CHAPTER TWO

2.0. REVIEW OF RELEVANT LITERATURE

This chapter is a highlight of relevant literature and corresponding primary

source information relative to the scope of the research study. Opinions,
suggestions and ideas of various authors on the subject of herbal decoction,
methods, administration and dispensing as well as the socio-cultural
implications on the society will be discussed.

2.1. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF HERBAL DECOCTIONS

The history of herbal decoction and concoction in Ondo Town and the
country at large pre-dates independence. It was such a boost that during the
14
colonial era, the resultant competition posed to the colonialists efforts of
introducing their brandy and gin into the country gave rise to the official ban
placed on herbal concoctions. Although the primary products then were not
targeted at health issues as in recent developments, it was a large and
booming business even as at then. Herbal decoctions popularly referred to
as ‘paraga’ was locally prepared and found in large quantities in every nook
and cranny of the country. It was and is still the predominant occupation of a
sizeable population of certain ethnic groups in Nigeria. They include the
Urhobo, Ijaw and Ilaje. It is revered by them. It is egregiously consumed by
these people and a large population of other Nigerians across the country
who have developed a special taste for this drink (Wambebe C, 1998).

Herbal concoctions are popular among Nigerians wherever they congregate

anywhere. Over the years, these special mixtures have assumed
importance in many traditional ceremonies hosted by these groups. It is
difficult to come across any adult from these areas who have never tasted
the herbal decoction and concoctions before. Local residents of several
towns and villages in Nigeria usually prefer to drink or administer this home-
brewed herbs than any other unorthodox medicine or any drink at that, be it
beer, brandy, whisky or dry gin. They are simply ‘addicted’ to it. In some
instances, an occasion or ceremony is adjudged incomplete without free
flow of paraga, at least among the local populace.

2.2 HEALTH EFFECTS OF HERBAL DECOCTION

The distinction between foods, dietary supplements, and drugs is already

being blurred by the burgeoning market in so-called functional foods (such
as cholesterol-lowering margarine), which aim to provide health benefits
beyond mere nutrient value. Moreover, recent advances in molecular
biology offer the possibility of using genetic profiles to determine unique
nutrient requirements, thereby providing customized dietary
15
recommendations to more effectively delay or prevent disease. Safety and
efficacy concerns must needs be addressed, as “designer foods” fortified
with herbs and bioactive substances continue to proliferate. Some herbal
supplements, especially those imported from Asian countries, may contain
high levels of heavy metals, including lead, mercury, and cadmium. It is
important to purchase herbal supplements from reputable manufacturers to
ensure quality.

In most developing countries, including Nigeria, the majority of the populace

lives in the rural areas, where the use of herbal medicines is common. The
consumption of herbal medicines in the urban areas is on the increase,
arising from the global inflationary trend, which hampers the sustainable
supply of orthodox medicines and reduces the purchasing power of the
populace. The Nigerian Government has recognized the need and shown
political will by approving and adopting guidelines for the practice of
traditional medicine. The regulatory authority, the National Agency for Food
and Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC), has also taken steps to
protect the health of consumers by drafting the 'Guidelines for the
Registration and Control of Herbal Medicinal Products and Related
Substances in Nigeria'. Three broad classes are defined in the Guidelines,
and preparations will be considered under four categories, each of which
has its protocol. Extemporaneous preparations are only to be listed and not
registered or advertised. Post-listing evaluation or monitoring is, however,
mandatory. Herbal medicinal products manufactured on a large scale,
whether imported or locally manufactured, must be registered and their
advertisement messages and scripts approved by NAFDAC prior to their
marketing. Homeopathic medicinal products must be registered and their
advertisement messages approved prior to marketing. Post-registration
evaluation or monitoring is also mandatory for both large-scale herbal
medicinal products and homeopathic products.

16
Extremely limited knowledge about the ingredients in some herbal
medicines and their effects in humans, the lack of stringent quality control
and the heterogeneous nature of herbal medicines all necessitate the
continuous monitoring of the safety of these products (Chan, T.Y,1997).

2.3 SOCIAL EFFECTS OF HERBAL DECOCTIONS

One of the most noticeable social effect of herbal decoctions is the issue of
economic empowerment. Especially in a culture where poverty is the order
of the day, a discovery of a societal need is a promise of economic relieve.
A cross-section of Nigerians feed and live on the proceeds of the sales of
this drink. They do not know any other trade. Apart from the brewers
themselves, there are other middlemen who buy and take the drinks to other
parts of the country. This has been a major source of income for traders
plying their trade in herbal decoctions.

Besides the economic benefits derived from the production and sale of
herbal decoctions, there is also the question of influence, affluence and
respect as most of these practitioners are well thought of in society and
revered with high sounding titles like chief, doctor, prince and the likes.
Generally, producers and to an extent sellers are highly regarded in the
society irrespective of their educational status as they are seen to play an
important role in meeting the health and psychological needs of the society.

