Statistics & Probability

Statistics: Deals with the collection, organization, presentation, analysis, and interpretation of numerical data used as
information for decision making.

Field of Statistics
Descriptive Statistics:
field of statistics that does not involve any generalizations.
Inferential Statistics: make use of generalizations, predictions, estimations, or approximations in the
face of uncertainty.
Methods of Collecting Data
1. Direct Method: data is collected through the use of interviews.
2. Indirect Method: data is collected through the use of questionnaires.
3. Observation: data is collected through observing actual scenarios
4. Experimentation: data is collected through experiments in laboratories and classrooms.
5. Registration: data is acquired from private and government agencies (NSO, DOF, etc)
Ways of presenting Data
1. Textual Form data are presented in paragraphs & narrative form.
2. Tabular form quantitative data are summarized in rows and columns
3. Graphical form data are presented in charts, graphs or pictures.
Population & sample (whole & parts)
Ex: We may wish to draw conclusions about monthly sales of 4,000 small scale business in Batangas City by examining
only 200 companies from this population.

Variables characteristics that changes or varies over time and for different individuals or objects under
consideration.
Ex: The cellphone load consumption is a variable that changes from different cell phone users.
The number of hours’ students consume in playing mobile legends.
Qualitative & Quantitative Variables
-Qualitative measure characteristics on each individual or object. (eg. Color of shirts, t-shirt size)
-Quantitative measure a numerical amount on each individual or object. (eg. The number of women who experience
being cheated on)

Independent & Dependent Variables

If to each value that a variable X can assume there corresponds one or more values of a variable Y, the variable X is
called the independent variable, while Y is called the dependent variable.
Ex: The net income of IT company is dependent on its costs of production.
The academic performance of the BSE-2 math students is dependent on their attitude towards their studies.

Under Quantitative Variables: Discrete & Continuous variables

- A discrete variable can assume only a finite or countable number of values. (Nominal & Ordinal)
Ex: Let x represent the number of printers produced by EPSON in 2019.
Let x represent the number of passers in the CSU-A admission test in 2019.
- A continuous variable can assume an infinite number of values corresponding to the point on a line interval. Must
be rounded off because of the limits of measuring device. (Interval & Ratio)
Ex: The length of ropes (in meters) used by mountain climbers.
The length of time (in hours) programmers create a program in JAVA.
Measurement of Scales
1. Nominal Level: 1st level of measurement; classifying survey objects
(gender, marital status, employment).
2. Ordinal level: 2nd level, data measured can be ordered or ranked. (eg. Plantilla position)
3. Interval level: 3rd measure, has precise differences between measures but there is no true zero.
(ag. Temperature 40 degree Celsius and 50 degrees Celsius. Both have meaningful differences
of 10 degrees but 0 degree Celsius does not mean that there is no temperature)
4. Ratio level: (eg. Used to measure height, weight, area and volume)
Exercises:
A. In each of these statements, tell whether descriptive or inferential statistics was used.
1. Eight of 500 books printed by a printing company have misprints.
2. In 2020, the gross sales of SVR company increased by 11%.
3. In the 1st quarter of 2011, the monthly sales of Quatrain Company decreased by 2%.
4. Three out of twenty pregnant women have miscarriages.
 5. 9 out of 10 women experienced failed relationships.
6. It is expected that short term bond interest rates will decrease by 2% in 2020.
7. Five out of 7 students are watching Kdrama.
8. The average of dropouts in a university per year is 200.
B. Classify each as nominal level, ordinal level, interval level, or ratio level measurement.
9. Number of books written by an author.
10. Rankings of basketball teams in the PBA for the 2019 season.
11. Temperature in Aparri.
12. Marital Status of instructors and Professors at CSu-Aparri.
13. Weight of students in a cooking class.
14. Number of defective chairs repaired by CHED in 2019.
15. Rating of State universities and colleges (poor, satisfactory, very satisfactory, excellent)
C. Determine if the following statements are related to qualitative, quantitative, discrete or continuous data.
16. The normal level of Angat Dam is 178 meters.
17. The highest temperature recorded in Aparri in the summer of 2019 was 38 degrees Celsius.
18. There were 800 expensive cars confiscated by the Bureau of Customs in Aoarri, Cagayan.
19. There are 20 buildings in Tuguegarao measuring more than 800 ft.
20. Nenette Fashion sold 210 meters of silk fabric.
21. Rona Bake Shop bought 80 bags of flour from Hosana, with each bag containing 25 kgs. Of flour.
22. Gerald finished first in the Poster making contest.
23. Romel Jeans company sold 900 medium sized shirts.
24. Mariaga’s Cable Company imported 400 rolls of cable.
25. Renz Clothing Company exported eight 40 foot containers to Singapore.

