ABSTRACT

Beginning with a brief historical perspective on the development of High Voltage Direct
Current (HVDC) transmission systems, this presents an overview of the status of HVDC
systems in the world today. It then reviews the underlying technology of HVDC systems, and
discusses the HVDC systems from a design, construction, operation and maintenance points
of view. Then we shall discuss the recent developments in HVDC technologies. This also
presents an economic and financial comparison of HVDC system with those of an AC system
and provides a brief review of reference installations of HVDC systems. The conclusion will
be with a brief set of guidelines for choosing HVDC systems in today’s electricity system
development.
In today electricity industry, in view of the liberalisation and increased effects to
conserve the environment, HVDC solutions have become more desirable for the following
reasons:
· Environmental advantages
· Economical (cheapest solution)
· Asynchronous interconnections
· Power flow control
· Added benefits to the transmission (stability, power quality etc.)
INTRODUCTION

The first utility systems installed by Edison used direct current technology.The electrical
energy in a direct current system is the same as found when a battery is used. If one looked at
a picture of the voltage and the current, one would see that both had a constant, non-varying
value. Not long after Edison installed his direct current system, others realized that the use of
an alternating current system had advantages over the direct current.The concepts discussed
hereto fore apply to direct current systems.
The fast development of power electronics based on new and
powerful semiconductor devices has led to innovative technologies, such as high voltage dc
transmission (HVDC) and flexible ac transmission system (FACTS), which can be applied
in transmission and distribution systems. The technical and economical benefits of these
technologies represent an alternative to the application in ac systems.

A high-voltage, direct current (HVDC)

electric power transmission system uses direct current for the bulk transmission of electrical
power, in contrast with the more common alternating current systems. For long-distance
distribution, HVDC systems are less expensive and suffer lower electrical losses. For shorter
distances, the higher cost of DC conversion equipment compared to an AC system may be
warranted where other benefits of direct current links are useful.

HVDC transmission has a number of

technical advantages compared with HVAC transmission. During the latest 20 years, HVDC
has become the dominating technology for long distance transmission of bulk
power.Overcoming the problem of AC transmission of growing trends towards the rapid
increase of load has lead to development of DC transmission. In a combined AC and DC
system generated AC voltage is converted into DC voltage at sending end and DC voltage is
inverted into AC voltage at the receiving end for distribution purpose.

HVDC stands for High Voltage Direct Current

and is today a well proved technology employed for power transmission all over the world.
HVDC is to interconnect separate power systems,where traditional alternating current(AC)
connections cannot be used. The HVDC technology is used to transmit electricity over long
distances by overhead transmission lines or submarine cables. HVDC is often the preferred as
the transmission line costs less and has lower losses than an AC line for the same
transmission capacity. It is very easy to control the active power in the link and the control is
based on a constant power transfer. HVDC transmission does not contribute to the short
circuit current of the interconnected AC system. With an HVDC system, the power flow can
be controlled rapidly and accurately as to both the power level and the direction. Flexible AC
Transmission Systems (FACTS)and HVDC controllers based on power electronics have been
developed to improve the performance of long distance AC transmission.

In India, the first HVDC line in Rihand-Delhi in

1991 i.e. I 500 KV, 800 Mkl, 1000 KM. In Maharashtra in between Chandrapur & Padaghe
at 1500 KV & 1000 MV. Global HVDC transmission capacity has increase from 20 MW in
1954 to 17.9 GW in 1984. Now the growth of DC transmission capacity has reached an
average of 2500 MW/year.

HVDC or high-voltage, direct current electric power transmission systems

contrast with the more common alternating-current systems as a means for the bulk
transmission of electrical power. Necessity of high Voltage transmission for a given quantity
of power transmitted, higher voltage reduces the transmission power loss. Power in a circuit
is proportional to the current, but the power lost as heat in the wires is proportional to the
square of the current. Thus the higher the voltage the lower the power loss.

HISTORY OF HVDC TRAMISSION

It has been widely documented in the history of the electricity industry, that the first
commercial electricity generated (by Thomas Alva Edison) was direct current (DC) electrical
power. The first electricity transmission systems were also direct current systems. However,
DC power at low voltage could not be transmitted over long distances, thus giving rise to
high voltage alternating current (AC) electrical systems.Nevertheless, with the development
of high voltage valves, it was possible to once again transmit DC power at high voltages and
over long distances, giving rise to HVDC transmission systems.
HVDC in 1971: this 150 KV mercury arc valve
converted AC hydropower voltage for transmission to distant cities from Manitoba Hydro
generators.The first long-distance transmission of electric power was demonstrated using
direct current in 1882 at the Miesbach-Munich Power Transmission, but only 2.5 kW was
transmitted. An early method of high-voltage DC transmission was developed by the Swiss
engineer Rene Thury and his method was put into practice by 1889 in Italy by the Acquedotto
de Ferrari-Galliera company. This system used series-connected motor-generator sets to
increase voltage. Each set was insulated from ground and driven by insulated shafts from a
prime mover. The line was operated in constant current mode, with up to 5,000 volts on each
machine, some machines having double commutators to reduce the voltage on each
commutator. This system transmitted 630 kW at 14 kV DC over a distance of 120 km. The
Moutiers-Lyon system transmitted 8,600 kW of hydroelectric power a distance of 124 miles,
including 6 miles of underground cable. The system used eight series-connected generators
with dual commutators for a total voltage of 150,000 volts between the poles, and ran from
about 1906 until 1936.
 One conversion technique attempted for conversion of direct current from a
high transmission voltage to lower utilization voltage was to charge series-connected
batteries, then connect the batteries in parallel to serve distribution loads. While at least two
commercial installations were tried around the turn of the 20th century, the technique was not
generally useful owing to the limited capacity of batteries, difficulties in switching between
series and parallel connections, and the inherent energy inefficiency of a battery
charge/discharge cycle.

The grid controlled mercury arc valve became available for power transmission
during the period 1920 to 1940. Starting in 1932, General Electric tested mercury-vapor
valves and a 12 kV DC transmission line, which also served to convert 40 Hz generation to
serve 60 Hz loads, at Mechanicville, New York. In 1941, a 60 MW, +/-200 kV, 115 km
buried cable link was designed for the city of Berlin using mercury arc valves (Elbe-Project),
but owing to the collapse of the German government in 1945 the project was never
completed. The nominal justification for the project was that, during wartime, a buried cable
would be less conspicuous as a bombing target.

