Aim:

1. To analyze the composition of soil by using sedimentation method.

2. To identify the soluble salts present in a soil sample.
3. To find the volume of air in soil sample.
4. To check the humidity and temperature
5. To estimate the population size of particular species.

Experiment 1: To analyze the composition of soil.

Introduction:

Soil is a natural body of Earth consisting horizontal layers of mineral compositions which
varies in thicknesses and differ from the other materials in their physical, chemical and
mineralogical characteristics. These layers are composed from particles of broken rock that have
been altered by chemical and environmental processes including changes in weather and soil
erosion. Soil is made up by mixture of mineral and organic constituents which exist in solid,
gaseous and aqueous states. The soil particles are pack loosely and formed a structure filled with
pore spaces. These pores contain soil solution (liquid) and air (gas).

There are a few types of soil particles that are divided according to their sizes; gravel, coarse
sand, fine sand, silt and clay.

Gravel:

According to scientific research, gravel is any loose rock which the average diameter is larger
than 2 mm and not more than 64 mm. Large gravel deposits are a common geological feature.
The action of rivers and waves tends to pile up gravel in large accumulations which sometimes
may result in gravel becoming compacted and concreted into the sedimentary rock. As the
natural gravel deposits are insufficient for human purposes, gravel is often produced by
quarrying and crushing hardwearing rocks such as sandstone, limestone or basalt. Gravel is an
important commercial product with variety of applications. Many roadways are surfaced with
gravel especially in rural areas where there is little traffic.

Coarse sand / Fine sand:

The average diameter of sand particles range from 0.02 mm to 2.00 mm which then they are
divided into two types; coarse sand and fine sand. The average diameter of coarse sand ranges
from 0.2 mm to 2.0 mm while the average diameter of fine sand ranges from 0.02 mm to 0.2
mm. Sand feels gritty when they are rubbed between the fingers, by comparison to silt which
feels like flour. The composition of sand is highly variable, depending on the local rock sources
and the surrounding environment. There are varieties of uses of this particular soil component.
For example, they are used in agriculture field as they are ideal for crops such as watermelons,
peaches and peanuts due to their excellent drainage characteristics which make them suitable for
intensive dairy farming. Sands are also added to a mixture of clay and other materials for the
manufacture of bricks.

Silt:

Silt is rock derived granular material of a grain size ranges from 0.002 mm to 0.02 mm. It may
occur as a soil or as suspended sediment in a surface water body. Silt is sometimes known as
‘rock flour’ or ‘stone dust’ especially when it is produced by glacial action. A main source of silt
in urban rivers is claimed to be caused by disturbance of soil by construction activity. Silt and
clay contribute to the cloudiness or haziness of water (water turbidity) which usually related to
water quality test.

Clay:

The average diameter of clay is smaller than 0.002 mm. Clay minerals are usually formed over
long periods of time by the gradual chemical weathering of rocks, by low concentrations of
carbonic acid and other diluted solvents. The plasticity characteristic of clay is shown when it is
mixed with water in certain proportion. When it is dried, clay becomes firm and when it is fired
in a kiln, a permanent physical and chemical reaction occurs. These reactions will cause the clay
to be converted into a ceramic material. Due to these properties, clay is used for making pottery
items, both utilitarian and decorative.

Apparatus and Material:

Soil sample, 1000 cm3 measuring cylinder and distilled water.

Method:

1. A 500 cm3 measuring cylinder is filled with a sample of soil and water is added to it until it is
about ¾ full.

2. The cylinder is vigorously shaken and it is left aside for the soil to settle down in layers. This
process is known as sedimentation.

3. The depth of each layer of soil particles is recorded.

Result:

Type of soil Depth of layer / Volume of particles (cm3) Percentage (%)

Gravel 120 21.05

Fine sand 30 5.26

Silt 50 8.77

Clay 370 64.92

Discussion:

From the observation recorded from the experiment, the soil particles can be easily seen
from the layers formed when the soil sample is mixed with water and produce 570 cm 3 mixtures.
The percentage content of each soil particle is calculated by dividing the depth of the layers
formed with the total volume of the mixtures. The highest depth of layer is the clay particles
which is 370 cm3 and made up to 64.92%. The lowest value of depth is for fine sand which is
only 30 cm3 and formed 5.26%.

