Unit 1 electrostatics

Electrostatics: It is the branch of physics which deals with charges at rest. It is also known as static electricity.

Historical Overview: The ancient Greek found that a piece of amber (a form of fossilized tree resin) has a peculiar
property. They found that when a piece of amber was rubbed with animal fur, it attracts small, lightweight objects
like straw. In 1600, the Englishman William Gilbert discovered that this type of attraction was not limited to amber
but was a general phenomenon. The word ‘electric’ comes from the Greek word ‘Elecktron’ which means amber.

Static or Frictional Electricity: Static electricity refers to lack of balance of positive and negative charges on an
object due to which attraction or repulsion property gets developed on the object.

Electric Charge: Charge is the property associated with the matter due to which it produces and experiences
electrical and magnetic effects. This property arises due to imbalance of electrons.
 Positive charge means deficiency of electrons as compared to protons.
 Negative charge refers to excess of electrons as compared to protons.

Two Kinds of electric Charge:

Two glass rods rubbed with silk cloth when brought close to one another, repel each other. Similar repulsion is
observed when two ebonite (plastic) rods rubbed with woolen cloth (fur) are brought close to one other. This
indicates similar charges on two plastic rods and two glass rods, hence the repulsion. However, when a glass rod
rubbed with silk cloth and plastic rod rubbed with fur are brought close to one another, attract each other. This
indicates different charges on plastic and glass rod, hence the attraction.
American Scientist and Statesman Benjamin Franklin introduced the concept of positive and negative
charges in order to distinguish two kinds of charges. Charge on plastic rod was named as negative while charge on
glass rod was named as positive.

Note:
 Electroscope is the device which is used for detecting charge. Electrometer and ballistic galvanometer are
also used for charge detection.
 True test for electrification is repulsion but not attraction because a charged body can attract a neutral
body due to polarization.
 Charging the object through rubbing (friction) is called triboelectric charging.
 If net charge on a object is zero, it is said to be electrically neutral.

Units of Charge:
The S.I unit of charge is Ampere-second called Coulomb. In CGS system its unit is electrostatic unit (e s u) also
known as stat-coulomb. The practical unit of charge is ampere-hour or milli ampere hour (mAh).
1 Coulomb = 3 × 109 e s u

Industrial Applications of Charge:

 Electrostatic paint spraying and powder coating.

 Fly ash collection in chimneys.
 Non-impact inkjet printing.
 Photocopying.

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Properties of Electric Charge:

1) Additive Nature of Charge: Additive nature of charge means charges add algebraically as it is a scalar
quantity. The total charge on an object is equal to the algebraic sum of all the electric charges distributed on
different parts of body. If q1 , q2 , q3 ,……………. , qn are charges present at different parts of an object,
then total charge on the object will be: q total = q1 + q2 + q3 + …………. + qn ( +ve & -ve must be taken
into account)
2) Quantization of Charge: Electric charge on an object is equal to integral multiple of charge on electron.
i.e., charge on an object q = n e , where n = ±1, ±2, ±3, …… so on and e = 1.6 × 10-19coulomb.
In general when we say a quantity like charge is quantized, it means that the quantity possess only discrete values
rather than any value. Hence charge cannot be distributed randomly.

3) Conservation of Charge: For an isolated system, the net charge always remains constant. In other words,
the algebraic sum of all positive and negative charges present at any time never changes. Hence no net
charge can be created or destroyed.
Examples:
When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, glass rod becomes positively charged and silk becomes negatively charged.
The amount of positive charge on glass rod is found to be exactly the same as negative charge on the silk. Thus
system of glass rod and silk which had zero net charge before rubbing still possesses zero net charge after rubbing.

Nuclear Fission
1 235 141 92 1
0𝑛 + 92𝑈 → 56𝐵𝑎 + 36𝐾𝑟 + 3 0𝑛 + energy
Here net charge before fission reaction and after fission is same.

Radioactive Decay (Nuclear Decay): Uranium decays into Thorium with the emission of alpha particle.
238 234 4
92𝑈 → 90𝑇ℎ + 2𝐻𝑒 (α particle)

Annihilation of Matter: When an electron and positron (anti-particle of electron) comes close to one another, gets
destroyed with the emission of Gamma (γ) ray photons.
−1𝑒 + +1𝑒 → 2γ (rays photons)

4) Charge is Invariant: charge is invariant quantity i.e., it is independent of frame of reference. Magnitude of
charge on an object does not change whether charged object is at rest or moving with any speeds.

Coulomb’s Law:
It states that “electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges is directly proportional to
product of magnitude of two charges and inversely proportional to the square of distance between them”.
If q1 and q2 are two point charges separated by a small distance of r units, then according to Coulomb’s law:
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
F∝
𝒓𝟐
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
⇒ F =k , where k is constant of proportionality known as electrostatic constant or coulomb
𝒓𝟐
constant and its value is equal to 10-7 c2 (c is velocity of light) = 9 × 109 N m2/ C2
In SI system k = 1/4πε0, where ε0 is known as permittivity constant or electric constant. Its value is equal
to 8.85 × 10-12 C2/Nm2. Its dimensions are [M-1L-3T4A2]. q1 r q2
In CGS system k = 1 F F

2
 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
Hence for SI system, Coulomb’s law can be written as: F = k or F = 9 × 109 =
𝒓𝟐 𝒓𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
For CGS system, Coulomb’s law becomes F = .
𝒓𝟐
This force correctly accounts for the force that binds atoms together to form molecules. Due to Coulomb
repulsion, nucleus with more protons is prone for disintegration. However, this law could not explain the
stability of nucleus.
Scope of Coulomb’s law: 10-15m to 108m.

Coulomb’s Law in Vector Form:

Coulomb force is one of the fundamental forces in nature. Also force is a vector quantity. Hence
by writing down it in vector form, it can be shown to be in agreement with Newton’s third of motion.
Let us consider two point charges q1 and q2 placed at A and B in vacuum. Let ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟1 and ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟2 be their
position vectors with respect to the origin.
By using triangle law of vector addition for ∆OAB, we find
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝐴𝐵
𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⇒ 𝐴𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − 𝑂𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 12 q1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑟⃗⃗⃗2 − 𝑟⃗⃗⃗1
⇒ 𝐴𝐵 A
Or |𝐴𝐵⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = r (say) ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟2 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟1 B
Let 𝐹⃗⃗⃗ 12 is the force on q1 due to q2, then 𝑟⃗⃗⃗1 q2
⃗⃗⃗ 12 = k 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝟐 𝑟̂ 21 where 𝑟̂ 21 is unit vector directed from q2 to q1
𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 21
𝒓
Let ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 21 is the force on q2 due to q1 then 𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
2

⃗⃗⃗ 21 = k 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝟐 𝑟̂ 12 where 𝑟̂ 12 is unit vector directed from q1 to q2

𝐹 O
𝒓
But 𝑟̂ 21 = − 𝑟̂ 12
𝒒 𝒒
Hence ⃗⃗⃗𝐹 21 = k 𝟏𝟐 𝟐 (−𝑟̂ 21)
𝒓
⃗⃗⃗ 21 = − k 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝟐 (𝑟̂ 21)
⇒𝐹 𝒓
So, ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ 12
𝐹 21 = −𝐹
This shows Coulomb’s law is in agreement with Newton’s third law of motion.