As related to standard behavioral pattern (Howanitz et al, 1979; British

Pharmaceutical Codex, 1979), those who ingest herbal decoction (paraga)
would have a mild influence on stereoscopic vision and lack of adaptation.
While those who drink palmwine would be expected to experience euphoria,
disappearance of inhibition and prolonged reaction time, those who ingested
beer, ogogoro, and gin would undergo moderately severe poisoning with

17
greatly prolonged reaction time, loss of inhibition and slight disturbance in
equilibrium and coordination

2.4 EDUCATIONAL PATTERNS AND HERBAL DECOCTION

CONSUMPTION AMONG NIGERIANS

Nearly two-thirds of Nigerians consume herbs. Kunle, O. (2000) reported

that unfortunately nearly 70% of people taking herbal medicines were well
educated and had a higher-than-average income. These set of people were
reluctant to tell their doctors that they used complementary and alternative
medicine. Most respondents also provided that they have been using herbal
decoctions for quite some time and the art of herbal decoction processing
and production was acquired by training from friends, neighbours, mothers,
fathers or mothers- and fathers-in-law through apprenticeships (usually a
short period), mere observation and hereditary induction to the craft and
thus had the requisite knowledge in plant identification, materials and
methods of preparation and dispensing of the right treatment for the right
ailment.

Many herbs can interact with prescription medications and cause unwanted
or dangerous reactions. The herbs available in most stores come in several
different forms: teas, syrups, oils, liquid extracts, tinctures, and dry extracts
(pills or capsules). A level of education is therefore necessary for a
consumer to be able to communicate effectively to a seller in getting the
right treatment for a specific ailment.

18
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 STUDY AREA: ONDO

Ondo town, Ondo state, southwestern Nigeria, lies at the southern edge of
the Yoruba Hills (elevation 940 feet [287 m]) and the intersection of roads
from Ife, Akure, and Okitipupa. Ondo region lies within latitude 07 0,40N and
longitude 040,80E. The town is about 30Km south of Akure, the Ondo State
capital. The town is a collecting point for cocoa and palm oil and kernels, it
is a local market centre (yams, cassava, corn [maize], poultry, fish, fruits,
palm produce, pumpkins, okra) and the location of a branch office of the
Federal Ministry of Trade. Wooden doors and furniture are manufactured at
Ondo. It also serves as the site of several teacher-training colleges. Infact,
the foremost teacher training college in Nigeria is located in Ondo Town. It
also has a good number of secondary schools, a vocational institute, and
hospitals. It has an estimated population of about 1,457,300 (2006 Census).

3.2 DESIGN OF THE STUDY METHODS

19
The researcher administered a twenty-four question structured
questionnaire among the producers, consumers and sellers of herbal
decoction within Ondo Town. This was closely followed by oral interviews to
capture the responses of those who do not have formal education and so
could not fill out the questionnaire. The researcher thereafter resorted to
random selection process from the data collected through the questionnaire
instrument.

The specific areas covered within Ondo Town for the purpose of this
research study were selected relaxation spots ‘joints’ where herbal
decoctions are sold covering five prominent areas of the town namely:
Odosida, Surulere, Yaba, Oka and Valentino. Adeyemi College Road
(Rainbow), Oke-Isegun Street, Ebido Street, Oke-Odunwo and Road 3
respectively were places where the questionnaires were administered.

3.3 THE STUDY SAMPLE

The research sample will involve five hundred people made up of fifty-two
brewers, one hundred and eight sellers and three hundred and forty
consumers; men or women randomly selected and approached within Ondo
Town which is the area of focus. Thus the population is divided into the
categories consisting of:
- Producers (brewers)
- Sellers and
- Consumers
Recognition was also given to the principle of fair representation and based
on this principle, a sample size of five hundred on the proportion of each
group within the total population was chosen. A total of five hundred
questionnaires were distributed to the respondents at randomly selected
spots within Ondo Town. A breakdown of the four hundred and eighty five
returned questionnaires is as follows:
20
Table 1: Analysis of Total Population and Selected Sample Size
DESIGNATION OF POPULATION PERCENTAGE (%)
RESPONDENTS
PRODUCERS 52 10.7
(BREWERS)
SELLERS 108 19.2
CONSUMERS 340 70.1
TOTAL 485 100

From the total population of respondents, the producers represented a total

percentage of 10.7% (52), sellers accounted for 19.2% (108) while
consumers numbered 340 (70.1%). The result showed clearly that there are
many consumers of herbal decoctions within Ondo Town, which is a
justification for the need of the research study.

SEX OF CONSUMERS

S/N CATEGORY OF NUMBER OF PERCENTAGE

O RESPONDENT RESPONDENT (%)
S
1. Male 322 66
2. Female 163 34
Total 485 100
Source: Field Survey, February 2010

It was found out that there are more male consumers than females. From
the result, 66% of the consumers were males while 34% were females. This
could be a result of the preference of alcohol as a suitable solvent in the
preparation of herbal decoctions (paraga), which is why more males
accounted for the highest number of consumers as against females, given
that males are taken into alcoholic and strong drinks than females.

SEX OF SELLERS

S/N CATEGORY OF NUMBER OF PERCENTAGE

O RESPONDENT RESPONDENT (%)

21
 S
1. Male 103 21
2. Female 382 79
Total 485 100
Source: Field Survey, February 2010

More females sell herbal decoctions than males. From the distribution
above, only 21% of the sellers are males compared to 79% of the
respondents who were females. Females are usually an attraction point
and represent a better marketing class than their male counterparts. This
most probably justified the number of females being more that sell herbal
decoctions (paraga) than males as they are likely to attract more customers,
perhaps for their feminism.

3.4 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Questionnaires were distributed randomly to respondents in the area of

focus based on the sample size distribution. However, during the process of
distribution, some respondents rejected it while some collected but did not
return it and others collected and were also willing to help if the need arose.
Some of those that cooperated requested more time to complete the
assignment. The researcher later persuaded other respondents to
cooperate fully. At the end of the day, the numbers of questionnaire
returned by the respondents was encouraging.