By referring to the table above, soil can be further classified into three types; sandy soil,
loam and clay. The proportions of soil particles in these three types of soil are different with one
another. The percentage of coarse sand is the highest in sandy soil which is 67%. Fine sand only
occupies 18% of the soil while 9% and 6% of it are clay and silt respectively.

On the other hand, the percentage of fine sand is the highest proportion in loam which is
32% while coarse sand only present in about 27%. Silt and clay covers approximately the same
percentages in loam which are 21% and 22% respectively.

Lastly, clay particles posses the largest proportions in clay which is 68%. Silt covers 22%
and followed by 9% of fine sand. The least percentage of soil particles is coarse sand which is
only 1%.

Humus layer exist as a layer of dark organic debris which floats on the water surface.
They are formed from degraded organic material in the soil that causes part of the soil to appears
dark brown and sometimes black in color. Humus is classified as natural compost because of its
properties that can maintain the moisture of the soil and thus enhanced the formation of soil
structure.

Experiment 2: To identify the soluble salts present in soil sample

Introduction:

Soil also contains simple inorganic chemicals which are required as nutrients by living
organisms. Plants usually obtain their mineral salts from the soil, while animals get their share
from their food. Important mineral salts include iron salts (needed by both plants and animals),
magnesium salts (needed mainly by plants, to make chlorophyll), and calcium salts (needed by
animals to make bone or shell). Mineral salts are taken up by living organism in soluble form.
When mineral salts dissolve in water they will be separated into particles called ions which will
then absorbed by the living cells. Some of the ions travel by diffusion into the root while others
are absorbed by active transport. The minerals required in the greatest amounts are those
containing the element nitrogen, for example nitrate ions (or ‘nitrates’), which are a key
component of inorganic fertilizer. Various types of mineral salts present in soil may derived from
the weathering of soil particles (nitrates, sulphates, chlorides and carbonates) while nitrogenous
compounds may derived from the excretory products of the organism or the decomposition of
their dead remains.

Apparatus and Material:

Soil sample, BaCl solution, iron sulfate solution, concentrated sulfuric acid, dilute nitric acid,
ammonium molybdate solution, silver nitrate solution, distilled water, universal indicator with
color chart, conical flask with stopper, test tubes, filter paper, filter funnel, measuring cylinder.

Method:

1. An equal volume of soil sample and distilled water are mixed in a stoppered conical flask and
it is vigorously shaken.

2. The mixture is filtered in order to collect a clear filtrate.

3. The following reagents are added to a small amount of filtrate in separate test tubes and any
reactions present are observed and recorded.

Test Reagents added Observation Interpretation

tube (Salt present)
A BaCl solution White precipitate Sulphates
Cold FeSO4 solution followed by a few Dark brown ring is Nitrates
B
drops of concentrated H2SO4 formed
Dilute HNO3 and ammonium molybdate Bright yellow Phosphates
C
solution precipitate
D Silver nitrate solution White precipitate Chlorides
4. A few drops of the universal indicator are added into 3cm3 of the above soil filtrate. The pH
value of the soil filtrate is read off from the color chart.

Result:

Test tube Expected observation Observation Interpretation

A White precipitate No change No sulphates
Slightly dark
B Dark brown ring is formed brown ring is Presence of nitrates
formed
Presence of
C Bright yellow precipitate Yellow precipitate
phosphates
D White precipitate No change No chlorides

Discussion:

In order to determine any soluble salts present in the soil sample, chemical tests are
carried out by adding chemical solution into a test tube containing the soil filtrate. Any changes
of the solution when it is mixed with a specific chemical will then proved that particular soluble
salt is present in the soil sample. There are four tests being carried out which will determine the
presence of sulphates, nitrates, phosphates and chlorides.

When a few drops of barium chloride solution is added into test tube A containing the
soil filtrate, there is no change can be observed which proved there is no sulphates in the soil
sample. The presence of nitrates is confirmed by a formation of slightly dark brown ring in the
solution when the soil filtrate is added with a cold solution of FeSO4 followed by a few drops of
concentrated H2SO4. Phosphate salts are also present in the soil while there are no changes in the
test of chlorides thus indicating that it is not present in the soil sample.