Coulomb’s law in a medium (Dielectric Constant):

Coulomb’s law does not require medium but its magnitude changes on changing the medium.
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
For vacuum or air F vacuum = 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
For any other medium F medium = where ε is absolute permittivity of medium
𝟒𝝅𝜺 𝒓𝟐
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝐹𝑣𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟐 𝜀
Now = 𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 = 𝜀 = K or εr . Thus ε = K ε0
𝐹𝑎𝑖𝑟 0
𝟒𝝅𝜺 𝒓𝟐

K or εr is known as relative permittivity of medium with respect to vacuum. It is also known as Dielectric constant.
Hence relative permittivity (dielectric constant) of a medium is defined as ratio of force between two charges
placed at a certain distance in vacuum to the force between same charges placed at the same distance in that
medium.
𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝟏 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
Thus for medium we can write; F = 𝟒𝝅𝜺
𝒓𝟐
= 𝟒𝝅𝑲𝜺 𝒓𝟐
.
𝟎 𝜺𝒓 𝟎

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Sine εr > 1; F medium < Fair
For air K =1, Water K = 80, mica K = 6, paper K = 3.5, glass K = 5.6 and for metal K = ∞.

Principle of Superposition:
The electrostatic force between two point charges is independent of presence or absence of other bodies.
So principle of superposition is valid. Principle of superposition gives a method to find force on a charge,
when group of charges are interacting.
When a number of charges are interacting, the total force on a given charge is vector sum of
forces exerted on it by all other charges individually.
Let n point charges q1, q2 ……….. qn are distributed in space in a discrete manner. Let us find force on q1
due to all other remaining charges. Suppose 𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗ 12, ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 13 …………… ⃗⃗⃗ 𝐹 1n be force on q1 due to q2, q3 ……..
qn. Then
⃗⃗⃗ 12 = k 𝒒𝒓𝟏 𝒒𝟐𝟐 𝑟̂ 21 where 𝑟̂ 21 is unit vector directed from q2 to q1
𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑭 13
𝟐

⃗⃗⃗ 13 = k 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝑟̂ 31 where 𝑟̂ 31 is unit vector directed from q3 to q1

𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑭 14 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑭 12
𝒓 𝟐
𝟑
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
⃗⃗⃗ 1n = k
Similarly 𝐹 𝑟̂ n1 where 𝑟̂ n1 is unit vector directed from qn to q1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑭 1n q1
𝒓𝒏 𝟐
So total force on q1 due to these n charges will be: 𝑟̂ 21 𝑟̂ n1 qn
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ 12 + 𝐹
𝐹 Total = 𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗ 13 + …………… 𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗ 1n 𝑟̂ 31 𝑟̂ 41
𝒒𝟏 𝒒 𝟐 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 Total = k 𝒓𝟐 𝟐 𝑟̂ 21 + k 𝑟̂ 31 + ………………….. + k 𝑟̂ n1 q2 q4
𝒓𝟑 𝟐 𝒓𝒏 𝟐
⃗⃗⃗ Total = k [ 𝒒𝒓𝟏 𝒒𝟐𝟐 𝑟̂ 21 +
𝐹
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑟̂ 31 + ………………….. +
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑟̂ n1 ] q3
𝟐 𝒓𝟑 𝟐 𝒓𝒏 𝟐
𝑗=𝑛 𝒒𝒊 𝒒𝒋
So total = k ∑ 𝑖=1 𝑟̂𝑗𝑖
𝒓𝟐
𝑗= 2 𝒋
Continuous Charge Distribution:
We know that charge is quantized. However it is impractical to work in terms of discrete charges as it is
impractical to specify the charge distribution in terms of locations of the microscopic charged
constituents. Continuous charge distribution ignores quantization of charge and discontinuity in charge
distribution at the microscopic level.
Linear Charge Distribution:
When a total charge Q is uniformly distributed along a thin rod of length L, we can define the average
linear charge density λ as:
Q 𝑑𝑞
λ= or λ = (differential charge in terms of differential length).
L 𝑑𝑙
So charge per unit length is known as linear charge density. Its SI unit is coulomb/metre.
Consider a small line element dl consisting charge dq.
Force on q0 due to dq will be:
𝑞0 𝑑𝑞
dFrepulsive = k
𝑟2
𝑞0 𝜆 𝑑𝑙
But dq = λ dl, therefore dFrepulsive = k
𝑟2
Total force on q0 due to entire length is given by:
𝑞0 𝜆 𝑑𝑙 𝜆 𝑑𝑙
∫ 𝑑𝐹 = ∫𝑙 𝑘 𝑟2
⇒ Frepulsive = kq0∫𝑙 𝑟2

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Surface Charge Distribution:
When a total charge Q is uniformly distributed over a surface having area S, we can define the average
surface charge density σ as:
Q 𝑑𝑞
σ= S
or λ = 𝑑𝑠 (differential charge in terms of differential area).
So charge per unit area is known as surface charge density. Its SI unit is coulomb/metre2.
Consider a small area (surface) element ds consisting charge dq.
Force on q0 due to dq will be:
𝑞0 𝑑𝑞
dFrepulsive = k
𝑟2
𝑞0 𝜎 𝑑𝑙
But dq = σ ds, therefore dFrepulsive = k
𝑟2
Total force on q0 due to entire surface (area) is given by:
𝑞0 𝜎 𝑑𝑠 𝜎 𝑑𝑠
∫ 𝑑𝐹 = ∫𝑠 𝑘 𝑟2
⇒ Frepulsive = kq0∫𝑠 𝑟2

Volume Charge Distribution:

When a total charge Q is uniformly distributed in a given volume V, we can define the average volume
charge density ρ as:
Q 𝑑𝑞
ρ=V or ρ = 𝑑𝑉 (differential charge in terms of differential volume).
So charge per unit volume is known as volume charge density. Its SI unit is coulomb/metre3.
Consider a small volume element dV consisting charge dq.
Force on q0 due to dq will be:
𝑞0 𝑑𝑞
dFrepulsive = k
𝑟2
𝑞0 𝜌 𝑑𝑉
But dq = 𝜌 dV, therefore dFrepulsive = k
𝑟2
Total force on q0 due to entire volume is given by:
𝑞0 𝜌 𝑑𝑉 𝜌 𝑑𝑉
∫ 𝑑𝐹 = ∫𝑉 𝑘 𝑟2
⇒ Frepulsive = kq0∫𝑉 𝑟2

Electric field:
In order to explain action at a distance, it is assumed that a charge or charge distribution influences its
surrounding electrically and this electrically influenced surrounding exert force on a charge. The region
surrounding a charge or charge distribution in which its influence (attraction/repulsion) can be
experienced is called electric field of the given charge or charge distribution.
Electric field at a point is characterized either by a vector quantity which is function of position
called electric field intensity or by a scalar quantity which is also a function of position called electric
potential. Electric field is also represented graphically by electric field lines.

Note:
 Electric field can be detected only by its effect (force) but electric field is regarded as physical
entity and not only mathematical model.
 Attraction or repulsion b/w charges arise due to exchange of photons.

5
Electric Field Intensity:
The electric field intensity or strength of electric field at a point due to a source charge is defined as force
per unit positive test charge at that point.
𝐹
𝐸⃗ = lim𝑞0 →0 ⇒ 𝐹 = q0 𝐸⃗
𝑞 0
q0 is small positive charge called test charge it only experiences force due to source charge but exerts no
force on source charge.
Properties of electric field intensity:
i. It is a vector quantity. Its direction is same as the force experienced by positive charge.
ii. Its unit is Newton/Coulomb.
iii. Its dimensional formula is [M1L1T-3A-1]
iv. It obeys superposition principle; that is the field intensity at a point due to charge distribution is
equal to vector sum of field intensities due to individual charge.

Electric Field Intensity due to a Point Charge:

Consider a point charge q at origin. Let q0 be a unit test positive charge placed at point P at a distance of r
units from the source charge.
Force on q0 due to q at point P will be:
𝑞 𝑞
F = k 02 ⃗⃗⃗𝑭
𝑟
F
But electric field intensity E is given by; E = q P q0
0
𝑘𝑞𝑞0 𝑞
Hence E = 𝑟2
= k𝑟 2 ⃗⃗𝑟
𝑞0
𝑞
In vector form⃗⃗⃗𝐸 = 𝑘 𝑟 2 𝑟̂ , where 𝑟̂ is unit vector along ⃗⃗⃗𝐹 +q

Electric Field Lines:

Michael Faraday introduced the concept of electric field lines to visualize the nature of electric field. An
electric field line is that imaginary smooth curve or straight line along which a unit positive charge
actually tries to move in an electric filed if it is free to do so. The tangent drawn at any point of the curve
gives the direction of the electric field at that point.