Introduction of the fully-static mercury arc valve to commercial service

in 1954 marked the beginning of the modern era of HVDC transmission. A HVDC-
connection was constructed by ASEA between the mainland of Sweden and the island
Gotland. Mercury arc valves were common in systems designed up to 1975, but since then,
HVDC systems use only solid-state devices. From 1975 to 2000, line-commutated converters
(LCC) using thyristor valves were relied on. According to experts such as Vijay Sood, the
next 25 years may well be dominated by force commutated converters, beginning with
capacitor commutative converters (CCC) followed by self commutating converters which
have largely supplanted LCC use. Since use of semiconductor commutators, hundreds of
HVDC sea-cables have been laid and worked with high reliability, usually better than 96% of
the time.

Some important milestones in the development of the DC transmission technology are

presented. Important Milestones in the Development of HVDC technology:

· Hewitt´s mercury-vapour rectifier, which appeared in 1901.

· Experiments with thyratrons in America and mercury arc valves in Europe before 1940.
· First commercial HVDC transmission, Gotland 1 in Sweden in 1954.
· First solid state semiconductor valves in 1970.
· First microcomputer based control equipment for HVDC in 1979.
· Highest DC transmission voltage (+/- 600 kV) in Itaipú, Brazil, 1984.
· First active DC filters for outstanding filtering performance in 1994.
· First Capacitor Commutated Converter (CCC) in Argentina-Brazil interconnection, 1998
· First Voltage Source Converter for transmission in Gotland, Sweden ,1999
HIGH VOLTAGE TRANSMISSION

High voltage is used for transmission to reduce the energy lost in the resistance of the wires.
For a given quantity of power transmitted, higher voltage reduces the transmission power
loss. Power in a circuit is proportional to the current, but the power lost as heat in the wires is
proportional to the square of the current. However, power is also proportional to voltage, so
for a given power level, higher voltage can be traded off for lower current. Thus, the higher
the voltage, the lower the power loss. Power loss can also be reduced by reducing resistance,
commonly achieved by increasing the diameter of the conductor; but larger conductors are
heavier and more expensive.

High voltages cannot be easily used in lighting and motors, and so

transmission-level voltage must be reduced to values compatible with end-use equipment.
The transformer, which only works with alternating current, is an efficient way to change
voltages. The competition between the DC of Thomas Edison and the AC of Nikola Tesla
and George Westinghouse was known as the War of Currents, with AC emerging victorious.
Practical manipulation of DC voltages only became possible with the development of high
power electronic devices such as mercury arc valves and later semiconductor devices, such as
thyristors, insulated-gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs), high power capable MOSFETs (power
metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors) and gate turn-off thyristors (GTOs).

GLOBAL TRENDS

HVDC was introduced in the market due to the needs of the market itself ie to satisfy the
needs of the the industry itself. Due to two major needs of the power industry hvdc was
introduced. They are :

CO2 Reduction - Green Energy

Megacities – Security of supply

THE HVDC TECHNOLOGY

The HVDC technology is used in transmission systems to transmit electric bulk power over
long distances by cable or overhead lines. It is also used to interconnect asynchronous AC
systems having the same or different frequency. Figure shows a simplified schematic picture
of an HVDC system, with the basic principle of transferring electric energy from one AC
system or node to another, in any direction. The system consists of three blocks: the two
converter stations and the DC line. Within each station block there are several components
involved in the conversion of AC to DC and vice versa.
An alternate means of transmitting electricity is to use
high-voltage direct current (HVDC) technology.As the name implies, HVDC uses direct
current to transmit power. Direct current facilities are connected to HVAC systems by means
of rectifiers, which convert alternating current to direct current, and inverters, which convert
direct current to alternating current. Early applications used mercury arc valves for the
rectifiers and inverters but, starting in the 1970s, thyristors became the valve type of choice.
Thyristors are controllable semiconductors that can carry very high currents and can block
very high voltages.They are connected is series to form a thyristor valve, which allows
electricity to flow during the positive half of the alternating current voltage cycle but not
during the negative half. Since all three phases of the HVAC system are connected to the
valves, the resultant voltage is unidirectional but with some residual oscillation. Smoothing
reactors are provided to dampen this oscillation. HVDC transmission lines can either be
single pole or bipolar, although most are bipolar, that is, they use two conductors operating at
different polarities such as +/-500kV. HVDC submarine cables are either of the solid type
with oil-impregnated paper insulation or of the self-contained oil-filled type. New
applications also use cables with extruded insulation, cross-linked polyethylene.
The fundamental process that occurs in an HVDC system is the conversion of
electrical current from AC to DC (rectifier) at the transmitting end, and from DC to AC
(inverter) at the receiving end. There are three ways of achieving conversion:

· Natural Commutated Converters. Natural commutated converters are most used in the
HVDC systems as of today. The component that enables this conversion process is the
thyristor, which is a controllable semiconductor that can carry very high currents (4000 A)
and is able to block very high voltages (up to 10 kV). By means of connecting the thyristors
in series it is possible to build up a thyristor valve, which is able to operate at very high
voltages (several hundred of kV).The thyristor valve is operated at net frequency (50 hz or 60
hz) and by means of a control angle it is possible to change the DC voltage level of the
bridge. This ability is the way by which the transmitted power is controlled rapidly and
efficiently.

· Capacitor Commutated Converters (CCC). An improvement in the thyristor-based

commutation, the CCC concept is characterised by the use of commutation capacitors
inserted in series between the converter transformers and the thyristor valves. The
commutation capacitors improve the commutation failure performance of the converters
when connected to weak networks.

· Forced Commutated Converters. This type of converters introduces a spectrum of

advantages, e.g. feed of passive networks (without generation), independent control of active
and reactive power, power quality. The valves of these converters are built up with
semiconductors with the ability not only to turn-on but also to turn-off. They are known as
VSC (Voltage Source Converters). Two types of semiconductors are normally used in the
voltage source converters: the GTO (Gate Turn-Off Thyristor) or the IGBT (Insulated Gate
Bipolar Transistor). Both of them have been in frequent use in industrial applications since
early eighties. The VSC commutates with high frequency (not with the net frequency). The
operation of the converter is achieved by Pulse Width Modulation (PWM). With PWM it is
possible to create any phase angle and/or amplitude (up to a certain limit) by changing the
PWM pattern, which can be done almost instantaneously. Thus, PWM offers the possibility
to control both active and reactive power independently. This makes the PWM Voltage
Source Converter a close to ideal component in the transmission network. From a
transmission network viewpoint, it acts as a motor or generator without mass that can control
active and reactive power almost instantaneously.