3.5 DESCRIPTION OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

For the purpose of this research work, Ondo Town was solely considered.
The researcher chose the use of questionnaire and personal interview to
gather information, this is because experience has shown that the above
instrument happens to be the most appropriate when collecting unique and
exceptional facts. There were twenty four questions to which each
respondent reacted.

22
The questionnaires were divided into two sections. The first section included
the personal data of the respondents like the sex, the age and educational
qualification. The second section included twenty questions to which the
respondents reacted. There was also oral interviews to collect further
information that was not sufficiently catered to by the questionnaires.

In designing the questionnaire, the questions were asked and drawn from
possible impact of education on the use of herbal decoctions. The personal
interviews were held with some respondents who were illiterates and other
consumers of herbal decoctions on whom it was impossible to administer
the questionnaire.

Questions asked were: names of plants that are commonly used to cure a
number of diseases, recipe formulation and method of administration. The
respondents cut across the social and educational strata of Ondo Town.

3.6 FORMULATION OF HYPOTHESIS

In the course of this research work, some hypotheses were formulated

based on the findings contained in the literature review. These hypotheses
will be tested in order to ascertain their validity.

HYPOTHESES

I. Ho: Educational level has no significant impact on herbal

decoction consumption.
H1: Educational level has significant impact on herbal
decoction consumption.

II. H0: There is no significant impact in the refining and production

process with exposure to education.
H1: There is significant impact in the refining and production
process with exposure to education.

23
III. H0: Herbal decoction is complementary to unorthodox medicine.
H1: Herbal decoction is not complementary to unorthodox medicine.

IV H0: Herbal decoction has no serious side effects on consumers.

H1: Herbal decoction has serious side effects on consumers.

3.7 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS

For this research work, the researcher employed the chi-square (X2) method
in testing the goodness of the various relationships between the
hypothesized variables as well as the five point-like Likert scale of Agree,
Strongly Agree, Disagree, Strongly Disagree and Undecided instrument.
Also, personal data in the study were analyzed using simple percentages.

24
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 RESULTS PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION

4.1 RESULTS OF RESEARCH STUDY

Names of plants used for some of the various disease treatments are
presented in Tables A and B showing both scientific and vernacular names
(Hausa, Ibo and Yoruba), part of plants used, taxonomic family names,
reported chemical constituents and popular uses.

Table A: Plants commonly used for Herbal decoction preparations in

Ondo.
BOTANICAL COMMON/LOCAL PARTS USED FAMILY
NAMES NAMES
MALARIA (Iba)
Enantia Awopa (Y), African Bark Annonaceae
chlorantha yellow wood
Citrus Osan wewe (Y) , Juice Rutaceae
aurantifolia lime
Cymbopoqon Ewe tea (Y), Lemon Leaf Poacease
citrates grass
Maqnifera indica Ewe mangoro (Y), Leaf Anacardiaceae
Azadirachta Dogonyaro (H), Leaf Meliaceae
indica Neem tree, Aforo-
oyingbo (Y),
Ogwu (I)
PILE / BACK ACHE (Jedi / Opa eyin)
Sabicea calycina Ogan (Y) Bark Rubiaceae
Lannea Orira (Y) Bark Anacardiaceae
welwitschii
Aristolochia Akoigun (Y) Leaf Aristolochiaceae
25
albida
Lophira Panhan pupa/funfun Bark Ochnaceae
lanceolata (Y)
Syzygium Konofuru (Y), clove Fruit Myrtaceae
Aromaticum
Tetrapleura Aidan (Y) Fruit Mimosaceae
Tetraptera
PEPPER SOUP: Control of menstruation.
Capsicum Ata ijosi (Y) Fruit Solanaceae
annum
Piper quineense Iyere (Y) Seed Piperaceae
Allium sativum Ayu (Y) garlic Bulb Amaryllidaceae
Zingiber Ata ile (Y), Ginger Rhizome Zingiberaceae
officinale
Syzygium Konofuru (Y), Clove Flower bud Myrtaceae
Aromaticum
Ocimum Efirin (Y), Nchianwu Leaf Lamiaceae
gratissimum (I)
Monodora Ariwo (Y), Ehuru (I) Fruit Annonaceae
myristica
Xylopia Eru (Y) Fruit Annonaceae
aethiopica
TONIC (Ogun eje)
Sorghum bicolor Poroporo baba (Y), guinea corn Leaf Poaceae
ERECTION (Ale)
Symphonia Ogolo (Y), Hog-gum tree Apiaceae
Globulifera Roots
Carpolobea lutei Osun-sun (Y) Roots Polygalaceae

WATERY SPERM (Afato)

Sympholia Ogolo (Y) Roots Apiaceae
Globulifera
GONORRHOEA (Atosi)
Citrullus Baara (Y) Fruit Cucurbitaceae
colocynthis
Allium sativum Ayu (Y), Garlic Bulb Amaryllidaceae
Parinari sp. Abere (Y), Neou oil tree Rosaceae
Fruit

Table B:- Some drug plants used in Nigerian unorthodox medicine.

