16426/16587 - Pressurised Systems

4. BACKGROUND ANALYSIS AND INTRODUCTION TO SHELL THEORY

4.1 SYNOPSIS

Many of the design procedures in the British Pressure Vessel Standard (BS 5500) and in
other standards are based primarily upon linear elastic small displacement stress analysis.
Even where inelastic behaviour is allowed to some limited extent the design base frequently
remains essentially linear elastic. This section briefly discusses the type of analysis - thin
shell analysis - which underpins much of the thinking in pressure vessel codes. Typical
solutions are given for spherical and cylindrical shells together with an indication of how
junctions between different geometries are analysed. Although this ‘chapter’ can only
provide a limited introduction to shell analysis, the important concepts of membrane and
discontinuity effects are emphasised and the inherent limitations of the approach are
highlighted.

4.2 BASIC PRINCIPLES AND THEIR ILLUSTRATION

4.2(a) Introduction

The term ‘stress analysis’ is frequently used, not only to cover the analysis of stress but the
complete behaviour of a body including, on occasions, the distribution of load, stress,
displacement, strain and temperature throughout the body, when some external actions such
as load, displacement or temperature act upon the body. The rather obvious justification for
doing stress analysis is that it is one of the main activities that can give a designer a
quantitative yard-stick as to the efficiency of a load carrying component and the possibility
of its failure in service. It is thus a necessary stage in the rational design of most
engineering components but it is usually a fairly approximate tool unless the loads and the
geometry of the component in question are simple and well defined. In recent times the
ability to conduct sophisticated stress analyses has increased dramatically, using for example
finite element analysis, giving an understanding of component behaviour under load.
However, the design decisions resulting from these analyses are not necessarily obvious.
Thus ‘stress analysis’ needs frequently to be liberally seasoned with engineering judgement.

In pressure vessel standards the basic thickness of the main shells are derived from
calculations based upon rather simple methods of stress analysis in conjunction with the
allowable design stress. This may be illustrated as follows. Consider the case of a long,
thin cylindrical shell of radius r and thickness t subject to internal pressure loading. As one
might expect, forces and stresses will be generated in the cylinder wall in the circumferential
direction and if the cylinder has closed ends, in the axial direction. A longitudinal half
section across such a cylinder is shown below in Fig 4.1. In this the circumferential stress is
denoted by σ θ . The stress is assumed to be uniform across the thickness and along the
length, since the cylinder is considered to be "long" and "thin".

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Fig 4.1 A half section of a cylindrical vessel

By "long" we mean that the ends are sufficiently far away as not to disturb the stresses in the
main part of the cylinder. Of course near to the end, as we shall see, the stresses may be
quite different but if necessary a different thickness may be employed near to the end. By
"thin" we mean that the radius is much greater than the thickness; thus at this stage we do
not need to identify the radius as being associated with a particular surface (i.e. internal,
external or mid-surface), although strictly speaking for the analysis which follows we should
use the mean radius.

The forces must be in equilibrium so that

2σ θ t L = p2rL

pr
i.e., σ θ =
t
Similarly by considering a diametral section and taking longitudinal equilibrium we find the
longitudinal stress σ χ is
pr
σχ =
2t

These stresses are frequently referred to as "membrane" stresses since there are no variations
in the stress through the thickness i.e. no bending stresses. Notice they are obtained from
equilibrium considerations alone. It is useful to consider the stresses as acting at the mid
surface of the shell.

Similar arguments applied to a thin sphere (Fig 4.2) result in uniform and equal stresses in
mutually perpendicular directions.
pr
σθ = σφ =
2t

Again it should be noted that these stresses are obtained from a consideration of equilibrium
alone.
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Figure 4.2 A half section of a spherical vessel

Real pressure vessels, of course in practice, often have a significant thickness compared
with the radius. The complexity of dealing with "thick" shells is usually considered too
involved for pressure vessel design standards. Consequently in almost all cases the
significance of thickness is ignored and the theory related to thin shells is employed. In fact
the above formulae are remarkably good if r ≥ 10t (better than 5%) and they are often used
for r > 5t. If the thickness is significant more complex equations must be used e.g. for a
thick cylinder with internal pressure. These are usually referred to as the Lamé equations,

σ θ = p[1 + (b / r ) 2 ] / [(b / a)2 − 1]

σ r = p[1 − (b / r )2 ] / [b / a)2 − 1]
σ x = p / [(b / a) 2 − 1]

where a is the internal radius, b the external radius and r any radius within the thickness of
the cylinder. A typical distribution of these is shown in Figure 4.3.