TERMINOLOGY

The following terms are found necessary to define for the following sections of the paper.
Figure 1 and Figure 4 can be used as a guide.

Fig. 1. Schematic of the overall system perspective of a general HVDC

system, transferring electric energy from one AC system or node to the other,
in any direction.
• The HVDC system contains the converter stations and the transmission lines or cables.

• The HVDC converter station or HVDC station includes the AC switchyard, the converter
transformer system, the converters and the auxiliary subsystems in the station.

• The valves are located in the converters and consist of a number of thyristors or
transistors, depending on HVDC technology, that are connected in series.

• The converter transformer system (CTS) is the arrangement of converter transformers

that are connected to the valves.

• CSC-HVDC is the technology where line commutated current source converter (CSC) is
used. Company trademarks are HVDC Classic (ABB) or simply HVDC.

• VSC-HVDC uses the voltage source converters (VSC) as its core component to convert
AC to DC and vice versa.

The company trademarks are HVDC PLUS (Siemens), HVDC Light (ABB) or VSC-HVDC.

MOTIVATION FOR USING HVDC

The reasons for choosing HVDC are generally economic and not technical. Power system
stability improvements and environmental circumstances may, however, also be reasons for
choosing this technology. Below, a number of HVDC applications are listed in order to
illustrate the key characteristics and HVDC’s niche on the power market.
1) Long distance bulk power transmissions: As the world’s energy resources are normally
decentralized from the ever increasing energy consumption, long HVDC transmissions
are a particulary interesting area for the future. A key characteristic of HVDC
transmissions is higher power transfers in fewer lines than an equivalent AC solution .
Furthermore, one major constraint when designing traditional AC transmission lines over
long distances is the significant inductance such a line will have. The effects of the
inductance have to be compensated along the AC line and this adds costs for long
distances. For DC the frequency is zero; hence the inductance is irrelevant. For this
reason an overhead DC line with its towers can be designed to be less costly per km than
an equivalent AC solution, if both the investment and a capitalization of the total energy
losses are considered. However, the HVDC converter stations at both ends are more
costly than equivalent AC terminals and thereby an economical break-even distance
arises, as illustrated in Figure 2. examples of commissioned long distance bulk power
HVDC transmission is the four links from Itaipu in Brazil

Fig. 2. Illustration of how the total cost for an AC and HVDC solution depends on the
transmission distance. The break-even distance, where the HVDC solution becomes
more economical than an equivalent AC, greatly depends on the land conditions and
project specifications

2) Long cable transmissions: The charging current in cables being fed with high voltage AC
(HVAC) makes transmissions over long distances impractical. In order to keep the
voltage levels and losses within reasonable limits, the HVAC solution requires reactive
power compensation equipment along the cable. Such equipment adds cost to the link,
and is in some cases not possible to implement. One example is undersea transmissions,
where such a solution is highly impractical. If the cable is fed instead with HVDC, the
large capacitance is irrelevant since the charging current is frequency dependent . One
 example installation is the Swepol Link interconnecting Sweden to Poland with a 254 km
undersea cable at a rating of 600 MW .

3) Asynchronous interconnection: The HVDC technology can connect two asynchronous

power systems with the same or different frequency. The interconnection is often
beneficial for both of the systems and acts as a buffer between them. In case of cascading
failures in one of the systems, the interconnection can serve as a ”firewall” between the
systems, preventing the propagation of disturbances from continuing into the connected
system . The HVDC system can also be designed to help the AC system in damping
power oscillation between the systems after disturbances. If the HVDC system is built
only for its ability to perform asynchronous interconnection, with no line, the setup is
referred to as a back-to-back configuration. One example of this application is the four
main asynchronous AC systems in North America, interconnected to each other with
twelve back-to-back links .

3) Stabilization in power systems: HVDC links can be used within synchronous AC

systems to improve the control of power flow from one part of the system to another and
thereby prevent large cascading failures or even blackouts in the grid. The stability can
be improved, since the link provides a damping torque . The introduction of this sort of
application in the existing AC system requires an extensive knowledge of the electrical
system in order to design proper control algorithms for the HVDC link. However, this
area of application is still very much unknown and research is going on. One example of
this type of application in a larger synchronous AC system is the Chandrapur-Padghe
link (1500 MW) in India . This link has been built to stabilize the system and to increase
the power flow capabilities.

ENVIROMENTAL ASPECTS

One of the reasons for choosing HVDC is the low impact on the surrounding environment.
The environmental aspects of an HVDC transmission line can be divided into four categories.

1) Visual impact and space requirements: An HVDC transmission with an overhead lne
requires less space per MW than the traditional AC solution and thereby reduces the
visual impact of the towers. If a cable is used, the only visual impact is the converter
stations. However, the size of these stations in comparison with a traditional AC
switchyard may have a larger visual impact that has to be dealt with.

2) Electric and magnetic fields: The magnetic field produced by a DC line is stationary
while in the AC case it is alternating, which can cause inducing body currents. This
results in fewer restrictins for the magnetic field in the HVDC line . The electric field is
less severe in the DC line compared to the AC line since there is no steadystate
 displacement current in the DC case . However, an undersea HVDC line can cause
disturbances to magnetic compass systems on vessels crossing the cable.

3) Radio interference: The harmonics created in the switching process by the converters
cause disturbances in the kHz and MHz region. An appropriate shielding of the valves
minimizing this problem and makes the radio interference comparable with AC solutions
.Radio interference is on the other hand normally a minor problem in the transmission
system.

4) Audible noise: The converter stations cause audible noise levels that are normally higher
than comparable AC solutions . However, if necessary this issue can be dealt with by the
use of low-noise components or enclosure of specific components such as the
transformers.

HVDC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

In case of HVDC transmission, following systems are used :-

(i) Two pole one wire.

(ii) Two pole two wire.
(iii) Three pole two wire.
(iv) Three pole three wire.

The standard voltages used are :-

100 , 200, 300, 400, 600 & 800 KV.
The HVDC system is accepted for transmission of power for following reasons:

• For long distance high power transmission.