Experiment 3: To find the volume of air in soil sample

Introduction:

Since soil is made up of various sizes of particles, there are minute pores between these
particles for air and water to reside. The air in the soil is similar in composition to that in the
atmosphere with the exception of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water vapor. In soil air, nitrogen
gas comprises about 78% just the same like in the atmosphere. In the atmosphere, oxygen
comprises about 21% and carbon dioxide comprises about 0.36%. However, in the soil air,
oxygen usually is replaced by carbon dioxide, so both of the gases ranges from about 0.4% to
21%. Oxygen is used by plant roots and soil microbes during respiration, and carbon dioxide is
released. Thus, in the soil, the oxygen levels are generally less than atmospheric levels and the
carbon dioxide levels are generally greater than atmospheric levels. The volume of soil air may
also be contrary in different types of soil. For example, sandy soil has a good aeration since the
large sand particles fit loosely so that large air spaces are present between them. On the other
hand, clay soil has a poor aeration due to the small clay particles packed together closely so that
small air spaces present between them. These small air spaces are easily flooded with water
which will then drive the air out.

The oxygen present in soil air supports the aerobic respirations of the root of plants and
small organism in the soil. In water-logged soil where there is a very little amount of oxygen
present, the healthy growth of the roots can be repressed. Furthermore, lack of oxygen in soil air
will also slow down the decomposition of humus to form mineral salts which will then making
the soil acidic. This condition will also enhance the undesirable activities of the de-nitrifying
bacteria that remove the useful nitrate compounds from soil. Hence, soil air is very important to
the plant and for the small organisms in it.

Apparatus and Material:

Small empty tin, 2 liter beaker, water, marker pen, 1000 cm3 measuring cylinder, glass rod.

Method:

1. A small empty tin is placed in a 2 liter beaker which has been filled with about 1.5 liter of
water. The water level is marked on the side of the beaker as X.

2. The tin filled with water is carefully removed and its content is poured into a measuring
cylinder in order to find the volume of the tin, V1 ml.

3. Several holes are made at the bottom of the tin. Its open end is driven into soil until its bottom
is at the soil surface. The tin is then carefully dug out and the surplus soil at its open end is
leveled off.

4. The tin of soil is carefully lowered into the beaker. A glass rod is used to stir soil out of the tin
to allow air to escape until there are no more bubbles released. The new water level is marked as
Y which is lower than the original water level at X.

5. Water from the measuring cylinder is added into the beaker until the water level rises from Y
back to X. the volume of water added is taken as V2 ml which is equal to the volume of air
present in (displaced from) soil.

Result:
Volume of air in soil = 300

Volume of soil = 400

Percentage of air in soil = Volume of air in soil ÷ Volume of soil × 100%

= 75%

Discussion:

The result shows that the soil sample contain 75% of air which is approximately 300cm3
of air in 400cm3 of soil. The volume of air depends on the area which the samples are taken as
the volumes of air obtained by other group of students are different from one another. The
standard volume of air in soil should be around15% to 25%. The relatively high volume of air
from our experiment is due to error during the experiment. The tin should have been driven all
the way into the ground. However, it was difficult to do so hence, we managed to filled in only
half of the tin with the soil. The rest of the soil sample is obtained by digging out the soil and
placed it into the tin. This will result in more air can diffuse into the soil sample. If the
experiment were to be repeated again, proper procedure should be carried out.

Experiment 4: To check humidity and temperature of surrounding

Introduction:

Humidity and temperature are part of the abiotic components in our ecosystem. Humidity
can be defined as the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere. It can be greatly affected by the
solar radiation such as temperature. The changes in any one of them will then affect the
distribution of organisms. For example, the rate of decomposition of dead organism by
microorganisms will be affected by the temperature and the humidity of the surrounding. High
humidity and low temperature will more likely to promote the growth of microorganisms. The
metabolic rate of organisms will also be affected as the enzyme activities can best be carried out
only in specific temperature.