Botanical Family Part Constituent Medicinal Uses

Names used s
Allium Amaryllidaceae Bulb Sulphur oils Vermifuge,
26
Sativum intestinal
disinfectant,
Vasodilator
(arteriosclerosis),
antibiotic,
Aristolochia Aristolochiaceae Roots Aristolochine Stomachic, tonic,
albida Leaves fever (malaria),
ingredients in
guinea
worm remedy,
local
analgesic
Azadirachta Meliaceae Leaves, Margosa oils Bitter, anti pyretic,
indica stem, parasitic, skin
seeds, diseases
root
bark
Itrullus Cucurbitaceae Fruit pulp Colocynthin, Purge (drastic,
colocynthis Citrullol, rarely
amorphous prescribed alone)
alkaloid
Cymbopogon Poaceae Plants, Essential oils Malaria
citratus Leaves Febrifuge teas, insect
repellant,
carminative
(obsolete), source
of
citral for vitamin A
synthesis.
Enantia Annonaceae Stem Berberine Fevers, sleeping
chlorantha bark, sickness, malaria,
Roots dysentery
Lannea Anacardiaceae Roots, N/A Wound dressing,
welwitschii bark, dysentery
Leaves
Lophira Ochnaceae Roots, N/A Anti-viral,
lanceolata bark, anti-inflammatory,
leaves, fever, veneral
seeds infections,
jaundice,
coughs
Magnifera Anacardiaceae Bark, Tannin, Astringent, skin
indica leaves resins leaves lesions,
sore gums,
diarrhea, piles
Ocimum Lamiaceae Leaves, Febrifuge, colds,
gratissimum roots stomachic,
27
 carminative
Parinari sp. Rosaceae Stem, Parinarium Purge, Diarrhoea
fruits, sterol A & B and dysentery,
kernels tonic
wound dressing.
Piper Piperaceae Fruits, Chavine, restorative soup
Guineense leaves piperine after
Carminative, child birth,
embrocation for
sprains, aromatic.

Sabiacea Rubiaceae Roots N/A Wound dressing.

Calycina rheumatism,
panacea
Symphonia Apiaceae Fruits, N/A Diuretic, wound
globulifera leaves, dressing, venereal
exudates diseases,
stomachic,
tonic.
Syzygium Myrtaceae Buds, Volatile oil, Toothache, mouth
aromaticum Volatile gallotonic sores, coughs,
oil, acid, wound dressing.
Caryophyllin
Tetrapleura Mimosaceae Barks, Mimosine, Emetic, tonic,
tetraptera fruits, saponin venereal
whole diseases,
plant fever,
rheumatism,
flatulence,
jaundice,
convulsions.
Zingiber Zingiberaceae Rhizome, Gingerol, Indigestion,
Officinale roots essential oil coughs,
stimulant, anti
microbial
carminative,
flavouring agent.

4.2 DATA ANALYSIS

28
Since the questionnaire were designed to facilitate easy analysis, it is
necessary to follow the system as itemized in the questionnaire. The
method of testing the hypotheses would be based on Chi-square (X2) tests.

TABLE A1: AGE OF RESPONDENTS

S/N AGE GROUP NUMBER OF PERCENTAGE

O RESPONDENT (%)
S
1. Below 25 years 29 6
2. 25 – 34 years 121 25
3. 35 – 44 years 146 30
4. 45 – 54 years 170 35
5. 55 and above 19 4
Total 485 100
Source: Field Survey, February 2010

Adults generally patronize and their religious beliefs (Islamic and

Christianity) is not a barrier. There are very few respondents that fall below
25 years (6%), while 25% are between 25 – 34 years, 30% are between 35
– 44 years, 35% are between 45 – 54 years and the remainder 4% and from
55 and above. From the table as observed, the highest group of consumers
fall between the age group range of 45-54 years and 35-44 years
respectively. This is probably because they are the working class cadre and
perhaps consume herbal decoctions to help them cope with the stress and
demands of their work places as well as to serve as a stimulant and energy
booster.

TABLE A2: MARITAL STATUS OF RESPONDENTS

29
 S/N MARITAL STATUS NUMBER OF PERCENTAGE
O RESPONDENTS (%)
1. Single 330 68
2. Married 82 17
3. Divorced 58 12
4. Widowed/er 15 3
Total 485 100
Source: Field Survey, February 2010

Rate of production, sales and consumption cuts across the various groups.
Almost all categories be they single, married, divorced or
widowed/widowers. As can be observed in the above distribution where
about 68% of the respondents are single, about 17% are married, 12% are
divorced and 3% are widows or widowers.

TABLE A3: EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATION OF RESPONDENTS

S/NO EDUCATIONAL NUMBER OF PERCENTAGE

QUALIFICATION RESPONDENTS (%)
1. WASC/GCE 215 44
2. OND/NCE 52 11
3. HND/B.Sc/B.A/B.Ed 34 7
4. M.Sc/M.Ed/M.A/PhD 34 7
5. No Formal Education 150 31
Total 485 100
Source: Field Survey, February 2010

Automobile mechanics, vehicle drivers, bus conductors, traders, uniformed

force and para-military force men and women, corporate individuals and
highly placed people in the society all use herbal medicinal decoctions.
Educated people cumulatively accounted for 69% of the respondents under
survey while 31% had no formal education.

SECTION B

30
The following analyzed data are the information collected by the twenty four
investigating statements of the five hundred questionnaires instrument used
for the collection of data, out of which four hundred and eighty five were
returned and deemed valid for the purpose of this research study.

TABLE 4: RESEARCH QUESTION 1.

Has the level of education been a determinant factor in the

consumption of herbal decoction?
VARIABLES
S/N ITEMS A SA D SD U
1. Only uneducated persons consume herbal 112 44 267 53 9
decoctions and concoctions (paraga).
2. Educated individuals, illiterates and artisans 180 52 78 97 78
are usually the target consumers of herbal
decoction.
3. Education is a key to mastering the art and 204 99 154 12 16
craft of herbal decoction (paraga) brewing.
Source: Field Survey, January 2010.