• For interconnection between two a.c. systems having their own load frequency.
• For back to back a synchronous tie substations.
• For under ground or submarine cable transmission over long distance at high
voltage.
At present, HVDC links have been installed in the world upto the year 2001, 100 links are
expected with a total transfer capacity of 75000 MW.HVDC transmission alternatives is
made on the basis technical and economic studies for each particular line and associated a.c.
system although, alternating current system continuous to be used for generation,
transmission, distribution & utilization of electrical energy.

PRINCIPLES AC/DC CONVERSION

HVDC transmission consist of two converter stations which are connected to each other by a
DC cable or DC line. A typical arrangement of main components of an HVDC transmission
is shown in fig. Two series connected 6 pulse converters (12-pulse bridge) consisting of
valves & converters transformer are used. The valves convert AC to DC, and the transformer
provide a suitable voltage ratio to achieve the desired direct voltage and galvanic separation
of the AC & DC systems. A smoothing reactor in the DC ckt reduces the harmonic currents
in the DC line, & possible transient over currents. Filters are used to take care of harmonics
generated at the conversion. Thus we see that in an HVDC in an HVDC transmission, power
is taken from one point in an AC network, where it is converted to DC in a converter station (
rectifier ), transmitted to another converter station (inverter) via line or cable and injected in
to an ac system.
By varying the firing angle & ( point on the voltage wave when the gating pulse is
applied & conduction starts ) the DC output voltage can be controlled between two limits,
+ve and negative. When a is varied, we get,

maximum DC voltage when ∝ = 00.

Rectifier operation when 0< ∝ < 900
Inverter operation When 900< ∝ < 1800
While discussion inverter operation, it is common to define extinction angle γ = 1800 - ∝.

THE COMPONENTS OF AN HVDC TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

To assist the designers of transmission systems, the components that comprise the HVDC
system, and the options available in these components, are presented and discussed. The three
main elements of an HVDC system are: the converter station at the transmission and
receiving ends, the transmission medium, and the electrodes.

The converter station: The converter stations at each end are replica’s of each other and
therefore consists of all the needed equipment for going from AC to DC or vice versa. The
main component of a converter station are:
 Fig. Main components of a HVDC transmission a typical arrangement

Thyristor valves: The thyristor valves can be build-up in different ways depending on the
application and manufacturer. However, the most common way of arranging the thyristor
valves is in a twelve-pulse group with three quadruple valves. Each single thyristor valve
consists of a certain amount of series connected thyristors with their auxiliary circuits. All
communication between the control equipment at earth potential and each thyristor at high
potential, is done with fibre optics.

VSC valves: The VSC converter consists of two level or multilevel converter, phase-reactors
and AC filters. Each single valve in the converter bridge is built up with a certain number of
seriesconnected IGBTs together with their auxiliary electronics. VSC valves, control
equipment and cooling equipment would be in enclosures (such as standard shipping
containers) which make transport and installation very easy. All modern HVDC valves are
water-cooled and air insulated.
Transformers: The converter transformers adapt the AC voltage level to the DC voltage
level and they contribute to the commutation reactance. Usually they are of the single phase
three winding type, but depending on the transportation requirements and the rated power,
they can be arranged in other ways.

AC Filters and Capacitor Banks: On the AC side of a 12-pulse HVDC converter, current
harmonics of the order of 11, 13, 23, 25 and higher are generated. Filters are installed in order
to limit the amount of harmonics to the level required by the network.. In the conversion
process the converter consumes reactive power which is compensated in part by the filter
banks and the rest by capacitor banks. In the case of the CCC the reactive power is
compensated by the series capacitors installed in series between the converter valves and the
converter transformer. The elimination of switched reactive power compensation equipment
simplify the AC switchyard and minimise the number of circuit-breakers needed, which will
reduce the area required for an HVDC station built with CCC. With VSC converters there is
no need to compensate any reactive power consumed by the converter itself and the current
harmonics on the AC side are related directly to the PWM frequency. Therefore the amount
of filters in this type of converters is reduced dramatically compared with natural
commutated converters.

DC filters: HVDC converters create harmonics in all operational modes. Such harmonics can
create disturbances in telecommunication systems. Therefore, specially designed DC filters
are used in order to reduce the disturbances. Usually no filters are needed for pure cable
transmissions as well as for the Back-to-Back HVDC stations. However, it is necessary to
install DC filters if an OH line is used in part or all the transmission system The filters needed
to take care of the harmonics generated on the DC end, are usually considerably smaller and
less expensive than the filters on the AC side. The modern DC filters are the Active DC
filters. In these filters the passive part is reduced to a minimum and modern power electronics
is used to measure, invert and re-inject the harmonics, thus rendering the filtering very
effective.

PRINCIPLES OF HVDC CONTROL

One of the most important aspects or HVDC systems is its fast and stable controllability. In
DC transmission, the transmitted power can be rapidly controlled by changing the DC
voltages. The current in the system can only flow in one direction for a given setting ower is
transported from rectifies to inverter and by altering voltages, the power flow direction is
reversed.
 Rectifier Inverter

(Sending ) (Receiving )

In HVDC transmission, one of the converter stations, generally the inverter station, is so
controlled that the direct voltage of the system is fixed & has rigid relation to the voltage on
the AC side. Tap changers take care of the slow variations on the AC side the other terminal
station (rectifier) adjust the direct voltage on its terminal so that the current is controlled to
the desired transmitted power.

In fig.

Vd1 − Vd 2
Id = ( L – 1)
R

Where R is the Resistance of link & includes loop transmission resistance (if any), and
resistance smoothing reactors and converter valves the power received is, therefore, given as

 Vd − Vd 2 
P= 1  Vd 2 = Id Vd 2 ( L – 2)
 R 

The rectifier and inverter voltages are given by

3 2 Vτr 3Xcr 
Vd 1 =η COS α − Id  ( L – 3)

 π π 


3 2 Vτi 3Xci 
Vd 2 =η COS γ- Id  ( L – 4)

 π π 


Where,
η :- number of series connected bridges.

Vlr , Vli :- line to line AC Voltages at the rectifier and inverter bridges, respectively.

Xcr , Xci :- Commutation reactance at the rectifier and inverter, respectively.