Figure 4.3 Distribution of stresses in a ‘thick’ cylindrical vessel

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Again the solution is only valid in the plain part of the cylinder remote from any
disturbances. These equations may be useful for high-pressure applications, although in
such cases other special considerations may be required. However, a reasonable
approximation for the circumferential stress, which is usually the largest, is to employ the
thin cylinder theory but use the mean radius or mean diameter dm = Di + t, where Di is the
inside diameter

pd m p( Di + t )
i. e. σ θ = =
2t 2t

If the allowable circumferential stress σ θ is taken as the code design stress f, then
rearranging gives

pDi
t=
2f − p

which is typical of the basic equations, in pressure vessel standards, which are employed for
the evaluation of the shell thickness in the cylindrical part of the vessel. It is used as a
starting point for design. An alternative form of this equation is useful when the outside
diameter is known:-

pDo
t=
2f + p
In the case of spherical shells the equation in the Standard takes the following form:-

p Di
t=
4 f − 12
. p
or

p Do
t=
4 f + 0.8 p

which is again a reasonable approximation for moderately thick spheres. Note the
difference in the form for the sphere compared with the cylinder, this is required since the
stress distribution is more highly non-linear through the thickness.

However, where the simple cylindrical or spherical geometry is disturbed the membrane
stress pattern is totally changed. This occurs at the junction between various geometric
forms. An example of this is where a cylindrical part is attached to an end closure, or the
end closure is made up of two or more geometric forms. Figure 4.4 shows a photograph of a
very thick (87 mm) head welded onto a 3.66 m diameter, 6.71 m long and 88 mm thick
vessel. In this case the cylindrical shell is more flexible than the head and to enforce
compatibility of the parts, forces (direct and moment) are set up at the junction. The
resulting stress distribution is much more complex than occurs in the plain cylindrical shell.
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Figure 4.4 Semi-ellipsoidal hot-pressured head

Another important case is when a nozzle is located in either the main cylindrical shell or in
the end. Examples of this are given in Figure 4.5 where a range of nozzles are located in a
vertical vessel. As with the head the resulting stress distribution for a given loading is much
more complex than the simple membrane analysis given above. The results depend on the
radius/thickness ratios of both nozzle and shell.

Figure 4.5 A range of nozzles in 1.10 m dia. vertical vessel, 2.425 m long & 60 mm thick.

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The objective of this section is to introduce the concepts of thin shell analysis for spheres,
cylinders and cones etc. and carry it far enough to indicate how it can be used to analyse
some classical shell intersection problems. Cases of particular interest are those when a
cylindrical vessel is joined to a dished head or when a nozzle is positioned in a cylindrical or
a spherical shell under internal pressure. The analysis of these components will be dealt
with in this course in a rather abbreviated treatment. It is not the intention to develop the
shell equations from first principles, but to present the results of these in a ‘tabular
form’. The full treatment is available in the more classical texts, or in the book, ‘Pressure
Vessel Design - Concepts and Principles’ edited by J Spence and A S Tooth (E &FN Spon,
Chapman & Hall).

Despite the abbreviated form of the treatment it is necessary, before discussing what
happens when vessels are pressurised, to mention some general aspects of shell analysis.

4.2(b) Basic concepts

In any general stress analysis there are certain fundamental requirements that have to be
satisfied. Briefly these are:

Equilibrium When a body is in a state of rest (or uniform motion) the loading both
externally and internally must be in equilibrium.