From the data obtained in item 1 in the table above, 9% (44) of the
respondents strongly agreed to the statement that only uneducated persons
consume herbal decoctions and concoctions. Another 23% (112) agreed,
while 11% (53) strongly disagreed and 55% (267) disagreed. 2% (9) of the
respondents were undecided concerning the statement.

From item 2, though the assertion covers almost all categories of herbal
decoction consumers, about 19% (52) of the respondents strongly agreed,
37% (180) agreed and 12% (78) strongly disagreed. Another 20% (97)
disagreed while 12% (78) were undecided.

31
Item 3 above shows that 20% (99) of the respondents strongly agreed that
education is a key to mastering the art and craft of herbal decoction
brewing. 42% (204) agreed while 2% (12) strongly disagreed. Another 32%
(154) disagreed while 4% (16) were undecided if education had a part in
mastering the art and craft of herbal decoction brewing.

TABLE 5: RESEARCH QUESTION 2

What are the benefits of herbal decoction to the society?

VARIABLES
S/N ITEMS A SA D SD U
4. The business of medicinal herb selling is 165 44 190 33 53
an alternative source of income for the
educated.
5. Consumption of herbal decoctions is 40 23 102 17 14
dependent on mood swings among the 8 2
educated.
6. Viability of herbal decoction 184 97 73 34 97
Source: Field Survey, January 2010.

Although any method or means of sustaining or alternating one’s income is

desirable within reasonable limits, from item 4 in the table above, it can be
observed that a total of 43% (209) of the respondents agreed that the
business of medicinal herb selling is an alternative source of income for the
educated, while another 46% (223) disagreed. 11% (53) of the respondents
could not clearly make the difference either way.

Item 5 shows that a total of 13% (63) agreed to the use of herbal
decoctions being dependent of mood swings among the educated. 58%
(280) others disagreed asserting it was a deliberate decision while 29%
(142) were not sure as to the reason for the use of herbal decoctions among
the educated.

32
The business of medicinal herb selling which operates throughout the day in
Ondo Town is the only source of income to 60% (291) of the sellers as
highlighted in item 6 whereas the remaining 20% (97) combined the
business with other trade. 20% (97) however are not truly into the business
for any monetary derivation but to maintain perhaps a cultural heritage and
identity.

TABLE 6: RESEARCH QUESTION 3

Has the herbal decoction sector had impact on improving health

standard?
VARIABLES
S/N ITEMS A SA D SD U
7. Herbal concoctions are much preferred to 194 97 121 2 49
modern medicine.
8. Herbal concoctions help maintain the 280 65 92 48 -
health standard of the people.
Source: Field Survey, January 2010.

From item 7 in the table above 60% (291) said that they prefer herbal
concoctions to modern medicine (i.e. strongly agreed and agreed), 30%
(123) preferred orthodox medicine to the practice whereas 10% (49) of the
respondents was indifferent.

In item 8, it can be observed that 13% (65) of the respondents strongly

agreed that herbal concoctions help maintain the health standard of the
people while 58% (280) agreed. Only a total of 29 % (92) of the respondents
thought otherwise.

TABLE 7: RESEARCH QUESTION 4

What are the problems associated with the production, sale and
consumption of herbal concoctions?
VARIABLES
S/N ITEMS A SA D SD U
9. The government should be allowed to 198 12 56 33 78

33
 regulate and control medicinal herbal 0
decoction production, sale and
consumption.
10. The regulation and control of medicinal 271 56 78 56 24
herbal decoction production, sale and
consumption should be left to the trade
union.
Source: Field Survey, January 2010.
From the harrowing experiences by certain people from the hands of
fraudulent and unscrupulous elements making merchandise out of the lives
of the citizens, it is evident from the above distribution in item 9 that majority
of the respondents; 318 (66%) would that the government should be
allowed to regulate and control medicinal herbal decoction production, sale
and consumption as against 18% (89) that disagreed. 16% (78) of them
were indifferent.

Herbal practitioners also have a trade union that regulates their activities.
The resource herb-men and women responded that the business facilitated
increased sales of their herbal materials as such an overwhelming majority
as shown in item 10 in the table above,. 68% (327) agreed that the
regulation and control of medicinal herbal decoction production, sale and
consumption should be left to the trade union. 27% (134) disagreed while
5% (24) were undecided whether to leave the regulation in the hands of the
government or the trade unions.

TABLE 8: RESEARCH QUESTION 5

Should herbal decoction be accepted as an alternative to modern

medicine?

VARIABLES
S/N ITEMS A SA D SD U
11. Herbal medicinal decoctions are the only 81 50 122 20 25
curative solution to HIV/AIDS. 7
12. Herbal decoctions and concoctions are 291 97 87 10 -
34
 complementary to unorthodox medicine.
Source: Field Survey, January 2010.

Item 11 in the table above displays the assertion that herbal medicinal
decoctions are the only curative solution to HIV/AIDS with a distribution of
10% (50) for strongly agree, 17% (81) agree, 43% (207) strongly disagree,
25% (122) disagree and 5% (25) undecided about the sole curative potency
of herbal medicinal concoctions.

About its complementary role to unorthodox medicine as indicated in item

12 in the table above, 80% (388) supported its assisting significance while
20% (97) of the respondents did not agree.