From equation ( L-2). It is clear that the DC power per pole is controlled by relative control
of DC terminal voltages, Vd 1 and Vd 2 control on DC voltage is exercised by the converter
control angles α& γ as given by

Eqs ( L – 3) and ( L – 6 ). Normal operating range of control angles is :

αmin = 50 , αmax = (15 ± 3)0 , γmin = 15 0

The prime considerations in HVDC transmission are to minimise reactive power requirement
at the terminals and to reduce the system losses. For this DC voltage should be as high as
possible and α should be as low as possible.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HVDC TRANSMISSION

A brief over view of the main characteristics of the technology and its present
implementation will be provided here. HVDC transmission is now available in two different
technologies. ie

1)Line commutated current sourced converter (LCC HVDC).

2)Self commutated voltage sourced converter (VSC HVDC)

LINE COMMUTATED CURRENT SOURCED CONVERTER (LCC HVDC)

SELF COMMUTATED VOLTAGE VOLTAGE SOURCED CONVERTER (VSC
HVDC)

Both technologies convert ac into dc and vice versa. This can do the transmission between the
asynchronous networks.

TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

For bulk power transmission over land, the most frequent transmission medium used is the
overhead line. This overhead line is normally bipolar, i.e. two conductors with different
polarity. HVDC cables are normally used for submarine transmission. The most common
types of cables are the solid and the oil-filled ones. The solid type is in many cases the most
economic one. Its insulation consists of paper tapes impregnated with a high viscosity oil. No
length limitation exists for this type and designs are today available for depths of about 1000
m. The self –contained oil-filled cable is completely filled with a low viscosity oil and always
works under pressure. The maximum length for this cable type seems to be around 60 km.
The development of new power cable technologies has accelerated in recent years and today
a new HVDC cable is available for HVDC underground or submarine power transmissions.
This new HVDC cable is made of extruded polyethylene, and is used in VSC based HVDC
systems.

KNOWLEDGE REQUIRED OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

Those familiar with transmission system problems and policies have developed the following
list, sometimes called the “ten commandments” of transmission knowledge:
Thou shall understand and consider:
 1. How systems are planned and operated.
2. Effect of generation on transmission and vise versa.
3. Causes of circulating power, parallel path flow, and loop flow.
4. Differences between individual circuit capacities and transmission Capacities.
5. Synchronous ac connection advantages and disadvantages.
6. Reactive power and its role.
7. Causes and consequences of blackouts.
8. Need for new technology.
9. Disincentives to building new transmission.
10. Need for special training and education.

RECTIFYING AND INVERTING

Components

Early static systems used mercury arc rectifiers, which were unreliable. Two HVDC systems
using mercury arc rectifiers are still in service (As of 2008). The thyristor valve was first used
in HVDC systems in the 1960s. The thyristor is a solid-state semiconductor device similar to
the diode, but with an extra control terminal that is used to switch the device on at a particular
instant during the AC cycle. The insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) is now also used
and offers simpler control and reduced valve cost.

Because the voltages in HVDC systems, up to 800 kV in some cases,

exceed the breakdown voltages of the semiconductor devices, HVDC converters are built
using large numbers of semiconductors in series.

The low-voltage control circuits used to switch the

thyristors on and off need to be isolated from the high voltages present on the transmission
lines. This is usually done optically. In a hybrid control system, the low-voltage control
electronics sends light pulses along optical fibres to the high-side control electronics. Another
system, called direct light triggering, dispenses with the high-side electronics, instead using
light pulses from the control electronics to switch light-triggered thyristors (LTTs).

A complete switching element is commonly referred to as a valve, irrespective of its

construction.
Rectifying and inverting systems

Rectification and inversion use essentially the same machinery. Many substations are set up
in such a way that they can act as both rectifiers and inverters. At the AC end a set of
transformers, often three physically separate single-phase transformers, isolate the station
from the AC supply, to provide a local earth, and to ensure the correct eventual DC voltage.
The output of these transformers is then connected to a bridge rectifier formed by a number
of valves. The basic configuration uses six valves, connecting each of the three phases to
each of the two DC rails. However, with a phase change only every sixty degrees,
considerable harmonics remain on the DC rails.

An enhancement of this configuration uses 12 valves (often

known as a twelve-pulse system). The AC is split into two separate three phase supplies
before transformation. One of the sets of supplies is then configured to have a star (wye)
secondary, the other a delta secondary, establishing a thirty degree phase difference between
the two sets of three phases. With twelve valves connecting each of the two sets of three
phases to the two DC rails, there is a phase change every 30 degrees, and harmonics are
considerably reduced.

In addition to the conversion transformers and valve-sets, various passive resistive and
reactive components help filter harmonics out of the DC rails.

CONFIGURATIONS OF TRANSMISSION MODES

There are three different transmission modes

1. Mono polar

2. Bipolar

3. Homo polar

Monopole and earth return

In a common configuration, called monopole, one of the terminals of the rectifier is
connected to earth ground. The other terminal, at a potential high above, or below, ground, is
connected to a transmission line. The earthed terminal may or may not be connected to the
corresponding connection at the inverting station by means of a second conductor.

If no metallic conductor is installed, current flows in the earth between the earth electrodes at
the two stations. Therefore it is a type of single wire earth return. The issues surrounding
earth-return current include

• Electrochemical corrosion of long buried metal objects such as pipelines

• Underwater earth-return electrodes in seawater may produce chlorine or otherwise
affect water chemistry.
• An unbalanced current path may result in a net magnetic field, which can affect
magnetic navigational compasses for ships passing over an underwater cable.

These effects can be eliminated with installation of a metallic return conductor between the
two ends of the monopolar transmission line. Since one terminal of the converters is
connected to earth, the return conductor need not be insulated for the full transmission
voltage which makes it less costly than the high-voltage conductor. Use of a metallic return
conductor is decided based on economic, technical and environmental factors.

Modern monopolar systems for pure overhead lines carry typically

1,500 MW. If underground or underwater cables are used the typical value is 600 MW.0
Most monopolar systems are designed for future bipolar expansion. Transmission line towers
may be designed to carry two conductors, even if only one is used initially for the monopole
transmission system. The second conductor is either unused, used as electrode line or
connected in parallel with the other (as in case of Baltic-Cable).

In case of mono polar arrangement one pole is used at a d.c. voltage level and ground is the
permanent return path. Mono polar arrangement is used for long submarine/underground
cables.
 Fig. Monopolar Line

Bipolar

In bipolar transmission a pair of conductors is used, each at a high potential with respect to
ground, in opposite polarity. Since these conductors must be insulated for the full voltage,
transmission line cost is higher than a monopole with a return conductor. However, there are
a number of advantages to bipolar transmission which can make it the attractive option.