Electric dipole two equal & same charges

Two unequal charges

When electric field intensity is equal in magnitude and direction at every point, it is known as uniform
electric field. It is represented by parallel equidistant straight lines.

6
Properties of Electric Field Lines:
1) Electric field lines are imaginary, open smooth curves or straight lines that originate on positive
charge and terminate on negative charge.
2) Tangent drawn at any point to this curve gives the direction of electric field or force at that point.
3) Electric field lines never intersect each other due to superposition principle.
4) Electric field lines ends or starts normally at the surface of the conductor.
5) Electric field lines don’t pass through a conductor.
6) Electric field lines per unit area, normal to the area at a point represents magnitude of intensity of
electric field. Crowded lines represent strong field while distant field lines represent weak field.
7) Number of lines originating or terminating on a charge is proportional to magnitude of charge.
8) Electric field lines try to contract longitudinally.
9) Electric field lines have tendency to separate from each other in the direction perpendicular to
their length. -q 𝑝
⃗⃗⃗⃗ +q
2a
Electric Dipole and Dipole Moment:
A system of two equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance is known an electric dipole.
Every electric dipole has a characteristic property called electric dipole moment which is equal to product
of magnitude of either charge times the distance between the two charges. It is denoted by⃗⃗⃗𝑝.
If +q and –q are two charges separated by a small distance equal to 2a.
Then, electric dipole moment p = 2aq
Electric dipole moment is a vector quantity whose direction is from negative charge to positive charge. Its
SI unit is Coulomb meter (C-m) with dimensions [M0L1T1A1]. Electric dipole moment is used to specify
orientation of electric dipole in an electric field.

Electric Field Intensity Due to Electric Dipole on Axial Line (end-on-position):

A line passing through the charges of electric dipole is called axial line. A point on axial line is known as
end on position.
Let AB be an electric dipole consisting +q and –q charges separated by a distance of 2a units,
placed in air. Suppose we have to find electric field intensity at point P which is located at a distance of r
units from the center of dipole.
Intensity of electric field at P due to +q charge will be:
𝑞
E1 = k(𝑟−𝑎)2 along AP.
Intensity of electric field at P due to −q charge will be:
𝑞
E2 = k(𝑟+𝑎)2 along PB
Since E1 and E2 act along the same line of action but are in opposite direction. Hence net electric field
intensity at P will be:
E = E1 – E2 ………… (becauseE1>E2) 2 1
𝑞 𝑞
⇒ E = k(𝑟−𝑎)2 − k(𝑟+𝑎)2
1 1
⇒ E = k q [(𝑟−𝑎)2 − (𝑟+𝑎)2
] along AP
(𝑟+𝑎) − (𝑟−𝑎)2
2 𝑟 2 +𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑟−𝑟 2 −𝑎2 + 2𝑎𝑟
⇒E=kq[ (𝑟−𝑎)2 (𝑟+𝑎)2
] =kq[ (𝑟 2 −𝑎2 )2
]
4𝑎𝑟 𝑘 2𝑎𝑞 (2𝑟)
⇒ E = k q [(𝑟 2 −𝑎2 )2 ] = (𝑟 2 −𝑎2 )2
2𝑘𝑝𝑟
⇒E= (𝑟 2 −𝑎2 )2
……………….. (Because p = 2aq)

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 If dipole is strong but small its effect can be experienced up to large distances, under such
conditions a≪ r, so that (𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 ) ≡ 𝑟 2
2𝑘𝑝𝑟 2𝑘𝑝 𝟐𝒑
∴E= = = 𝟒𝝅𝜺 Newton/coulomb.
(𝑟 2 )2 𝑟3 𝟎𝒓
𝟑

Hence net electric field intensity is in the direction of dipole moment.

2𝑝
Hence in vector form ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 =
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟑

Electric Field Intensity Due to Electric Dipole on equitorial Line (Broadside-on-position):

A line which is perpendicular bisector of the axial line is called equatorial line. A point on equatorial line
is known as equatorial position or broadside on position.
Let AB be an electric dipole consisting +q and –q charges separated by a distance of 2a units,
placed in air. Suppose we have to find electric field intensity at point P which is located at a distance of r
units from the center of dipole.
From figure; AP = BP = √𝑟 2 + 𝑎2
Intensity of electric field at P due to +q charge will be:
𝑞 𝑞
E1 = k 2 2 2 =k 2 2 along AP
(√𝑟 + 𝑎 ) 𝑟 +𝑎
Similarly electric field intensity at P due to −q charge will be: √(𝒓𝟐 + 𝒂𝟐 )
𝑞
E2 = k 𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 along PB
If position of P is changed, < PAO and < PBO both will
will change. Hence angle must be eliminated.
By resolving E1 and E2 into components, we find:
E1Cosθ and E2Cosθ are along AB. Similarly E1sinθ is along OP and E2sinθ is along PO.
Thus E1sinθ and E2sinθ will cancel each other as E1 = E2. Hence net electric field intensity at P due
to given electric dipole is given by:
E = E1Cosθ + E2Cosθ
E = 2 E1Cosθ …..... (1) (Because E1 = E2)
𝐴𝑂 a
From ∆AOP; Cos θ = = 2 2 √𝑟 + 𝑎
𝐴𝑃
𝑞 𝑎 2𝑎𝑞 𝑝
∴ From equation (1), we have E = 2 k =k =k … (As p = 2aq)
(𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 ) (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 ) 1/2 (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 ) 3/2 (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 ) 3/2
If dipole is small but strong, under such conditions; r ≫ a ⇒ 𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 ≈ 𝑟 2
𝑘𝑝 𝑘𝑝 𝑝
Hence E = = = 4𝜋𝜀 Newton/coulomb.
(𝑟 2 ) 3/2 𝑟3 0𝑟
3

Since net electric field intensity is in the opposite direction of dipole moment.
𝑝
Thus in vector form ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 = −
𝟒𝝅𝜺𝟎 𝒓𝟑

Torque on Electric Dipole in a Uniform electric Field:

Consider an electric dipole of length 2a placed in uniform electric field. The force on +q and −q
both have magnitude equal to qE but their directions are opposite, hence they add to zero. However the
two forces don’t act along the same line, so their torques doesn’t add to zero. Thus a uniform electric field
exerts no net force on a dipole but exert a torque that tends to rotate the dipole so as to align it with the
direction of the external electric field. We will calculate torque with respect to the center of dipole. Let the
angle between electric field E and the dipole axis is θ.
Torque τ = magnitude of any force × lever arm (perpendicular distance b/w the two forces)
τ = qE (BC) …………………. (1)
𝐵𝐶
But from ∆ABC; Sin θ = ⇒ BC = 2a sin θ
𝐴𝐵
8
 ∴ From equation (1), we find τ = qE (2a sin𝜃) ⇒ τ = 2aq sin𝜃
τ = p E sin𝜃 ………. (Because p = 2aq)
⇒ ⃗⃗𝜏 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑝 × ⃗⃗⃗𝐸
This torque will be perpendicular to the paper and directed inwards. It is greatest when ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗𝐸 are
perpendicular and zero when parallel or anti-parallel.
𝑝 parallel to 𝐸⃗ is position of stable equilibrium.
 The position 𝜃 = 0 (i.e., τ = 0) with ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑝 anti-parallel to 𝐸⃗ is position of unstable equilibrium.
 The position 𝜃 = 𝜋 (i.e., τ = 0) with ⃗⃗⃗⃗