TABLE 9: RESEARCH QUESTION 6

Is alcohol a more preferred solvent in the preparation of herbal

concoctions?
VARIABLES
S/N ITEMS A SA D SD U
13. Alcohol is a better solvent for herbal 200 91 34 10 15
decoction than water. 0
14. Water is the most suitable solvent for 49 97 218 72 49
herbal concoctions.
Source: Field Survey, January 2010.

On the response as to alcohol being used as a preferable solvent as

highlighted in item 13 in the table above, 60% (291) of the respondents
strongly agreed and agreed cummulatively. 2% (10) strongly disagreed and
7% (34) disagreed while 31% (150) might use alcohol or water depending
on their mood as at the time of administration.

A total of 30% (146) of the respondents chose water as the most suitable
solvent for herbal concoctions, while a total of 60% (291) refuted the choice
of water and another 10% (48) said it made no difference whatever solvent
is used as shown in item 14 in the above table.
35
4.3 TEST AND INTERPRETATION OF HYPOTHESIS

Hypothesis I
Ho = NULL HYPOTHESIS
Educational level has no significant impact on herbal decoction
consumption.

H1 = ALTERNATE HYPOTHESIS
Educational level has significant impact on herbal decoction
consumption.

TABLE 10

VARIABLE POPULATION PERCENTAGE

Strongly Agree 44 9
Agree 112 23
Strongly Disagree 53 11
Disagree 267 55
Undecided 9 2
Total 485 100

The expected frequency is calculated by

Grand Total _
Number of Classification, which gives

485 = 97
5
This is however used to test the hypothesis
Table 11: One way classification of Chi-Square calculation

VARIABLE O E O–E (O – E)2 (O – E)2/E

Strongly Agree 44 97 -53 2809 28.958
Agree 112 97 15 225 2.319
Strongly 53 97 -44 1936 19.958
36
 Disagree
Disagree 267 97 170 28900 297.938
Undecided 9 97 -88 7744 79.835
Total 485 485 0 41614 429.008
From the above interpretation,
E = Expected Value,
O = Observed Value.
.
. . to get the expected value = Rate Total x Column Total
Grand Total

Using the Chi –Square statistic formula, X2 = ∑ (O – E)2

E
2 2
X = ∑ (O – E)
E = 429.008

Then to get the Degree of freedom = Number of rows minus one

=5–1
=4

The critical value of X2 with 4 degree of freedom at 0.05 significant level is

9.49

Decision Rule
Reject H0 where X2 (computed X2) is greater than X2 0.05(9.49).

Interpretation
We will therefore reject H0 and accept H1 that Educational level has
significant impact on herbal decoction consumption.

Hypothesis II
H0 = NULL HYPOTHESIS
There is no significant impact in the refining and production process
with exposure to education.

H1 = ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS

37
 There is significant impact in the refining and production process with
exposure to education.

Table 12

VARIABLE POPULATION PERCENTAGE

Strongly Agree 99 20
Agree 204 42
Strongly Disagree 12 2
Disagree 154 32
Undecided 16 4
Total 485 100

The expected frequency is calculated by

Grand Total _
Number of Classification, which gives

485 = 97
5
This is however used to test the hypothesis

Table 13: One way classification of Chi-Square calculation

VARIABLE O E O–E (O – E)2 (O – E)2/E

Strongly Agree 99 97 2 4 0.041
Agree 204 97 107 11449 118.030
Strongly 12 97 -85 7225 74.484
Disagree
Disagree 154 97 57 3249 33.494
Undecided 16 97 -81 6561 67.639
Total 485 485 0 28488 293.688

From the above interpretation,

E = Expected Value,
O = Observed Value.

.
. . to get the expected value = Rate Total x Column Total
38
 Grand Total

Using the Chi –Square statistic formula, X2 = ∑ (O – E)2

E
2 2
X = ∑ (O – E)
E = 293.688
Then to get the Degree of freedom = Number of rows minus one
=5–1
=4

The critical value of X2 with 4 degree of freedom at 0.05 significant level is

9.49

Decision Rule
Reject H0 where X2 (computed X2) is greater than X2 0.05(9.49).

Interpretation
We will therefore reject H0 and accept H1 – There is significant impact in the
refining and production process with exposure to education.

Hypothesis III
H0 = NULL HYPOTHESIS
Herbal decoction is not complementary to unorthodox medicine.

H1 = ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
Herbal decoction is complementary to unorthodox medicine.

Table 14

VARIABLE POPULATION PERCENTAGE

Strongly Agree 97 20
Agree 291 60
Strongly Disagree 10 2
Disagree 87 18
Undecided - -
Total 485 100

The expected frequency is calculated by

39
 Grand Total _
Number of Classification, which gives

485 = 97
5
This is however used to test the hypothesis

Table 15: One way classification of Chi-Square calculation

VARIABLE O E O–E (O – E)2 (O – E)2/E

Strongly Agree 97 97 0 0 0
Agree 291 97 194 37636 388
Strongly 10 97 -87 7569 78.031
Disagree
Disagree 87 97 -10 100 1.031
Undecided - 97 -97 9409 97
Total 485 485 0 54714 564.062

From the above interpretation,

E = Expected Value,
O = Observed Value.
.
. to get the expected value = Rate Total x Column Total
.
Grand Total
Using the Chi –Square statistic formula, X2 = ∑ (O – E)2
E
2 2
X = ∑ (O – E)
E = 564.062

Then to get the Degree of freedom = Number of rows minus one

=5–1
=4

The critical value of X2 with 4 degree of freedom at 0.05 significant level is

9.49

Decision Rule
Reject H0 where X2 (computed X2) is greater than X2 0.05(9.49).