• Under normal load, negligible earth-current flows, as in the case of monopolar

transmission with a metallic earth-return. This reduces earth return loss and
environmental effects.
• When a fault develops in a line, with earth return electrodes installed at each end of the
line, approximately half the rated power can continue to flow using the earth as a return
path, operating in monopolar mode.
• Since for a given total power rating each conductor of a bipolar line carries only half the
current of monopolar lines, the cost of the second conductor is reduced compared to a
monopolar line of the same rating.
• In very adverse terrain, the second conductor may be carried on an independent set of
transmission towers, so that some power may continue to be transmitted even if one line
is damaged.

A bipolar system may also be installed with a metallic earth return conductor.Bipolar systems
may carry as much as 3,200 MW at voltages of +/-600 kV. Submarine cable installations
initially commissioned as a monopole may be upgraded with additional cables and operated
as a bipole.

The bi polar arrangement uses two poles, one positive pole and other negative pole at each
conversion substation, the mid-points points of converter are earthed, the current carried by
the ground, is However less if one of the poles is out of service, the bi polar arrangement can
be used as a mono polar arrangement. Although it is used at a reduced rating. Bi polar
arrangement is universally used for bulk power HVDC overhead transmission linear and also
for overhead lines for interconnection.

Fig. Bipolar line

Back to back

A back-to-back station (or B2B for short) is a plant in which both static inverters and
rectifiers are in the same area, usually in the same building. The length of the direct current
line is kept as short as possible. HVDC back-to-back stations are used for

• coupling of electricity mains of different frequency (as in Japan)

• coupling two networks of the same nominal frequency but no fixed phase relationship
(as until 1995/96 in Etzenricht, Dürnrohr and Vienna).
 • different frequency and phase number (for example, as a replacement for traction
current converter plants)

The DC voltage in the intermediate circuit can be selected freely at HVDC back-to-back
stations because of the short conductor length. The DC voltage is as low as possible, in order
to build a small valve hall and to avoid series connections of valves. For this reason at HVDC
back-to-back stations valves with the highest available current rating are used.

TRANSMISSION MEDIUM WITH TRANSMISSION LINES

For bulk power transmission over land, the most

frequent transmission medium used is the overhead line. This overhead line is normally
bipolar, i.e. two conductors with different polarity. HVDC cables are normally used for
submarine transmission. The most common types of cables are the solid and the oil-filled
ones. The solid type is in many cases the most economic one. Its insulation consists of paper
tapes impregnated with a high viscosity oil. No length limitation exists for this type and
designs are today available for depths of about 1000 m. The self –contained oil-filled cable is
completely filled with a low viscosity oil and always works under pressure. The maximum
length for this cable type seems to be around 60 km.
The development of new power cable technologies has accelerated in recent years and today
a new HVDC cable is available for HVDC underground or submarine power transmissions.
This new HVDC cable is made of extruded polyethylene, and is used in VSC based HVDC
systems.
The most common configuration of an HVDC link is two inverter/rectifier stations
connected by an overhead powerline. This is also a configuration commonly used in
connecting unsynchronised grids, in long-haul power transmission, and in undersea
cables.Multi-terminal HVDC links, connecting more than two points, are rare. The
configuration of multiple terminals can be series, parallel, or hybr0id (a mixture of series and
parallel). Parallel configuration tends to be used for large capacity stations, and series for
lower capacity stations. An example is the 2,000 MW Quebec - New England Transmission
system opened in 1992, which is currently the largest multi-terminal HVDC system in the
world.

ENERGY EFFICIENCY WITH HVDC TECHNOLOGY

Using HVDC Light underground cable, transmission systems are more compact, safe, and
effective. They require much less maintenance, are environmentally friendly and out of sight.
The global population today continues to grow, and resources are stretched. Growing
populations need more land, not to mention adequate electrical, water and communication
services. And these services must be provided in a way that complies with the now-
compulsory environmental regulations.For its part, the energy sector has been working hard to
find safe and innovative ways of increasing power transmission in power corridors while
keeping the environmental impact to a minimum.

In recent years, a couple of companies have developed breakthrough transmission capabilities

that not only bring more power to the people, but do so in a safe and invisible way. Using this
new high voltage direct current (HVDC) cable, transmission systems are more compact and
effective, require low maintenance and are environmentally friendly.

The earth’s resources are becoming more and more limited. Building the infrastructure to
satisfy growing population demands is quickly becoming a critical issue. Whether they like it
or not, energy, water and communication companies are now, more than ever, compelled to
find ways of providing increased services using, in many cases, the same infrastructure in a
more compact, effective and environmentally-friendly way.

The energy sector, for example, has been investigating ways of increasing power transmission
in the already existing power corridors. Not only this but in the framework set by the
European Commission in 2003, electrical trade between member countries must be increased.
Because this is currently underdeveloped compared with other sectors of the economy, a
larger number of inter-connectors must be built, either on land or at sea.

Comparision between HVAC and HVDC light cables

A DC transmission system improves transmission capability, has lower losses, is

environmentally friendly and the transmission lengths are practically unlimited due to the
elimination of capacitive currents.

TRIPOLE:CURRENT-MODULATIMG CONTROL
A newly patented scheme (As of 2004) (Current modulation of direct current transmission
lines) is intended for conversion of existing AC transmission lines to HVDC. Two of the
three circuit conductors are operated as a bipole. The third conductor is used as a parallel
monopole, equipped with reversing valves (or parallel valves connected in reverse polarity).
The parallel monopole periodically relieves current from one pole or the other, switching
polarity over a span of several minutes. The bipole conductors would be loaded to either 1.37
or 0.37 of their thermal limit, with the parallel monopole always carrying +/- 1 times its
thermal limit current. The combined RMS heating effect is as if each of the conductors is
always carrying 1.0 of its rated current. This allows heavier currents to be carried by the
bipole conductors, and full use of the installed third conductor for energy transmission. High
currents can be circulated through the line conductors even when load demand is low, for
removal of ice.

Combined with the higher average power possible with a DC transmission line for the
same line-to-ground voltage, a tripole conversion of an existing AC line could allow up to
80% more power to be transferred using the same transmission right-of-way, towers, and
conductors. Some AC lines cannot be loaded to their thermal limit due to system stability,
reliability, and reactive power concerns, which would not exist with an HVDC link.The
system would operate without earth-return current. Since a single failure of a pole converter
or a conductor results in only a small loss of capacity and no earth-return current, reliability
of this scheme would be high, with no time required for switching.As of 2005, no tri-pole
conversions are in operation, although a transmission line in India has been converted to
bipole HVDC.