Apparatus and Material:

Whirling hydrometer

Method:

1. A spot in the forest site is randomly selected.

2. The hydrometer is whirled for about 90 seconds.

3. The dry temperature indicated by the dry bulb thermometer is recorded.

4. The wet temperature shown by the wet bulb thermometer is recorded.

5. Relative humidity can be determined by correlating the readings with those on the
hygdrometric table.

6. Steps 1-5 are repeated until two consecutive readings are concordant.

Result:

Location Dry temp. °C Wet temp. °C Relative humidity

A 28.5 27.5 3

B 29.0 27.0 5

C 29.0 27.5 3

Average 4

Discussion:

Based on the result above, the reading of dry thermometer on the whirling hygrometer for
the temperature of air is 27.5°C while the reading of wet thermometer which represent the
humidity of air is slightly lower which is 26.5°C. The difference in the temperature obtained is
only 1.0°C. The soil obtained at the river bank has a relative humidity of 92% which is nearly
100%. When a thermometer is inserted into the soil, the temperature shown is 62°F.

Experiment 5: To estimate the population size

Introduction:

Quadrat sampling is a common apparatus for the study of ecology especially biodiversity.
A series of squares (quadrats) of a set size are placed in a habitat of interest and the species
within those quadrats are identified and recorded. Abundances of organisms found at the study
site can be calculated using the number found per quadrat and the size of the quadrat area.
Apparatus and Material:

1m × 1m quadrat, 10 m measuring tape

Method:

1. An area of 10m x 10m is selected and measured using a measuring tape.

2. A particular species to investigate is decided.

3. A 1m2 quadrats is placed randomly within the selected area.

4. The number of individuals of a particular species is counted in order to get the species density.

5. All of the plants in the area are identified and counted to get the species diversity.

Result:

Species Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 4 Site 5 Site 6 Site 7 Site 8 Site 9 Site 10
A 10 9 7 0 2 3 0 5 3 0
B 8 6 9 1 4 5 0 7 2 1
C 2 5 0 3 0 1 9 2 1 2
D 1 3 4 6 1 0 1 1 0 3

Species Species density

A 3.9≈4
B 4.3≈4
C 2.5≈3
D 1.9≈2

Species Species diversity

A 39
B 43
C 25
D 19

Species frequency:

Total number of quadrant used = 10

No of square of each quadrant = 25

Total number of squares used = 250

Species Species frequency

A 39/250 × 100 = 15.9%
B 43/250 × 100 = 17.2%
C 25/250 × 100 = 10%
D 19/250 × 100 = 7.6%

Species A = Mempelas

Species B = Common grass

Species C = Love grass (kemuncup)

Species D = Pokok semalu (mimosa pudica)

Discussion:

There are four types of species being investigated in the experiment which are mempelas,
common grass, love grass (kemuncup) and Mimosa pudica. When doing the sampling, a total of
10 quadrats were used and each quadrat consist of 25 squares. Hence, this will give a total of 250
squares. The highest species diversity obtained from the experiment is the common grass which
is 43. This is followed by mempelas with 39, 25 love grass and only 19 Mimosa pudica within
the area observed.

When the species density is calculated, mempelas and common grass have the highest
species density which is approximately 4. Love grass have a species density of 3 while the least
is Mimosa pudica with only 2 species density.

On the other hand, common grass have the highest value for species frequency which is
17.2% and followed by mempelas, love grass and Mimosa pudica with15.9%, 10.0% and 7.6%
respectively.

Conclusion:

1. The soil sample consist of gravel, fine sand, silt and clay. Humus layer also can be observed
when the soil is mixed with water.

2. The soil sample has a poor soil quality as it only contain nitrates and phosphates.
3. The volume of air in the soil sample is 75% which is sufficient for aerobic respiration of
organism in the soil.

4. The relative humidity calculated is 4 with 62 F which can be said to be suitable for tropical
plants.

5. The population is not evenly distributed due to the sunlight exposure to the forest floor.

References:

 www.wikipedia.com/soil
 www.wikipedia.com/humidity
 http://www.wildmadagascar.org/overview/rainforests2.html
 Neil A. Campbell, Jane B. Reece, 2008, Biology 8th Edition, Pearson Education.