Strain Displacement Compatibility When a body deforms it must do so in such a

way that movements of adjacent elements of material are compatible with each other
and with any external support conditions, i.e. they must fit together in their deformed
shape without any gaps or overlapping. This usually reduces essentially to the
application of geometrical rules. Bodies with cracks or defects require special
considerations.

Constitutive relationships The material behaviour has to be known in so far as there

is a relationship between the loads and the resulting deformation which depends on the
physical relationships between stress, strain, time and temperature. Where the last two
mentioned are unimportant, the term stress/strain relationship is common. The
relationship can only initially be found experimentally but may need to be idealised
and/or generalised to allow analysis to proceed. In general the PV Codes simplify the
constitutive relationships and consider the material to be linear elastic, with material
constants that vary with the operating temperature.

When the above three conditions can be satisfied throughout a body we have what is usually
called an “exact” solution. However the problem as idealised - the mathematical model - is
rarely identical with the real physical problem and one should be clear what is conveyed by
the term “exact”. However, if the idealised assumptions are restrictive we may have an
“exact” solution which is only an approximate representation of the reality. Most of stress
analysis is concerned with approximate solutions of either or both types!

We shall make use of these basic concepts when we come to analysing what happens when
various geometric components are used to form a pressure vessel and the vessel is subjected
to internal pressure.
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4.2(c) Shells of Revolution

A shell may be defined as a curved plate type structure. Usually, but not always, the
thickness t is small with respect to the other dimensions. In practice the majority of pressure
vessels are made up of a series of shells of revolution, by which is meant those shells which
can be developed by rotation of some curve (a meridian) about a central axis of revolution
(Fig 4.6). A variety of simple shapes fall into this category and some are indicated in Fig
4.7 e.g. spherical, conical, toroidal, torispherical, ellipsoidal, cylindrical, etc.

Stress Resultants and their Relation to Stresses

In general the shell is capable of taking bending moments, transverse shear forces through
the thickness and forces in its own plane. Consider an infinitesimally small element with
some possible force actions which may arise as shown in Fig 4.8. The stress actions which
follow from these are shown in Fig 4.9. For convenience, Figs 4.8 and 4.9 are greatly
exaggerated in the surface direction compared with the thickness direction to show the
stresses.

In shell analysis the force actions are usually defined in terms of stress resultants which
are assumed to act at the mid-surface of the shell. For example, the direct stress resultant
Nxx is the direct force per unit length acting perpendicular to the face of the element with
constant x and in the x direction. Similarly, the shear stress resultant Nyx is on a face of
constant y and in the x direction.

The symbol Q is used for the through thickness shear resultants. [For a detailed explanation
of the suffix notation reference should be made to a book by W. Flügge ‘Stresses in Shells’
published by Springer Verlag.] Positive directions are as shown. Now Nxx may be thought
of as the resultant of direct stresses, σ xx . Fig 4.9 indicates the stresses at some element of
thickness within the shell element. Remembering that dsy for example, is small but that
variations through the thickness are possible, it is found by simple force equilibrium that

+t /2  r + z (4.1)
N xx ds y = ∫ σ xx  y  dsy dz
−t /2
 ry 

The other direct stress resultants can be found in a similar way.

In general the stresses will also give rise to moments about the middle surface or the centre
line of the surface. These are represented by moment stress resultants Mxx and Myy and
twisting moment resultants Mxy and Myx, again moments per unit length. From equilibrium
we find the relationship between them as for example

t/2  ry + z  (4.2)
M xx = − ∫ σ xx   z dz
−t /2
 ry 

with the others being similar.