CORONA DISCHARGE

Corona discharge is the creation of ions in a fluid (such as air) by the presence of a strong
electric field. Electrons are torn from neutral air, and either the positive ions or the electrons
are attracted to the conductor, while the charged particles drift. This effect can cause
considerable power loss, create audible and radio-frequency interference, generate toxic
compounds such as oxides of nitrogen and ozone, and bring forth arcing.

Both AC and DC transmission lines can

generate coronas, in the former case in the form of oscillating particles, in the latter a constant
wind. Due to the space charge formed around the conductors, an HVDC system may have
about half the loss per unit length of a high voltage AC system carrying the same amount of
power. With monopolar transmission the choice of polarity of the energized conductor leads
to a degree of control over the corona discharge. In particular, the polarity of the ions emitted
can be controlled, which may have an environmental impact on particulate condensation.
(particles of different polarities have a different mean-free path.) Negative coronas generate
considerably more ozone than positive coronas, and generate it further downwind of the
power line, creating the potential for health effects. The use of a positive voltage will reduce
the ozone impacts of monopole HVDC power lines.

DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

CONSIDERATION

In general, the basic parameters such as power to be transmitted, distance of transmission,

voltage levels, temporary and continuous overload, status of the network on the receiving
end, environmental requirements etc. are required to initiate a design of an HVDC system.
For tendering purposes a conceptual design is done following a technical specification or in
close collaboration between the manufacturer and the customer. The final design and
specifications are in fact the result of the tendering and negotiations with the
manufactures/suppliers. It is recommended that a turnkey approach be chosen to contract
execution, which is the practice even in developed countries.

To the extent that the term operation denotes the continual activities that are aimed at keeping
the system availability at designed levels, modern HVDC links can be operated remotely, in
view of the semiconductor and microprocessor based control systems included. There are
some existing installations in operation completely unmanned. Moreover, modern HVDC
systems are designed to operate unmanned. This feature is particularly important in situations
or countries where skilled people are few, and these few people can operate several HVDC
links from one central location.

Maintenance of HVDC systems is comparable to those of high voltage AC systems. The high
voltage equipment in converter stations is comparable to the corresponding equipment in AC
substations, and maintenance can be executed in the same way. Maintenance will focus on:
AC and DC filters, smoothing reactors, wall bushings, valve-cooling equipment, thyristor
valves. In all the above, adequate training and support is provided by the supplier during the
installation, commissioning and initial operation period. Normal routine maintenance is
recommended to be one week per year. The newer systems can even go for two years before
requiring maintenance.

In fact in a bipolar system, one pole at a time is stopped during the time required for the
maintenance, and the other pole can normally continue to operate and depending on the in-
built overload capacity it can take a part of the load of the pole under maintenance. In
addition, preventive maintenance shall be pursued so that the plants and equipment will
achieve optimally balanced availability with regard to the costs of maintenance, operating
disturbances and planned outages. As a guideline value, the aim shall be to achieve an
availability of 98 % according to Cigrè protocol 14-97.

While HVDC systems may only need a few skilled staff for operation and maintenance,
several factors influence the number of staff needed at a station. These factors are: local
routines and regulations, working conditions, union requirements, safety regulations, and
other local rules can separately or together affect the total number of personnel required for
the type of installed equipment.

Cost structure

The cost of an HVDC transmission system depends on many factors, such as power capacity
to be transmitted, type of transmission medium, environmental conditions and other safety,
regulatory requirements etc. Even when these are available, the options available for optimal
design (different commutation techniques, variety of filters, transformers etc.) render it is
difficult to give a cost figure for an HVDC system. Nevertheless, a typical cost structure for
the converter stations could be as follows:

As a guidance, an example showing the price variation for an AC transmission

compared with an HVDC
transmission for 2000 MW is presented below.
Assumptions made in the price calculations: For the AC transmission a double circuit is
assumed with a price per km of 250 kUSD/km (each), AC substations and series
compensation (above 600 km) are estimated to 80 MUSD. For the HVDC transmission a
bipolar OH line was assumed with a price per km of 250 kUSD/km, converter stations are
estimated to 250 MUSD.

It is strongly recommended to take contact with a manufacturer in order to get a first idea of
costs and alternatives. The manufacturers should be able to give a budgetary price based on
few data, as rated power, transmission distance, type of transmission, voltage level in the AC
networks where the converters are going to be connected.

The choice of DC transmission voltage level has a direct impact on the total installation cost.
At the design stage an optimisation is done finding out the optimum DC voltage from
investment and losses point of view. The costs of losses are also very important - in the
evaluation of losses the energy cost and the timehorizon for utilisation of the transmission
have to be taken into account. Finally the depreciation period and desired rate of return (or
discount rate) should be considered. Therefore, to estimate the costs of an HVDC system, it is
recommended that life cycle cost analysis is undertaken.

Two different comparisons are needed to highlight the cost comparison between high voltage
AC and HVDC systems – one is between thyristor based HVDC systems and a high voltage
AC transmission system; and the other between a VSC based HVDC system; an AC system
and a local generation source.
 Thyristor based HVDC system versus high voltage AC system: The investment costs for
HVDC converter stations are higher than for high voltage AC substations. On the other hand,
the costs of transmission medium (overhead lines and cables), land acquisition/right-of-way
costs are lower in the HVDC case. Moreover, the operation and maintenance costs are lower
in the HVDC case. Initial loss levels are higher in the HVDC system, but they do not vary
with distance. In contrast, loss levels increase with distance in a high voltage AC system. The
following picture shows the cost breakdown (shown with and without considering losses).

The breakeven distance depends on several factors, as transmission medium (cable or OH

line), different local aspects (permits, cost of local labour etc.). When comparing high voltage
AC with HVDC transmission, it is important to compare a bipolar HVDC transmission to a
double-circuit high voltage AC transmission, especially when availability and reliability is
considered.

VSC based HVDC system versus an AC system or a local generation source: VSC based
HVDC systems cater to the small power applications (up to 200MW) and relatively shorter
distances (hundred of km) segment of the power transmission spectrum. The graph below
shows that, the VSC based HVDC system is the better alternative economically when
compared to either an high voltage AC system or a generation source local to the load centre
(e.g., diesel generator).
As a guidance, a price example for a 50 MW VSC transmission with land cable is presented
below.