Electric Flux:
Electric flux is used to approach electric field lines on a quantitative basis. We know that number of
electric field lines per unit area is proportional to the magnitude of electric field. So number of electric
field lines passing the surface area ‘S’ is therefore proportional to the product ES.
The product of magnitude of electric field E and a surface area S perpendicular to the field is
called electric flux ΦE.
∴ ΦE = ES
It is a scalar quantity and has units Nm2/C. Its dimensional formula is [M1L3T-3A-1].
If surface is not perpendicular to the electric field, number of lines that will pass through the area
is equal to the number of lines that cross the projected area S’ = SCos𝜃 which is perpendicular to the field.
∴ ΦE = ESCos𝜃
But in more general, E may vary in both magnitude and direction over the surface. Consider a small area
∆S, variation over which can be ignored. Electric flux through this element ∆ ΦE = E∆SCos𝜃 = E. ∆S
If area of ∆S →0, number of elements → ∞, then total electric flux through surface will be:
ΦE = lim∆𝑠→0 ∑ 𝐸. ∆𝑆 = ∫ 𝐸. 𝑑𝑠
⃗⃗⃗⃗
ΦE = ∫ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑠
Since we are interested over close surface, so ΦE = ∮𝑠 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠
Note: Net electric flux means number of field lines leaving the surface minus number of field lines
entering. If more lines are leaving than entering, electric flux will be positive.

θ
θ θ

Gauss’s Law:
It is a relation between electric flux and electric charge. It states that:
1
The net electric flux through any closed surface is times the total charge enclosed by the surface.
𝜀0
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
i.e., ΦE =
𝜀0
⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⇒ ∮ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑠
But ΦE = ∮𝑠 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑠 𝑠 𝜀0

9
Hence if a closed surface encloses a charge, the surface integral of the electric field over the closed
1
surface is equal to times the total charge enclosed.
ε0
Proof: consider a point charge q in space. Consider a Gaussian sphere around it a distance of r units form
q. Electric field at P will be:
𝑞
E = k𝑟 2 (radially outwards)
Consider a small area element ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 at P on the Gaussian sphere.
Electric flux through 𝑑𝑠 will be: dΦE = 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑠
Total electric flux through Gaussian sphere ΦE = ∮ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 𝑠
⃗⃗⃗⃗
ΦE =∮𝑠 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃, where θ is angle b/w 𝐸⃗ & 𝑑𝑠
ΦE =∮𝑠 𝐸 𝑑𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑠0 ⇒ ΦE =∮𝑠 𝐸 𝑑𝑠
𝑞
ΦE =𝐸 ∮𝑠 𝑑𝑠 ⇒ ΦE = k𝑟 2 (4πr2)………. (Because ∮𝑠 𝑑𝑠 = 4πr2)
1
But k = 4πε
0
1 𝑞 𝑞
Thus ΦE = 4πr2 = Hence the law.
4πε0 𝑟2 𝜀0

Gaussian Surface:
Gaussian surface is an imaginary mathematical surface on which at every point 𝐸⃗ is same (constant).
Also electric field is perpendicular to the surface so that 𝐸⃗ & ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 are parallel.
 For a point charge, Gaussian surface is a sphere.
 For a linear charge distribution, Gaussian surface is a cylinder.
 For a sheet of charge, Gaussian surface is a Gaussian pillbox (i.e., two parallel planes)

Electric Field Intensity Due To Infinite Straight Wire:

Consider an infinitely long straight wire on which charge q is distributed uniformly such that λ is
its linear charge density. To determine the electric field at a distance of r units from the line of charge,
consider a Gaussian cylinder of radius r units and length l units such that axis of cylinder coincides with
the line of charge.
Net electric flux through Gaussian cylinder ΦE = ∮𝑠 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗𝟐
𝒅𝒔
Or ΦE = ∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑠1
𝑑𝑠1 + ∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑠2 + ∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑠2
𝑑𝑠3 𝑠3
⇒ ΦE = ∫𝑠 𝐸 𝑑𝑠1 𝐶𝑜𝑠0 + ∫𝑠 𝐸 𝑑𝑠2 𝐶𝑜𝑠90 + ∫𝑠 𝐸 𝑑𝑠3 𝐶𝑜𝑠90
1 2 3
⇒ ΦE = 𝐸 ∫𝑠 𝑑𝑠1 + 0 + 0
1
⇒ ΦE = 𝐸 (2𝜋𝑟𝑙)………… (Because∫𝑠 𝑑𝑠1 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑙 )
1
⇒ ΦE = 2𝜋𝑟𝑙𝐸 …………… (1)
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
But according to Gauss’s Law; ΦE = ………. (2)
𝜀0
Comparing equation (1) & (2), we find
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝒔𝟏
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
2𝜋 r l E =
𝜀0
But qenclosed by Gaussian cylinder = λ l.
𝜆𝑙 𝜆𝑙 𝜆
∴ 2𝜋 r l E = ⇒ E = 2𝜋𝑟𝑙𝜀 ⇒ E = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝒅𝒔𝟑
𝜀0 0 2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

10
Electric Field Intensity Due To a Non-Conducting, Infinite Plane Sheet of Charge:
Consider an infinite thin plane sheet on which charge q is distributed uniformly such that σ is its
surface charge density. Here Gaussian surface will be a small cylinder whose axis is perpendicular to the
plane and whose flat ends are equidistant from the charged plane. Let area of each flat end is S units.
⃗⃗⃗⃗
Net electric flux through the Gaussian surface will be: ΦE = ∮𝑠 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑠
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗1 + ∫ 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Or ΦE = ∫ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑠 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗3
𝑑𝑠2 + ∫ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑠
𝑠1 𝑠2 𝑠3
⇒ ΦE = ∫𝑠 𝐸 𝑑𝑠1 𝐶𝑜𝑠0 + ∫𝑠 𝐸 𝑑𝑠2 𝐶𝑜𝑠0 + ∫𝑠 𝐸 𝑑𝑠3 𝐶𝑜𝑠90
1 2 3
⇒ ΦE = 𝐸 ∫𝑠 𝑑𝑠1 + 𝐸 ∫𝑠 𝑑𝑠2 + 0
1 2
⇒ ΦE = 𝐸 𝑆 + 𝐸 𝑆
⇒ ΦE = 2 𝐸 𝑆 ………… (1)
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
But according to Gauss’s Law; ΦE = ………. (2)
𝜀0
Comparing equation (1) & (2), we find
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
2𝐸𝑆 =
𝜀0
But qenclosed by Gaussian surface = 𝜎 S.
𝜎𝑆 𝜎𝑆 𝜎
∴ 2 ES = ⇒ E = 2𝑆𝜀 ⇒ E =
𝜀0 0 2𝜀0
Since the distance of the flat end of the cylinder from the plane of charge does not appear in above
𝜎
equation, we conclude that E = 2𝜀 at any distance from the plane. That is, the field is uniform
0
everywhere.

Note:
 If the sheet is thick, then the charge distribution will be available on both the sides. So the charge
enclosed within the Gaussian surface will be twice as before. Therefore, E will be twice
𝜎
i.e., E = 𝜀 .
0
 Similarly if two parallel planes each with surface charge density 𝜎 with one plane positively
charged and other negatively charged. The electric field in the region between the planes will be
𝜎
E = and zero elsewhere.
𝜀 0

Electric Field Intensity Due To Uniformly Charged Spherical Shell:

Consider a uniformly charged spherical shell of radius R units on which charge q is distributed
uniformly such that σ is its surface charge density.
1) Electric field at a point outside the spherical shell:
Here Gaussian surface will be a sphere of radius r units (say) concentric with the given spherical
shell.
⃗⃗⃗⃗
Net electric flux through the Gaussian surface will be: ΦE = ∮𝑠 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑠
Or ΦE = ∮𝑠 𝐸 𝑑𝑆 𝐶𝑜𝑠 0
⇒ ΦE = 𝐸 ∮𝑠 𝑑𝑆
⇒ ΦE = 𝐸 (4𝜋𝑟 2 ) ……………. (Because ∮𝑠 𝑑𝑆 = 4𝜋𝑟 2)
⇒ ΦE = 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝐸 ………… (1)

11
 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
But according to Gauss’s Law; ΦE = ………. (2)
𝜀0
Comparing equation (1) & (2), we find
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
4𝜋𝑟 2 𝐸 =
𝜀0
But qenclosed by Gaussian sphere = q
𝑞 𝑞 𝑞
∴ 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝐸 = ⇒ E = 4𝜋𝜀 2
⇒ E = 𝑘 𝑟2 ………… (A)
𝜀0 0𝑟
It is identical with field intensity due to an equal point charge placed at the centre of spherical shell.