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Figure 4.6 Shells of Revolution

4.7 Specific Examples of shells of Revolution

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Figure 4.8 Stress Resultants

Figure 4.9 Stresses on an Element

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The minus signs are again unimportant but are necessary for consistency with the
convention used in these notes. The term "stress resultants", Nxx, Nyy, Nxy, Nyx, Qxz, Qyz,
Mxx, Myy, Mxy, Myx, describe the ten force actions on a shell element. In shell theory
normally one attempts to solve for these stress resultants and then finally deduces stresses
from them. For example, for a linear elastic material a thin shell will have (approximately)
a linear distribution of stress across it. The stresses can thus be taken from the simple
relations derived for beams of rectangular section, subjected to a normal force P and a
bending moment M, as shown below in equation (4.3):-

P Mz (4.3)
σ= +
A I

in shell analysis equation (4.3) can be written:-

N xx 12 M xx z (4.4)
σ xx = −
t t3

N xy 12 M xy z (4.5)
τ xy = − 3
t t

The different sign in equations (4.3) and (4.4 & 4.5), is associated with the moment, and is
due to the convention referred to earlier.

4.3 ANALYSIS OF SHELL COMPONENTS

In carrying out a conventional shell analysis there are a number of stages:-

1. From the mid-surface shell element, subject to internal force actions, derive the
equations of equilibrium. For the rotationally symmetric shell we thus obtain six
differential equations in terms of the 10 unknowns stress resultants and the applied
loading.

2. Derive the compatibility equations associated with the shell element, this is usually the
strain ~ displacement relations.

3. Decide on the most appropriate constitutive relations, that is, is the system linear
elastic, or what?

When we do this we find that the governing differential equation has a solution made up of
two parts. The one is associated with the ‘edge bending’ of the shell and the other can be
approximately represented by the ‘membrane solution’ of the component subject to the
applied loading. The ‘edge bending’ of the shell is caused by self equilibrating forces and
by self equilibrating moments. The forces are applied normal to the axis of rotation of the
shell and the moments are in the axial or meridional plane of the shell. They arise in order
to enforce compatibility at the junctions of the different geometric shapes (i.e. cylinder and
sphere, etc.).
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When internal pressure is applied to a pressure vessel component deformations will occur.
If we allow each component to deform freely, that is we take away the weld, while still
containing the internal pressure, then each component will change in diameter and shape.
This will leave gaps at the junction points, which violate compatibility. In order to enforce
compatibility, that is to bring the junctions together, while still being subject to the applied
loading, we need to apply forces and moments at the junction. These forces and moments
are called ‘edge bending’ effects.

4.4 PRESSURE VESSEL EXAMPLE TO ILLUSTRATE THE POINT

In order to illustrate what actually happens in a pressure vessel component when subject to
internal pressure the following example is provided. It is intended to illustrate the points
made above. The example is taken from the ASME Pressure Vessel Code (ASME Section
VIII DIV 2). It consists of a hemispherical head, 35 mm thick and 760 mm internal radius, a
cylindrical section (35 mm thick and 760 mm internal radius and 1000 mm length) joined to
a heavy flat end which is 150 mm thick. The arrangement is subjected to 6.5 bar internal
pressure. The geometric layout is shown below:-

A finite element analysis has been conducted on the component. Since it is symmetric about
the axis only half the vessel need be considered. The Figures 4.10 to 4.17 provide the story
of what happens when the internal pressure is applied. The following should be noted:-

1. large axial displacements occur in the flat end and large rotations occur at the junction
of the of flat end and the cylindrical shell;

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2. away from the flat end the cylindrical shell moves radially outwards and the
hemispherical end also moves outwards, although this movement of the hemispherical
end should be viewed with respect to a general body movement away from the flat end;

3. the stresses in the flat end are essentially in the radial direction, that is acting from the
centre of the flat end towards the edge; - note that at the centre of the flat end the stress
is compressive on the inner surface and tensile on the outer surface; that is essentially
bending;

4. at the junction of the flat end and the cylinder, the stresses (the ones shown in the
figures are the axial stresses) have a predominantly moment component; they do, of
course have an membrane axial component and (not shown) a circumferential stress,
but the moment effect should be noted;

5. the stresses in the cylinder some distance away from the junction are essentially
membrane - its worth checking the FE values from the simple membrane equation for
the axial stress (you should do this yourself!!);

6. at the junction of the cylinder and the hemisphere, interaction effects are less
pronounced than at the flat end, but they are present - again they have a bending
component caused by the interaction effects;

7. away from the cylinder~hemisphere junction the stresses in the sphere (meridional
stresses are shown in the figure) revert to the membrane stress (again check these for
yourself);

8. it is also worth making the point that although the flat end is much thicker than the
dished end (150 compared with 35 mm) the stresses are much higher in the flat end,
and furthermore the stresses in the flat end are in the form of bending, which does not
make efficient use of the material; the dished end stresses are essentially membrane,
which is uniform across the wall of the vessel and therefore, more efficient in
utilisation of material; the moral is wherever possible use a dished end closure.