However, the break-even distance and power transfer level criteria and the comparative cost
information should be taken in the proper perspective, because of the following reasons:

· In the present (and future) industry environment of liberalised competitive markets and
heightened efforts to conserve the environment. In such an environment, the alternative for a
transmission system is an in-situ gas-fired combined cycle power plant, not necessarily an
option between an AC transmission and a HVDC one.

· Second, the system prices for both AC and HVDC have varied widely even for a given level
of power transfer. For example, several different levels of project costs have been incurred
for a HVDC system with a power transfer capacity of 600 MW. What this shows therefore is
that, in addition to the criteria mentioned above (power levels, distance, transmission
medium, environmental conditions etc.), the market conditions at the time of the project is a
critical factor, perhaps more so than the numerical comparisons between the costs of an AC
or DCsystem.

· Third, technological developments have tended to push HVDC system costs downward,
while the environmental considerations have resulted in pushing up the high voltage AC
system costs.

Therefore, for the purposes early stage feasibility analysis of transmission system type, it is
perhaps better to consider HVDC and high voltage AC systems as equal cost alternatives.

ADVANTAGES OF HVDC

As the technology has developed, the breakeven distance for HVDC versus HVAC
transmission lines has decreased. Some studies indicate a breakeven distance of 60km using
modern HVDC technology. Some of the advantages identified are:

• No technical limits in transmitted distance; increasing losses provide an economic limit.

• Very fast control of power flow, which allows improvements in system stability.

• The direction of power flow can be changed very quickly (bidirectionality).

• An HVDC link does not increase the short-circuit currents at the connecting points. This
means that it will not be necessary to change the circuit breakers in the existing network.

• HVDC can carry more power than HVAC for a given size of conductor.

• The need for ROW is much smaller for HVDC than for HVAC, for the same transmitted
power.

DISADVANTAGES OF HVDC

The primary disadvantages of HVDC are its higher costs and that it remains a technology that
can only be applied in point-to-point applications because of the lack of an economic and
reliable HVDC circuit breaker.The lack of an HVDC circuit breaker reflects the technological
problem that a direct current system does not have a point where its voltage is zero as in an
alternating current system. An HVAC circuit breaker utilizes this characteristic when it opens
an HVAC circuit.
RECENT INNOVATIONS IN HVDC

HVDC PLUS (Power Link Universal System) is an Innovation in the field of

HVDC transmission systems and opens up new fields of the proven HVDC technology Its
innovative design allows technical as well as economical advantages. Via implementation of
voltage-sourced converters,HVDC PLUS is the preferred solution where shortage of space is
a criterion. It is ideal for connection of remote offshore platforms and wind farms to the
onshore grid as well as for high-density areas. HVDC PLUS improves the performance of the
transmission grid, guarantees high reliability and low efforts for maintenance and assembly.

HVDC PLUS offers significant technological benefits for transmission grids

• It can be operated in AC grids with extremely low short-circuit levels or with passive
loads.
• It has independent control of active and reactive power (full four quadrant operation).
• It can be connected to blacked-out networks and
• re-energize them.
• It can be operated in an unsymmetrical network (e.g. during AC network faults) and it
provides unbalance
• It is flexible with respect to reactive power and offers voltage control for weak AC
grids.
• It is robust with respect to AC network faults, thereby allowing continuity of power
transmission and limitation of spread of system disturbances.
• It is short-circuit proof for line-to-line-to-ground and line-to-line faults on the DC
side.
RIHAND-DELHI HVDC TRANSMISSION, INDIA

National Thermal Power Corporation Limited built a 3000 MW coal-based thermal power
station in the Sonebhadra District of Uttar Pradesh State. Part of the power from the Rihand
complex is carried by the Rihand-Delhi HVDC bipolar transmission link, which has a rated
capacity of 1500 MW at ±500 kV DC. Some of the power is transmitted via the existing
parallel 400 kV AC lines. The basic aim of the HVDC link is to transmit the Rihand power
efficiently to the Northern Region, meeting urgent needs in the area. There were several
reasons why choosing HVDC instead of 400 kV AC. The most important ones were better
economics, halved right-of-way requirements, lower transmission losses and better stability
and controllability.The Rihand-Delhi HVDC transmission is the first commercial long-
distance HVDC link in India.

TECHNICAL DETAILS:

Commissioning year 1990

 Power rating 1500 MW
DC voltage +/- 500 kV
Length of overhead DC lines 814 Km
Main reasons for choosing HVDC system Long distance, stability

CONCLUSION

The systems have been developed over the past three decades, starting with HVDC and
extending later to FACTS. HVDC became a technically and economically competitive
technology to the ac transmission. It is used in important large-scale projects transmitting
power over long distances and to interconnect power systems even in cases when ac
interconnection is technically not feasible. This report has given an introduction to the HVDC
technology, with its motivations and applications. The main configurations and components
in a typical HVDC system have been shown.and it also gives an overview of how the HVDC
system works with the components used in the system. It also gives and overview of how the
design, construction, operation and the maintenance of the system is done and also keeping in
mind the cost effectivenessof the overall system.

REFERENCES

• SEIMENS HVDC system and their training by Dr. Hartmut Huang ,Georg Wild.
• ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS, An Overview of the Technology and the
Marketplace,by Jack Casazza & Frank Delea.
• HVDC and FACTS Controllers, Vijay. K. Sood, USA, KluwerAcademic Publishers
• High Voltage Direct Current Transmission,2nd Edition, Jos. Arrillaga, Institution of
Electrical Engineers
• High Voltage Direct Current Power Transmission, Colin Adamson, N.G. Hingorani,
Garraway Limited, London, England, 1960.
• High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC)Transmission Systems, Technology Review
Paper by Roberto Rudervall J.P. Charpentier Raghuveer Sharma.
• Introduction to HVDC Technology for Reliable Electrical Power Systems Johan Setr
´eus, Graduate Student Member, IEEE, and Lina Bertling, Member, IEEE.
• R. Billinton, A. Sankarakrishnan, “Adequacy assessment of composite power systems
with HVDC links using Monte Carlo simulation,” IEEE Transactions on Power
Systems, 1994.
• HVDC Transmission: Part of the Energy Solution? Peter Hartley Economics
Department & James A. Baker III Institute for Public Policy, Rice University.
• IEEE exploration and wikipedia and google website.
• ABB website.