2) Electric field at a point inside the spherical shell:

Here Gaussian surface will be a Gaussian sphere having radius r < R, concentric with the insulated
spherical shell.
⃗⃗⃗⃗
Net electric flux through the Gaussian surface will be: ΦE = ∮𝑠 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑠
Or ΦE = ∮𝑠 𝐸 𝑑𝑆 𝐶𝑜𝑠 0
⇒ ΦE = 𝐸 ∮𝑠 𝑑𝑆
⇒ ΦE = 𝐸 (4𝜋𝑟 2 ) ……………. (Because ∮𝑠 𝑑𝑆 = 4𝜋𝑟 2)
⇒ ΦE = 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝐸 ………… (1)
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
But according to Gauss’s Law; ΦE = ………. (2)
𝜀0
Comparing equation (1) & (2), we find
𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
4𝜋𝑟 2 𝐸 =
𝜀0
But qenclosed by Gaussian sphere = 0 (no charge)
∴ 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝐸 = 0
But 4𝜋𝑟 2 ≠ 0, Therefore E =0 inside the spherical shell.

3) Electric field at a point on the surface of spherical shell:

Here Gaussian surface will be a Gaussian sphere having radius r = R, concentric with the insulated
spherical shell.
Put r = R in equation (A), we find
E = 𝑘 𝑟𝑞2 = 1 𝑞
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅2
𝑞
Since 4𝜋 R2 is surface area of spherical shell. Thus 4𝜋𝑅2 = 𝜎
σ
Hence E = ………… (E is maximum at this point).
𝜀0

Conservative Nature of Electrostatic Field and Force:

Consider +Q charge at the origin of Cartesian coordinate system. Let +q0 charge is kept at point P
in the electric field of +Q charge at a distance of r units from +Q charge. Force on q0 due to electric field
will be F = q0E (repulsive). In order to keep the q0 at P, external force equal to −q0 E must be applied in
opposite direction of 𝐸⃗ .
Amount of work done in moving q0 through ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑙 is: dW =−q0 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙
𝐵
⃗⃗⃗
Total work done in moving q0 from A to B will be: WA→B = ∫𝐴 − 𝑞0 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙
12
 𝐵
Or WA→B =∫𝐴 −q 0 𝐸𝑑𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, where 𝜃 is angle b/w 𝐸⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙
⃗⃗⃗ onto 𝑟, therefore dl Cos𝜃 =dr
Since dl Cos is the projection of 𝑑𝑙
𝐵
Hence WA→B =∫𝐴 −q 0 𝐸𝑑𝑟
If 𝑟⃗⃗⃗𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟⃗⃗⃗𝑏 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 + 𝑄
𝑟 𝑟 𝑄 𝑄
∴ WA→B =∫𝑟 𝑏 −q 0 𝐸𝑑𝑟 ⇒ WA→B =∫𝑟 𝑏 −q 0 4𝜋 𝜀 2
𝑑𝑟 …..(As E =4𝜋 𝜀 2
)
𝑎 𝑎 0𝑟 0𝑟
𝑞 𝑄 𝑟 𝑞0 𝑄 −1 𝑞 𝑄 1 1
⇒ WA→B = − 4𝜋0 𝜀 ∫𝑟 𝑏 𝑟 −2 𝑑𝑟 ⇒ WA→B = − 4𝜋 𝜀 [ 𝑟 ] 𝑟𝑟𝑏⇒ WA→B = 4𝜋0 𝜀 [ 𝑟 − 𝑟𝑎
]
𝑎 0 0 𝑎 0 𝑏
This shows work done is path independent and depends on initial and final position.
𝑞0 𝑄 1 1
Similarly work done in moving q0 from B to A will be: WB→A = [ − ]
4𝜋 𝜀0 𝑟𝑎 𝑟𝑏
Total work done from A to B and then from B to A is given by:
𝑞0 𝑄 1 1 𝑞0 𝑄 1 1
W = WA→B + WB→A = [ − ]+ [ − ]=0
4𝜋 𝜀0 𝑟𝑏 𝑟𝑎 4𝜋 𝜀0 𝑟𝑎 𝑟𝑏
This shows electrostatic field hence electrostatic field is conservative in nature as work done is path
independent and work done along a circular is zero.

Electrostatic Potential and Potential Difference:

We know that work done in moving a test charge q0 from A to B in the electric field is:
𝐵 𝑞 𝑄 1 1
WA→B = ∫ − 𝑞0 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝐴
𝑑𝑙 = 0 [ − ]
4𝜋 𝜀0 𝑟𝐵 𝑟𝐴
WA →B 𝑄 1 1
Or
q0
=
4𝜋 𝜀0
[𝑟 − 𝑟𝐴
]
𝐵
If rA = ∞ and rB = r, where r is distance of B from source charge Q.
W∞ →B 𝑄 1 1 W∞ →B 𝑄 1 𝑄
q0
=
4𝜋 𝜀0
[𝑟 − ∞
]⇒
q0
=
4𝜋 𝜀0 𝑟𝐵
=
4𝜋 𝜀0 𝑟𝐵
𝐵
W∞ →B 𝐵
Hence VB = = − ∫∞ ⃗⃗𝐸. ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙
q0
Hence electric potential at a point inside electric field due to a source charge equals the work done in
moving a unit test positive charge from infinity to that point against electric field along any path. In other
words electrostatic potential at a point is equal to the negative of line integral of electric field from infinity
to that point.
Electric potential is a scalar quantity having dimensions [M1L2T-3A-1]. SI unit of electric
potential is joule per coulomb also known as Volt.
1 volt electric potential is defined as 1 joule per coulomb.

WA →B 𝑄 1 1 WA →B 𝑄 𝑄
Now, q0
=
4𝜋 𝜀0
[𝑟 − 𝑟𝐴
]⇒
q0
=
4𝜋 𝜀0 𝑟𝐵
−
4𝜋 𝜀0 𝑟𝐴
= VB – VA = ∆V
𝐵
Hence potential difference between two points in an electric field is the amount of work done in moving a
test positive from one point to another point along any path against electric field.

Note: potential at infinity is assumed to be zero but it fails for infinite sheet of charge.