Interpretation

40
We will therefore reject H0 and accept H1 – that herbal decoction is
complementary to unorthodox medicine.

Hypothesis IV
H0 = NULL HYPOTHESIS
Herbal decoction has serious side effects on consumers.

H1 = ALTERNATIVE HYPOTHESIS
Herbal decoction has no serious side effects on consumers.

Table 16

VARIABLE POPULATION PERCENTAGE

Strongly Agree 120 25
Agree 111 23
Strongly Disagree 23 5
Disagree 167 34
Undecided 64 13
Total 485 100

The expected frequency is calculated by

Grand Total _
Number of Classification, which gives

485 = 97
5
This is however used to test the hypothesis

Table 17: One way classification of Chi-Square calculation

VARIABLE O E O–E (O – E)2 (O – E)2/E

Strongly Agree 120 97 23 529 5.454
Agree 111 97 14 196 2.021
Strongly 23 97 -74 5476 56.454
Disagree
Disagree 167 97 70 4900 50.515
41
 Undecided 64 97 -33 1089 11.227
Total 485 485 0 12190 125.671

From the above interpretation,

E = Expected Value,
O = Observed Value.
.
. . to get the expected value = Rate Total x Column Total
Grand Total

Using the Chi –Square statistic formula, X2 = ∑ (O – E)2

E
2 2
X = ∑ (O – E)
E = 125.671

Then to get the Degree of freedom = Number of rows minus one

=5–1
=4

The critical value of X2 with 4 degree of freedom at 0.05 significant level is

9.49

Decision Rule
Reject H0 where X2 (computed X2) is greater than X2 0.05(9.49).

Interpretation
We will therefore reject H0 and accept H1 – that herbal decoction has no
serious side effects on consumers.

42
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 SUMMARY

Some of the set back of herbal decoction consumption in Ondo Town

include problems of standardization, negative attitude of enlightened people
towards use of medicinal preparations probably because they can afford the
alternative method, lack of scientific proof of its efficacy, problem of plant
misidentification and unwillingness to share expertise with people (Kunle,
2000; Sanusi, 2002; Sofowora, 1982). However its advantages include the
fact that it is complementary to unorthodox medicine, it is relatively cheap,
there is ready availability of raw materials, it is a potential source of new
drugs and of course, a source of cheap starting products for the synthesis of
known drugs. The sale and use of medicinal preparations should be
encouraged and supported by government.

5.2 CONCLUSION

Used correctly, herbs can help treat a variety of conditions and in some
cases may have fewer side effects than some conventional medications.
But because they are unregulated, herbal products are often mislabeled and
may contain additives and contaminants that aren’t listed on the label. Some
herbs may cause allergic reactions or interact with conventional drugs, and
some are toxic if used improperly or at high doses.

5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
43
Taking herbs on ones own increases ones risk, so it is important to consult
a doctor or pharmacist before taking herbal medicines. Some examples of
adverse reactions from certain popular herbs are described below.

 St. John's wort (a shrubby, perennial weed that has been used as an
antidepressant) can cause your skin to be more sensitive to the sun's
ultraviolet rays, and may cause an allergic reaction, stomach upset,
fatigue, and restlessness. Clinical studies have found that St. John's
wort also interferes with the effectiveness of many drugs, including the
blood thinner warfarin (Couamdin), protease inhibitors for HIV, birth
control pills, certain asthma drugs, and many other medications. In
addition, St. John's wort should not be taken with prescribed
antidepressant medication. NAFDAC has issued a public health
advisory concerning many of these interactions (Chavez M.L, Chavez
P.I, 1997).
 Kava kava has been linked to liver toxicity. Kava has been taken off
the market in several countries because of liver toxicity.
 Valerian may cause sleepiness, and in some people it may even have
the unexpected effect of overstimulating instead of sedating.
 Garlic, ginkgo, feverfew, and ginger, among other herbs, may increase
the risk of bleeding.
 Evening primrose (Oenothera biennis) may increase the risk of
seizures in people who have seizure disorders.

Currently, no organization or agency regulates the manufacture or certifies

the labeling of herbal preparations. This means you can't be sure that the
amount of the herb contained in the bottle, or even from dose to dose, is the
same as what is stated on the label.

44
The following recommendations are therefore put forward with the hope that
the concerned authorities and individual users will take necessary action
and be better informed respectively in the use of herbal decoctions.

1. Some herbal preparations are standardized, meaning that the

preparation is guaranteed to contain a specific amount of the active
ingredients of the herb. However, it is still important to ask companies
making standardized herbal products about their product's guarantee.
It is important to talk to your doctor or an expert in herbal medicine
about the recommended doses of any herbal products.

2. Herbalists, chiropractors, naturopathic physicians, pharmacists,

medical doctors, and practitioners of Traditional Chinese Medicine all
may use herbs to treat illness. Naturopathic physicians believe that
the body is continually striving for balance and that natural therapies
can support this process. They should be well trained in at least a 4-
year, postgraduate institution (e.g. Iris Medical School of Traditional
Medicine, Ogba, Lagos) that combine courses in conventional medical
science (such as pathology, microbiology, pharmacology, and
surgery) with clinical training in herbal medicine, homeopathy,
nutrition, and lifestyle counseling.

45
 REFERENCES

Ababio, O.Y (1990). Organic Chemistry in: New School Chemistry,

Africana-Fep, Publishers Limited, 1st edition, pp. 378-380.

Burkill, H.M. (1995). The useful plants of West Tropical Africa. Vol. 1-4.
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 960pp.