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1 ANSYS 5.0 A
OCT 13 1995
05:53:21
PLOT NO. 2
ELEMENTS
TYPE NUM
U
NFOR
RFOR
PRES
ZV =1
DIST=1070
XF =397.5
YF =972.5
CENTROID HIDDEN
EDGE

Y
Z X
ASME EXAMPLE

Figure 4.10 Axi-symmetric Vessel with Internal Pressure Loading (with Reactions shown)

1 ANSYS 5.0 A
OCT 13 1995
05:52:22
PLOT NO. 1
DISPLACEMENT
STEP=1
SUB =1
TIME=1
RSYS=0
DMX =2.137
SEPC=7.667
DSCA=50.057
ZV =1
DIST=1073
XF =409.281
YF =975.485
CENTROID HIDDEN
EDGE

Y
Z X
ASME EXAMPLE

Figure 4.11 Deformed and Undeformed Geometry

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1 ANSYS 5.0 A
OCT 13 1995
04:47:03
PLOT NO. 2
NODAL SOLUTION
STEP=1
SUB =1
TIME=1
SZ (AVG)
RSYS=0
DMX =2.137
SMN =-167.559
SMNB=-190.145
SMX =181.275
SMXB=283.735
-167.559
-128.8
-90.04
-51.281
-12.522
26.238
64.997
103.757
142.516
181.275

MN
Y
ZMX X
ASME EXAMPLE

Figure 4.12 Contour Plot of Circumferential Stress in Whole Vessel

1 ANSYS 5.0 A
OCT 13 1995
04:49:26
PLOT NO. 3
NODAL SOLUTION
STEP=1
SUB =1
TIME=1
SZ (AVG)
RSYS=0
DMX =1.865
SMN =-167.559
SMNB=-190.145
MN
SMX =181.275
SMXB=324.185
-167.559
-128.8
-90.04
Y -51.281
ZMXX -12.522
26.238
64.997
103.757
142.516
181.275

ASME EXAMPLE

Figure 4.13 Circumferential Bending Stress Distribution on End Plate

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1 ANSYS 5.0 A
OCT 13 1995
04:54:30
PLOT NO. 5
NODAL SOLUTION
STEP=1
SUB =1
TIME=1
SY (AVG)
RSYS=0
DMX =1.928
SMN =-246.44
SMNB=-261.258
SMX =492.08
SMXB=651.014
MX MN -246.44
-164.382
-82.324
-0.266378
81.791
163.849
245.907
327.964
410.022
492.08

ASME EXAMPLE

Figure 4.14 Localised Axial Bending Stress at End Plate / Shell Juncture

1 ANSYS 5.0 A
OCT 13 1995
05:02:14
PLOT NO. 8
NODAL SOLUTION
STEP=1
SUB =1
TIME=1
SY (AVG)
RSYS=0
DMX =2.137
SMN =-5.751
SMNB=-15.298
SMX =90.477
MX SMXB=91.441
-5.751
4.941
15.633
26.325
37.017
47.709
58.401
69.093
79.785
90.477

ASME EXAMPLE

Figure 4.15 Localised Axial Bending Stress in Shell and Meridonal Bending Stress
in Head at Juncture

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1 ANSYS 5.0 A
OCT 13 1995
05:01:38
PLOT NO. 7
NODAL SOLUTION
STEP=1
MN
SUB =1
TIME=1
SZ (AVG)
RSYS=0
DMX =2.137
SMN =62.769
SMNB=57.268
SMX =138.578
SMXB=139.546
62.769
71.192
79.615
88.039
96.462
104.885
113.308
121.732
130.155
138.578