Electron Volt:
Electron volt is a unit of energy.
1 eV = 1e × 1 V = 1.6 × 10-19 C × 1 J/C = 1.6 × 10-19Joules
So 1 electron volt (eV) is the kinetic energy gained by a particle with charge (e) being accelerated through
a potential difference of 1 volt.
13
Electric Potential due to a Point Charge:
Consider a point charge +q. suppose we have to find the electric potential at point P which is at a
distance of r units from +q charge.
𝑟 ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
By definition, potential at point P is: V = − ∫∞ 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑙 …………. (1)
But 𝐸⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙 = 𝐸 𝑑𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐸𝑑𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝜋 = −𝐸𝑑𝑙 ……….. (Because E and dl are in opposite direction)
∴ From equation (1), we find
𝑟
V = − ∫∞ − 𝐸 𝑑𝑙
Since the path is radial, we can replace dl by dr (i.e., − dl by dr as they are in opposite direction)
𝑟
Thus V = − ∫∞ 𝐸 𝑑𝑟
𝑞
But E = k𝑟 2 𝑎𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑃.
𝑟 𝑞 𝑟 1 −1
Therefore V = − ∫∞ 𝑘 𝑟2 𝑑𝑟 ⇒ V = −k q∫∞ 𝑑𝑟 ⇒ V = − k q[ 𝑟 ] ∞𝑟
𝑟2
1 1 𝑞
⇒V=kq[𝑟− ] ⇒V=k +q P q0 ⃗𝑬
⃗
∞ 𝑟
 If the source charge is positive, V > 0 r ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑙
 If the source charge is negative, V < 0

Electric Potential at a point due to an Electric Dipole:

Consider an electric dipole of dipole moment p = 2aq. Let P be the point at which total potential due to
dipole is to be calculated. Let distance of P from –q charge is r1 and from +q is r2. The distance of point P
from the centre of dipole is r units and angle between OP and dipole moment is θ.
Draw BD and AC perpendicular on PO and produce it to C.
From ∆ACO, we have
𝑂𝐶
= Cos θ ⇒ OC = AO (cosθ) = a cos𝜃
𝐴𝑂
And similarly, OD = OB cosθ = a cos θ
If dipole is small but strong, then r1 ≈ CP ⇒ r1 = OP + OC = r + a cosθ
And similarly r2 = DP ⇒ r2 = OP – OD = r – a cosθ
Potential at P due to –q charge will be:
1 (−q) 𝑞 𝑞
V1 = 4𝜋 𝜀 𝑟 = − 4𝜋 𝜀 𝑟 = − 4𝜋 𝜀 (𝑟+𝑎 cos 𝜃) P
0 1 0 1 0
Potential at P due to +q charge will be:
1 q 𝑞 𝑞
V2 = 4𝜋 𝜀 𝑟 = 4𝜋 𝜀 𝑟 = 4𝜋 𝜀 (𝑟−𝑎 cos 𝜃)
0 2 0 2 0
By principle of superposition, total electric potential at P will be:
V = V1 + V2
𝑞 −1 1
⇒ V = 4𝜋 𝜀 [(𝑟+𝑎 cos 𝜃) + (𝑟−𝑎 cos 𝜃)] r1 r r2
0
𝑞 − 𝑟+𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃+ 𝑟+ 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
⇒ V = 4𝜋 𝜀 [ 𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃
]
0
𝑞 2𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
⇒ V = 4𝜋 𝜀 [𝑟 2 − 𝑎2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃] −q +q
0
𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
⇒ V = 4𝜋 𝜀 2 2 2 ………. (Because p = 2aq)
0 (𝑟 − 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃)
𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
If r ≫ a; then r2 – a2cos2𝜃 ≈ r2. Thus we have V = 4𝜋 𝜀 2
0𝑟
Case I: If P lies on axial line, then 𝜃 = 0 0

𝑝
So V = 4𝜋 𝜀 𝑟2 ……… (Because cos 00 = 1)
0

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Case 2: If P lies on equitorial line, then 𝜃 = 900
𝑝 cos 90
So V = =0
4𝜋 𝜀0 𝑟 2
So there exists a path along which if test charge is moved, work done is zero. This is limitation of
conservative nature of electric field (electric force).

Relation between Electric Field and Electric Potential:

We know that potential difference between two points A and B can be written as:
𝐵 ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
VB – VA = − ∫𝐴 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑙 …………. (1)
If the integration extends over a small distance, then E is approximately constant so that VB – VA = dV
Thus from equation (1) we find, dV = −𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗⃗⃗ ⇒ 𝑑𝑉 = −𝐸 𝑑𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 …….. (2)
If dl is perpendicular to 𝐸⃗ , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑉 = 0 (𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒)
The maximum increase in V occurs when ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑙 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐸⃗ .
𝑑𝑉
From equation (2), we have E Cos𝜃 = − 𝑑𝑙
𝑑𝑉
Since E Cos θ = El is component of 𝐸⃗ in the direction of dl. Thus El = −
𝑑𝑙
Hence electric field is negative of gradient of the potential V.

 For a displacement in the x- direction, ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝒅𝒍 = 𝒅𝒙 𝒊̂
⃗⃗ . 𝒊̂)𝒅𝒙 ⇒ dV = - Ex dx ⇒ Ex = − 𝒅𝑽
⃗⃗ . 𝒅𝒙 𝒊̂ ⇒ dV = −(𝑬
Therefore, dV = −𝑬 𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝑽 𝒅𝑽
 Similarly Ey = − 𝒅𝒚 and Ez = −
𝒅𝒛
Thus ⃗𝑬
⃗ points in the direction of decreasing electric potential V.

Equipotential Surfaces:
A surface at every point of which electric potential due to a charge distribution is same is known as
equipotential surface. It is actually locus of adjacent points on which potential are same.
For a point charge equipotential surface is a series of concentric spherical shells with the charge
at centre. The equipotential surfaces of a uniform electric field consists of a family of planes all
perpendicular to the field.

Properties of equipotential surfaces:

1) No work is done in moving a test charge from one point to another on an equipotential surface.
If A and B are two points on the equipotential surface, then VA = VB
W W
Hence 𝑞A →B = VB – VA ⇒ 𝑞A →B = 0 ⇒ 𝑊𝐴 →𝐵 = 0
0 0
2) The electric field is always perpendicular to the element dl of the equipotential surface.
W 𝐵 ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
We know that 𝑞A →B = − ∫𝐴 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑙
0
For equipotential surface 𝑊𝐴 →𝐵 = 0. Hence E dl cos𝜃 = 0. But E ≠0, dl ≠ 0, Thus𝜃 = 900.
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 3) Equipotential surfaces indicate regions of strong or weak electric field.
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 1
We know that 𝐸 = − ⇒ 𝑟 = − . Since dV is constant for an equipotential surface. So 𝑑𝑟 ∝
𝑑𝑟 𝐸 𝐸
If E is strong, dr will be smaller (separation between equipotential surfaces will be smaller/crowded) and
vice versa.
4) Two equipotential surfaces cannot intersect each other.
If two equipotential surfaces intersect, then at the point of intersection there will be two values of electric
potential which is not possible.

Electrostatic Potential energy for a system of two point charges:

Electrostatic potential energy of a system of charged particles is defined as external work done
to assemble the particles from infinity to the given configuration.
Consider two point charges q1 and q2 which are separated by a distance of r units. Electric
potential at B due to q1 (located at A) will be:
𝑞
V = 𝑘 𝑟1 ………….. (1) +q1 +q2
In terms of work, V can be written as: r
W
V = 𝑞 ⇒ W = Vq2
2
This work gets stored in the form of potential energy for the system of two point charges.
𝑞 𝑞 𝟏 𝒒 𝒒
Hence, U = Vq2 ⇒ U = k 1 2 or U = 𝟒𝝅𝜺 𝟏𝒓 𝟐
r 𝟎
 If q1q2 > 0, then potential energy is positive. This implies work must be done in assembling
charges, thus potential energy of the system increases due to this work.
 If q1q2 < 0, then potential energy is negative. This implies system itself does work as attractive
force is responsible for assembling charges, thus potential energy of the system decreases.

Potential energy of an electric dipole in a uniform electric field:

When an electric dipole is placed inside a uniform electric field, work must be done in order to change the
orientation of dipole. Potential energy of an electric dipole is defined as work done in rotating any
electric dipole from standard position (perpendicular to electric field) to any angle with the electric field.
Torque on an electric dipole in a uniform electric field is τ = pEsin𝜃

dW = τ dθ ⇒ dW = pEsin𝜃
𝜋
Total work done in rotating the dipole from θ = 2 to any angle θ will be:
𝜃 𝜃 𝜃
W = ∫𝜋 𝑝𝐸𝑠𝑖𝑛θ d𝜃 ⇒ pE∫𝜋/2 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ d𝜃 = pE[− cos 𝜃] 𝜋/2
2
𝜋
⇒ W = pE(− cos𝜃 + cos2 ) = − pEcos𝜃 = − 𝑝 . 𝐸⃗

 If 𝜃 = 00, potential energy is minimum. This is position of stable equilibrium.