Chavez M.L and Chavez P.I (1997). Saint John's Wort.

Hosp Pharm 1997 Dec;32:1621-8, 1631-2.

Chiej, R. (2004). The MacDonald Encyclopaedia of Medicinal Plants.

MacDonald books, Sydney. 447pp.

Combest, W.L (1998). An overview of the medicinal uses of Zingiber

officinale (ginger). US Pharm 1998 Feb;23:74, 79, 83-4, 86.

Dalziel, J.M. (1937). The useful plants of West Tropical Africa.

The Crown Agents for the colonies, London. 612pp.

Gbile, Z.O. (1984). Vernacular names of Nigerian Plants in Yoruba.

Forestry Research Institute of Nigeria, Ibadan.101 pp.

Gillespie, S.G (1997). Herbal drugs and phytomedicinal agents.

Pharm Times, Vol.12, Pg.45-47

Howanitz et al, (1979). Effects of Herbal Concoctions on Psychological

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Heiligenstein, E and Guenther, G (1998). Over-the-counter

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kava-kava. J Am Coll Health

Historical overview of herbal beverages production.

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Implications in traditional medicine. Nigerian Field. 55: 165-171.

Iwu, M. (1993). Handbook of African Medicinal Plants.

CRC Press, Inc., Florida. 435pp.

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Kafaru, E. (2002). Immense help from nature’s workshop.
Elikaf Health Services Ltd., Lagos. 212pp.

Kunle, O. (2000). The production of pharmaceuticals from medicinal

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Nigerian College of Arts, Science and Technology, Ibadan. 138pp.

Sanusi, S.(2002). Relevance and potential hazards of herbalism:

Globalisation Biodiversity and Conservation - Proceedings of
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Sofowora, A. (1982). Medicinal Plants and Traditional medicine in Africa.

John Wiley and sons, New York. 251 pp.

The British Pharmaceutical Codex (1979), 11th edition. 

The Pharmaceutical Press, London, p14.

Wambebe C, (1998). Development and production of standardized

phytomedicines, National Institute for Pharmaceutical, Abuja, Nigeria.

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APPENDIX

47
 Biology Department,
Obafemi Awolowo University
Adeyemi College of Education,
P.M.B.520,
Ondo,
Ondo State.

Dear Sir/Madam,

I am a final year student of Biology in the above named institution. In

fulfillment of the basic requirement for the award of a degree of Bachelor of
Science in Biology Education (B.Sc Ed), I am expected to undertake a
research work.

In compliance, Ondo Town has been chosen as my case study to highlight

the impact of education on the production, sale and use of herbal
decoctions and concoctions by Nigerians

I shall therefore by grateful if you can kindly provide the information required
in the questionnaire below as candidly as possible.

I assure you that any information provided will be kept confidential and used
solely for academic purpose.

Thank you for your anticipated cooperation.

Akinlosotu Ayokunle Olalekan

QUESTIONNAIRE
SECTION A –Personal information

Please tick () as appropriate in the space(s) provided below.

1. Name:
Chief/Mr./Mrs/Miss/Dr…………………………………………………..
2. Sex:
(a) Male [ ]
(b) Female [ ]

3. Age Group
(a) Below 25 years [ ]
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 (b) 25 – 34 years [ ]
(c) 35 – 44 years [ ]
(d) 45 – 54 years [ ]
(e) 55 and above [ ]

4. Marital Status:
(a) Single [ ]
(b) Married [ ]
(c) Divorced [ ]
(d) Widowed/er [ ]
5. Educational Qualification
(a) WASC/GCE [ ]
(b) OND/NCE [ ]
(c) HND/B.Sc/B.A/B.Ed [ ]
(d) M.Sc/M.Ed/M.A/PhD [ ]
(e) No Formal Education [ ]

SECTION B

Please read the following questions carefully and tick () as appropriate.

Key: SA=Strongly Agree, A=Agree, U=Uncertain, SD=Strongly

Disagree and D=Disagree

S/ QUESTION SA A U SD D
N
6. Only uneducated persons consume herbal
decoctions and concoctions.
7. Educated individuals, illiterates and artisans
are usually the target consumers of herbal
decoction.
8. Education is a key to mastering the art and
craft of herbal decoction brewing (paraga).
9. How frequent do you consume herbal
decoctions?
(a) Daily
(b) Weekly
(c) Fortnightly
(d) Monthly

`10. How efficacious are these decoctions?

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 (a) Very efficacious
(b) Moderately efficacious
(c) Not efficacious
(d) Not worth taking
11. These herbal decoctions and concoctions are
complementary to unorthodox medicine.
12. These herbal concoctions are much preferred
to modern medicine.
13. Alcohol is a better solvent for herbal decoction
than water.
14. Water is the most suitable solvent for herbal
concoctions.
15. Consumption of herbal decoctions is
dependent on mood swings among the
educated.
16. Production and sale of herbal decoction is
carried out by only educated people.
17. The business of medicinal herb selling is an
alternative source of income for the educated.
18. The government should be allowed to regulate
and control medicinal herbal decoction
production, sale and consumption.
19. The regulation and control of medicinal herbal
decoction production, sale and consumption
should be left to the trade union.
20. Herbal decoction production is a viable
business.
21. Herbal decoctions do not have to be taken in
specific dosages.
22. Herbal concoctions help maintain the health
standard of the people.
23. Herbal medicinal decoctions are the only
curative solution to HIV/AIDS.
24. Herbal decoctions have no side effects on
consumers.

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