MX

ASME EXAMPLE

Figure 4.16 Localised Circumferential Stress at End Plate/Shell Juncture

1 ANSYS 5.0 A
OCT 13 1995
05:01:19
PLOT NO. 6
NODAL SOLUTION
STEP=1
SUB =1
TIME=1
SZ (AVG)
RSYS=0
DMX =2.137
SMN =62.769
SMNB=57.268
SMX =138.578
SMXB=139.546
62.769
71.192
MN 79.615
88.039
96.462
104.885
113.308
121.732
130.155
138.578

MX
ASME EXAMPLE

Figure 4.17 Circumferential Stress Distribution in Head

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4.5 THE FREE BODY DIAGRAMS OF THE SHELL COMPONENTS

In the example from ASME, just considered, it is helpful to draw the free body diagrams for
each of the components that make up the pressure vessel. You will recall that when the
parts are separated each part must be in equilibrium under the action of the forces. The
applied loading, in this case the internal pressure, is clearly an external force. The loading at
the junctions are internal forces and moments - that is, when the parts are re-assembled
these forces cannot be drawn on a force diagram because they are internal.

They are shown on Figure 4.18 below:-

Figure 4.18 Free Body Diagrams for Shell Components

4.6 METHOD OF SOLUTION TO FIND THE UNKNOWN COMPATIBILITY

FORCES

At each junction there are two unknows, the force H and the moment M. [Note they have
different values at each junction]. As indicated above they are self equilibrating, that is they
are in equilibrium with themselves. Together with the membrane forces (which are known),
they cause a radial displacement and a rotation of the shell wall at the junction. As these
compatibility forces are not known, we do not know the value of the displacements or
rotations that they produce.

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We do know, however, that the total displacements (and total rotations) of the sphere
and cylinder at the junction MUST be the same. The same applies at the junction of
the cylinder and the flat end.

This fact means that we can use the compatibility conditions and write down a series of
equations in terms of the various H’s and M’s. From these equations we can find the
unknown values of H and M. Once we have found these we have solved the problem. The
key to unlocking the solution is the values of the rotation and displacement for the force H
and the moment M. These have been analysed, using a simplified form of solution of the
fundamental shell equations. They are provided in Tables 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3 given in the
notes.

These Tables provide a fund of information which enables the appropriate stress resultants
to be determined, once the force H and the moment M have been obtained from the
compatibility relationships - see the Tables.

‘Die-out’ Distances for Stress Resultants

The relationships for the stress resultants, given in the above Tables, contain a series
solution, in terms of the angular position of the location to be considered. They also contain
a decay function e − λ ψ . This results in the various stress resultants decaying as locations
with increasing distance from the junction are considered. This ‘die-out’ distance depends
on which stress resultant or deformation component is being considered. However, at a
distance πR/β most of the effects have reduced to quite small values, as can be see in Figure
4.19 for the distributions which occur in a cylindrical vessel. Hence from the above,
πR/β = 2.45 R T , so that it is generally assumed that edge effects are reduced to negligible
values in a distance x ≥ 2.45 R T .

The concept of ‘die-out’ is inherent in pressure vessel design, for all the different
geometries, where reinforcement is required at a junction. It will be clear that the
reinforcement can only be effective within distances where the discontinuity stresses are
acting. The distances from the junction where reinforcement can be utilised for design
purposes is thus limited to be within the die-out range.

It is worth noting that the above is only relevant to an axi-symmetric system. Such rapid
die-out does not occur when the applied load is applied over part of the circumference - for
example, two diametrically opposite radial loads.

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TABLE 4.1 EDGE SOLUTIONS FOR THIN SPHERE - LOADS AT LOWER EDGE

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TABLE 4.2 EDGE SOLUTIONS FOR THIN SPHERE - LOADS AT UPPER EDGE

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TABLE 4.3 EDGE SOLUTIONS FOR A THIN CIRCULAR CYLINDER

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Figure 4.19 ‘Die-out’ Distances for a Cylindrical Vessel

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