 If 𝜃 = 900, potential energy is zero. Here external work done will be equal to work done by the field.
 If 𝜃 =1800, potential energy is maximum. This is position of unstable equilibrium.

Conductors and Insulators:

On the basis of ability of charges to move within the substance, materials are classified into:
Conductors: Conductors are materials in which some of the electrons are free electrons that are not bound
to atoms and can move relatively freely through the material. E.g., gold, silver, copper, aluminum etc are
good conductors. When such materials are charged in some region, the charge readily distributes itself
over the entire surface of the material.
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Insulators: Electrical insulators are materials in which all the electrons are bound to atoms and cannot
move freely through the conductor. E.g., glass, rubber, dry wood, mica are insulators. When such
materials are charged by rubbing, only the rubbed area becomes charged, the charge does not tend to
move to other regions of the material.

Free and Bound charges in conductors:

In metallic conductors, the valence electrons of the atoms become free when atoms combine to form
solid. They are known as free electrons or free charges. These charges can move freely inside a conductor
when voltage (external electric field) is applied across the conductor. Thus a free charge is not bound to
nucleus and can have any energy.
The ions (positively charged atoms) thus formed consist of nuclei and inner shell electrons remain
fixed at their positions. Thus inner shell electrons are bound to the nucleus and can have only quantized
energies. These immobile charges are known as bound charges.

Electric field and conductors:

 Electric field inside a conductor is zero in the static condition.
 Any net charge on a conductor distributes itself on the surface.
 Electric field is always perpendicular to the surface outside of a conductor.
Dielectrics:
A dielectric is an insulating material that has no free charges. However when placed in external electric
field, electrons are realigned in a specific way. Thus dielectric is an insulator that can support an induced
electric field. E.g., glass, rubber, waxed paper, ebonite, mica etc. A dielectric is made up of either polar
molecules or non-polar molecules.

Polar Molecules (Polar Dielectrics):

In polar molecules, the centers of positive and negative charges are separated even in the absence of
external electric field. Thus every molecule has a permanent dipole moment. However the net dipole
moment is zero as these dipoles are randomly oriented due to thermal motion. E.g., H2O, HCl, NH3, N2O
etc. In presence of external electric field, every molecule aligns itself in the direction of electric field.

Non-Polar Molecules (Non-polar Dielectrics):

A non-polar molecule is one in which centers of positive and negative charges coincide. As a result,
dipole moment of every molecule is zero. E.g., H2, O2, CO2 etc. In presence of external electric field,
each molecule gets an induced dipole moment in the direction of external electric field.

Dielectric Polarization:
When a dielectric material is subjected to an external electric field, the molecules of the dielectric
rearrange themselves along the electric field giving rise to net induced dipole moment. This phenomenon
is known as dielectric polarization.
Polarization vector or polarization or polarization density (𝑃⃗) is defined as the induced dipole moment
per unit volume of the polarized dielectric. Its unit is coulomb/meter2. Mathematically it is equal to
surface charge density of polarized charges (σp).
Polarization vector is directly proportional to reduced value of electric field E (where E = Eexternal – Einduced)
i.e. P ∝ E ⇒ P = χ ε0 E , where χ = P/ ε0 E is a dimensionless constant known as electric susceptibility. It
indicates the degree of polarization of the dielectric material in response to external electric field.
Since E = E0 – Ep where E0 is external electric field and Ep is polarized or induced electric field.

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 𝝈𝒑 𝑃
⇒ E0 = E + Ep ⇒ E0 = E + ⇒ E0 = E +𝜺 ………… (Because P = σp)
𝜺𝟎 𝟎
𝜒 𝜀0 𝐸 𝐸0 𝐸0
⇒ E0 = E + 𝜺𝟎
⇒ E0 = E + 𝜒𝐸 ⇒ E0 = E ( 1 + 𝜒) ⇒ 𝐸
= ( 1 + 𝜒) ⇒ εr = 1 + 𝜒 ……. (As 𝐸
= εr)

Capacitor and capacitance:

Any two conductors separated by an insulator are said to form a capacitor. It is a device that stores
electrical energy. The magnitude of charge on a conductor (capacitor) is linearly proportional to the
potential difference between the conductors.
𝑄
i.e., Q ∝ ∆V ⇒ Q= C ∆V ⇒ C = , the proportionality constant C known as Capacitance
∆𝑉
depends on the shape, medium and separation between the conductors.
Thus Capacitance of a capacitor is defined as the ratio of magnitude of charge Q on either conductor to
the magnitude of potential difference ∆V between the conductors. Capacitance of a system is a measure of
amount of charge that can be stored on a capacitor for a given potential difference.
If ∆V = 1volt, then C = Q. Hence capacitance is numerically equal to the charge required to raise the
potential difference between conductors of capacitor by unity.

The SI unit of capacitance is Coulomb/volt also known as Farad. Its dimensional formula is [M-1L-2T4A2]
Capacitance of 1 coulomb per volt is called one farad. Capacitance is a scalar quantity.

Principle of a Capacitor:
Principle of a capacitor is based on the fact that capacitance can be increased by reducing potential
difference keeping the charge constant.
Consider a metal plate A positively charged. Now bring an uncharged plate B near to it. Due to
electrostatic induction nearer side of B gets negatively charge while as farther side gets positive charge.
The negative charge on B tends to lower the potential on A while the positive charge on B tends to
increase the potential on A. but negative charge on B is nearer to A, hence its effect will be more. So
potential on A will decrease. Now connect the plate B to earth, the positive charges will be neutralized by
electrons from the earth leaving net negative charge on B. Hence it will further lower potential on A. Thus
more positive charge is needed to raise the potential on A to its initial value. A capacitor is symbolically
represented as

Types of capacitors:
 Commercial capacitors are made up of metal foils twisted together and filled evenly with paraffin
paper which acts as dielectric. They are then rolled in the form of cylinder.
 High voltage capacitors are made up of metal plates immersed in silicone oil.
 Electrolytic capacitors are made up of metal placed in an electrolyte. Metal oxide layer formed
acts as dielectric layer.
 Ceramic capacitors are made up of ceramic material.
 Parallel plate capacitor is made up of two metal plates separated by a dielectric substance.

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Capacitance of a Parallel plate capacitor:
Consider a parallel plate capacitor with air as dielectric. Let charge on each plate is Q, area of
plate A, distance between plates is d and potential difference between plates is ∆V.
If distance between plates is small as compared to dimensions of plates, the edge effect can be ignored
i.e., field will be uniform between the plates.
𝝈 𝑸
Electric field in the region between the plates is: E = =
𝜺𝟎 𝑨𝜺𝟎
𝚫𝑽 𝑸
We know that, E =
𝒅
⇒ ∆V = Ed ⇒ ∆V = 𝑨𝜺 𝑑
𝟎
𝑄 𝑄 𝑨 𝜺𝟎
By definition, capacitance C =
∆𝑉
⇒ C = 𝑄𝑑 ⇒C= 𝒅
⁄𝐴𝜀
0

Capacitance of a Parallel plate capacitor with dielectric:

Consider a parallel plate capacitor. Let charge on each plate is Q, area of plate A, distance
between plates is d and potential difference between plates is ∆V.
𝑨𝜺
Its capacitance with air as dielectric will be: C0 = 𝟎
𝒅
When dielectric slab of thickness l having dielectric constant K is placed between the two plates, it gets
polarized in the direction of external electric field 𝐸⃗ 0. Induced electric field 𝐸⃗ p will be in the opposite
direction of 𝐸⃗ 0.
Hence net electric field within the dielectric will be E = E0 – Ep
Since E exists over a distance l (slab) and E0 exists over the remaining distance (d – l) i.e., air.
Thus potential difference b/w capacitor plates will be ∆V = ∆Vslab + ∆Vair ⃗⃗ 𝟎
𝑬
⇒ ∆V = E l + E0 (d - l) +Q -Q
𝐸0
⇒ ∆V = 𝐾 l + E0 (d - l) ……………… (Because K = E0/E)
𝒍 𝑸 𝒍 𝑸
⇒ ∆V = E0 [ + (d - l)] ⇒ ∆V = [ + (d - l)] ……. (Because E0 = ) ⃗𝑬
⃗ 𝒑
𝐾 𝑨𝜺𝟎 𝐾 𝑨𝜺𝟎
𝑄 𝑄 𝑨𝜺𝟎
By definition, C =
∆𝑉
⇒C 𝑸 𝒍 ⇒ C= 𝒍
[ + (𝑑 − 𝒍)] [ + (𝑑 − 𝒍)]
𝑨𝜺𝟎 𝐾 𝐾

Special Case: if the dielectric fills the entire space b/w the plates, then l = d
𝑨𝜺𝟎 𝐾𝑨 𝜺𝟎
So, C = 𝒅 ⇒C= area A
[ + (𝑑 − 𝒅)] 𝒅
𝐾
Hence capacitance increases by K times. d

Note: Theoretically infinite charge can be given to a conductor. But practically when electric field b/w so
large that it causes ionization of the medium surrounding it, charge on conductor leaks off reducing its
potential. The maximum value of electric field that a dielectric can tolerate without breakdown is
known as its dielectric strength. For air, dielectric strength is 3 × 106V/m and for paper 16×106V/m.

Energy Stored in a capacitor:

Consider a parallel plate initially uncharged such that initial potential difference is zero. Suppose q is the
𝑞
charge on capacitor at some instant during charging process so that potential difference ∆V = …… (1)
𝐶
In moving additional charge dq through the field between the plates, work required will be:
𝑞
dW = dq ∆V ⇒ dW = dq…………… (Using 1)
𝐶

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Total work required to charge the capacitor from q = 0 to final charge q = Q will be:
𝑄𝑞 1 𝑄 𝑄 1 𝑞2 1 𝑄2
W = ∫0 𝑑𝑞 ⇒ 𝑊 = ∫0 𝑞 𝑑𝑞 ⇒ 𝑊 = 𝐶 [ 2 ] 0 ⇒W= [𝑄2 − 0] ⇒ W =
𝐶 𝐶 2𝐶 2𝐶
2 2
𝐶 ∆𝑉 1 1
But Q = C ∆V, Hence W = 2𝐶
⇒W= 2
𝐶 ∆𝑉2 or W = 2
𝑄 ∆𝑉
This work is done by the external agent but due to transformation of chemical energy in the battery.
1 1
Hence U = 2 𝐶 ∆𝑉 2 or U = 𝑄 ∆𝑉
2
This energy is stored in the electric field between the plates of capacitor.

Note: This expression is applicable to any capacitor regardless of its geometry. Also maximum energy
stored is limited.
1 𝑨 𝜺𝟎
Since U = 2 𝐶 ∆𝑉 2. Also ∆V = Ed and C =
𝒅
1 𝐴 𝜺𝟎 1 2
Thus U = 2 ( 𝑑
) 𝐸𝑑 ⇒ U = 2 𝜀0 𝐸 𝐴𝑑
𝟏
Energy stored per unit volume is known as energy density u = 𝟐 𝜺𝟎 𝑬𝟐

Combination of Capacitors:
Capacitors in parallels:
Let two capacitors of individual capacitances C1 and C2 are connected in parallels. Here potential
difference across each capacitor is equal to terminal voltage of battery.
When the voltage across capacitor is equal to that across the battery terminal, flow of charges
ceases. At this point, the capacitors have reached their maximum charge. Let maximum charge on two
capacitors is Q1 and Q2. Therefore total charge Q = Q1 + Q2 …………. (1)
For individual capacitors Q1 = C1∆V and Q2 = C2∆V
Let Cp is equivalent capacitance of this combination. Thus Q = Cp ∆V
Therefore from equation (1) we find;
Cp ∆V = C1∆V + C2∆V ⇒ Cp = C1 + C2
For n capacitors, Cp = C1 + C2 + C3 + ……………… + Cn
Therefore, equivalent capacitance of parallel combination is
equal to the algebraic sum of individual capacitances
and is larger than any of the individual capacitances.

Capacitors in Series:
Let two capacitors of individual capacitances C1 and C2 are connected in series. Here right plate of C1 and
left plate of C2 form an isolated conductor. To maintain neutrality of this isolated conductor, both
capacitors must have same charge Q.
Therefore, ∆V = ∆V1 + ∆V2 …………. (1)
𝑄 𝑄
Thus for individual capacitors, ∆V1 = and ∆V2 =
𝐶1 𝐶2
𝑄
Let Cs is equivalent capacitance of this combination. Thus ∆V =
𝐶𝑠
Therefore from equation (1) we find;

20
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 1 1 1
𝐶𝑠
=
𝐶1
+
𝐶2
⇒𝐶 = 𝐶1
+
𝐶2
𝑠
1 1 1 1 1
For n capacitors, = + + + …………… +
𝐶𝑠 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 𝐶𝑛
Therefore, inverse of equivalent capacitance in series combination is equal to the algebraic sum of
inverse of individual capacitances and is always less than the individual capacitances.

Note: The charge on the dielectric is known as bound charge because this charge is bound to the
surface molecules of the dielectric and cannot move like free charges on the conducting capacitor
plates.

Uses of Capacitors:
1) Capacitors are used for storing electric charge and electric energy.
2) Capacitors are used in radio circuits for tuning.
3) In filters and rectifier circuits for smoothening the rectified current.
4) Capacitors are used as electronic flash unit for photography.
5) Capacitors are used in defibrillator and stud finders.

Corona Discharge:
Electrical discharge caused by ionization of medium surrounding an electrically charged conductor is
known as Corona discharge.

Van de Graff Generator:

It is an electrostatic high voltage Generator which was initially designed by Robert Van de Graff.

Purpose: It is basically an arrangement for producing high potential difference of the order of several
million volts for accelerating particles like deuterons, protons, ions etc.

Principle: It is based on the principle of discharging action of sharp pointed surfaces (corona discharge)
and collecting action of the hollow spherical conductors.

Construction: It consists of a large hollow metallic sphere S mounted on an insulating column. A

conveyer belt made of insulating material runs over pulleys P1 and P2 driven by electric motor. Two
pointed metal surfaces B1 (spraying comb) is connected to high tension (H.T) which is earth connected
and B2 (collecting comb) is connected to sphere S. The ion source D is kept inside the sphere S and is
connected to earth through a tube. The generator is enclosed in an earth connected steel tank C filled with
chemically inert gas at high pressure.

Working: The high tension (H.T) gives positive charge to spraying comb B1 which sprays it to the belt at
B1 due to corona discharge. This positive charge while entering the sphere S induces negative charge on
B2 and sphere S becomes positively charged. Again due to corona discharge, positive charge present on
the belt is neutralized by negative charge on B2.

21
 Thus belt B collects positive charge at B1 and delivers to sphere S at B2. This process continues
till the sphere becomes highly positively charged, thus resulting in potential difference of 5 to 10 Million
volts. The charged particle at ion source D is at very high potential with respect to the lower end of the
tube which is earth connected. The charged particle
thus gets accelerated and moves downwards through
the tube to hit the target. The earth connected steel tank
prevents the leakage due to ionization of air surrounding the sphere.

Uses:
 It is used to accelerate charged particles in order to carry out artificial transmutation.
 It is used to study collision experiments in laboratory.
 Such accelerated beams are used in medicine for killing malignant tissue.

Prepared by:
Parveez Ahmad Khan
Hope Coaching Classes
Sangrama Sopore
E-mail: khanparveez333@gmail.com

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