Chapter 2…

The International System of Units (SI)

1. Standards of Units:
The characteristics of an element can be found experimentally by
measuring corresponding values of Input I, output O, and IM and II.

This type of experiment is referred to as calibration, and the

measurement of the variables I, O, IM and II must be accurate.

The instruments and techniques used to quantify these variables are

referred to as Standards.

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 The International System of Units (SI)
The accuracy of an element is the closeness of the measured value to the true
value, but who defines the true value?

We define the true value of a variable as the measured value obtained with a
standard of ultimate accuracy.

In UK, e.g., the manufacturer is supported by the National Measurement

System:
• Ultimate or Primary measurement standard for key physical variables such as
time, length, mass, current and temperature are maintained at the National
Physical Laboratory (NPL).
• Measurement standards for other important industrial variables such as density,
flow rate, etc., are maintained at National Engineering Laboratory (NEL).

A manufacturer can calibrate his products at a local center.

NPL developed an Internet Calibration Service, this allow an element at a

remote location directly without having to be transported to NPL. 2
 The International System of Units (SI)…

This introduces the concept of a traceability

ladder.

The element is calibrated using the laboratory

standard, which should itself be calibrated using
the transfer standard, and then should be
calibrated using primary standard.

Each element in the ladder should be

significantly more accurate that the one below
it.

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 The International System of Units (SI)
The international system of units (SI) composes of seven base units, the
units of other physical quantities can be derived from these base units.
Which are:

1. Time (second): the second is the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the
radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the
ground state of the cesium -133 atom.
2. Length (meter)
3. Mass (Kg)
4. Current (Ampere)
5. Temperature (K)
6. Amount of Substance (Mole)
7. Luminous (Candle)

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SI derived units expressed in terms of base units

5
SI derived units with special names

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SI derived units expressed by means of special names

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SI derived units formed by using the radian and steradian

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 Chapter 3
The Accuracy of Measurements in the Steady State
Suppose we have a measurement system consisting of n ideal element in
series with zero intercept or bias, i.e., 𝑎 = 0, then

𝑶𝒊 = 𝑲𝒊 𝑰𝒊 ,
𝐼 𝑂
𝐾1 𝐾2 … 𝐾𝑛
𝑂1 𝑂2

𝑶𝟏 = 𝑰𝑲𝟏 , 𝑶𝟐 = 𝑶𝟏 𝑲𝟐 = 𝑰𝑲𝟏 𝑲𝟐 =, …
𝑶 = 𝑲𝟏 𝑲𝟐 … 𝑲𝒏 𝑰.

To have accurate system, we need 𝑬 = 𝑶 − 𝑰 = 𝟎. Therefore,

𝑂 − 𝐼 = 𝐾1 𝐾2 … 𝐾𝑛 𝐼 − 𝐼 = 𝐾1 𝐾2 … 𝐾𝑛 − 1 𝐼 = 0
Thus,
𝐾1 𝐾2 … 𝐾𝑛 = 1
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 The Accuracy of Measurements in the Steady State

Example:
Consider the following temperature measurement system, check whether the
system satisfies the above condition or not?

We check the multiplications of the slopes

𝐾1 𝐾2 … 𝐾𝑛 = 1
−6
𝑉 𝑉 𝐶
40 × 10 × 1000 × 25 = 1
𝐶 𝑉 𝑉

Thus appears to be perfectly accurate.

However, due to non-linearity and environmental effects, we could not
have the perfectly accurate system and the system is in error. 10
 Error Reduction Techniques

1. Compensating non-linear element

Given a non-linear element, described by 𝑈(𝐼), we need a compensating element 𝐶(𝑈),

such that the overall characteristics 𝐶[𝑈(𝐼)] of the elements together are as close to the
ideal straight line as possible.

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 Error Reduction Techniques

2. Isolation:
The most obvious method of reducing the effects of environmental inputs is that of
isolation. So that, 𝐼𝑀 = 𝐼𝐼 = 0.
Example, isolating transducer from environmental changes.

3. Zero Environmental Sensitivity

The element is completely insensitive to the environmental inputs. So that, 𝐾𝑀 = 𝐾𝐼 = 0.
Example, the use of a metal alloy with zero temperature coefficients of expansion and
resistance as a strain gauge element.

4. Opposing environmental inputs (for Interfering input)

Suppose an element is affected by an environmental input, then a second element , subject
to the same environmental input, is deliberately introduced into the system so that the two
effects tend to cancel out.

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 Error Reduction Techniques

5. Using differential system:

Use of two matched strain gauges in adjacent arms of a bridge to provide compensation for
ambient temperature changes. One gauge is measuring a tensile strain +e and the other an
equal compressive strain –e.
The bridge effectively subtracts the two resistances so that the strain effect is doubled and
the environmental effects cancel out.

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 Error Reduction Techniques
6. High Gain Negative Feedback (for
non-linearity modifying input):
As shown in figure, ∆𝐹 = 𝐹𝑖𝑛 − 𝐹𝐵 , and

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐾𝐴 ∆𝐹𝐾 + ∆𝐹𝐼𝑀 𝐾𝑀 = (𝐾

+ 𝐾𝑀 𝐼𝑀 )𝐾𝐴 ∆𝐹,
𝐹𝐵 = 𝐾𝐹 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡

Thus,
𝐾 𝐾+𝐾𝑀 𝐼𝑀
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 1+𝐾𝐴𝐾 × 𝐹𝑖𝑛
𝐴 𝐹 𝐾+𝐾𝑀 𝐼𝑀

If we choose 𝐾𝐴 ≫ 1, such that 𝐾𝐴 𝐾𝐹 (𝐾

+ 𝐾𝑀 𝐼𝑀 )  1, then 𝐾𝐴 𝐾 + 𝐾𝑀 𝐼𝑀 = 1
+ 𝐾𝐴 𝐾𝐹 𝐾 + 𝐾𝑀 𝐼𝑀 , and

1
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐹
𝐾𝐹 𝑖𝑛

We have to ensure that the gain 𝐾𝐹 doesn’t

change to non-linearity and environmental 14
effects.
 Error Reduction Techniques

7. Direct-Inverse Equation:
Let the direct equation be

𝑂 = 𝐾𝐼 + 𝑎 + 𝑁 𝐼 + 𝐾𝑀 𝐼𝑀 𝐼 + 𝐾𝐼 𝐼𝐼

Then, the inverse equation is given by

ത + 𝑎ത + 𝑁
𝐼 = 𝐾𝑂 ഥ 𝑂 + 𝐾ത𝑀 𝐼𝑀 𝑂 + 𝐾ത𝐼 𝐼𝐼

Using numerical techniques and estimation theory.

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