Percentages: getting the number of hundredths parts one number is another

Ex: Out of 4,000 LCD screens produced by Pansonic electronic Company, 40 are defective. What is the percentage of
defective televisions produced by the company?
Summation: (using the Greek Sigma symbol; the summation of the x’s with I from 1 to n”.
n

∑ x 1=x 1 + x 2+ …+ x n
i=1
Properties:
n
n(n+1)
a . ∑ i=1+2+3+..+n=
i=1 2
n
2 2 2 2 2 n (n+1)(2 n+ 1)
b.∑ i =1 +2 +3 +..+n =
i=1 6
n
c . ∑ k=k +k +....+ k=nk , k is constant
i =1
n n
d . ∑ kx 1=kx 1 +kx 2 +…+ kx n=k ∑ x 1 , k is constant
i=1 i=1
n n n
e . ∑ (ax 1 ± by 1)=( ax 1 ± by 1 ) + ( ax 2 ±by 2 ) + …+ ( ax n ±by n ) =a∧b are constants ,=k ∑ x 1 ± b ∑ y 1
i=1 i=1 i=1
n
f . ∑ x 1 y 1= x1 y 1+ x 2 y 2+ …+ x n y n
i=1

Exercises:
A. Evaluate each of the following:
18 33 17 32 35
2
a . ∑ ib . ∑ i c . ∑ i d . ∑ 3 ie . ∑ 6
i=1 i=11 i=1 i=1 i=9

B. Given x 1=22 , x 2=14 , x 3=15 , x 4 =26 , x 5=18 , y 1=9 , y 2=15 , y 3=21 , y 4=20 , y 5=10 .
Evaluate the following:
5 5 5 5 5
a . ∑ x 1 b . ∑ y 1 c . ∑ ( x ¿ ¿ 1− y1 ) d . ∑ x 12 e . ∑ ( x 1+ y 1 )¿
i=1 i=3 i=1 i=2 i=3
 Basic Concepts in probability

Probability: deals with the study of random and non-deterministic experiments. (Study of chances)
Experiments: are activities that produce outcomes.
Sample Space: set of all the outcomes in an experiment
Event: Subset of a sample space.
Sample point: an outcome of an experiment

The Fundamental Counting Principle

Let E1 and E2 be two events. If E1 can be done in m ways, and if after- E1 has occurred – E2 can be done in n ways, then
the event “E1 followed by E2” can be done in m x n ways.
Ex: a) How many two-digit number can be formed from the digits 1, 2 and 3.
b) How many ways can one select a president, a vice president, and a secretary if there are three
candidates for president, four candidates for vice-president, and six candidates for secretary?
c) Nenette wants to buy a blouse. She has a choice of 4 style, 6 sizes, and 7 colors. How many choices
does she have in the selection?
d) Jhumar owns 8 pairs of jeans, 22 clean T-shirts and 6 pairs of shoes. How many outfits (jeans, t-shirt and shoes) can
he create?
e) Rowena wants to buy a car. She has a choice of 6 makes, 8 body styles and 10 colors. How many choices does she
have in the selection?

Exercises: Answer the following:

1. FAME Realty developed new townhouses. It offered 1, 2, or 3 bedrooms, with or without balcony, with or without a
garage, and several different exterior finishes. If there are 72 possible choice open to a buyer, how many different
exterior finishes are available?
2. How many ways can forty runners finish a race first, second and third?
3. Hosana offers a new menu where, for a fixed dinner cost, one can choose from one of five salads, one of seven entrees,
and one of eight desserts. How many different dinners are available?
4. How many three-digit numbers can be formed with the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6.
5. How many three-digit numbers can be formed with the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6
a. If repetition of digits is not allowed
b. If repetition of digits is allowed?
6. How many ways can different statistics books, 5 Filipino books and 6 cookbooks be arranged in a shelf?
7. How many ways can a president, a secretary, and a treasurer be selected from among three candidates for president,
eight for secretary, and six for treasurer?
Permutation
Theorem: deals with the arrangement or order of things. The number of permutations of n things taken r at a time given by
n!
P (n,r)= .
( n−r ) !
Theorem: The number of permutations of n distinct objects is n(n-1)(n-2)…(2)(1)=n!
Note: 0!= 1
Ex: a) Two lottery tickets are drawn from 20 for the first and second prize. Find the number of sample
points in the space S.
b) In how many ways can the 5 starting positions on a basketball team be filled with 8 men who can
play any position?
c) How many ways can Sophia arrange 6 books at a time in a shelf with 10 books?
d) How many ways can 8 applicants be seated in five chairs?
e) How many ways can you arrange 4 accounting books and 3 management books in a shelf if the
same kind of books are to be side by side?
f) How many ways can 8 persons sit on a round table?
g) How many ways can be 4 red flag, 3 blue flags and 2 white flags be arranged on a line?

Theorem: The number of distinct permutations of n things of which n 1 are of one kind, n2 are of second kind,…., nk
k
n!
of a kth kind is where ∑ n1=n
n1 ! n2 ! … … nk i=1
Ex: a) Consider our favorite word, STATISTICS, that contains a total of 10 letters. There are 3 classes of indistinguishable
objects that consist of 3 S’s , 3 T’s and 2 I’s. Find the total number of distinct permutations of these 10 letters.
b) in how many different ways can 3 red, 4 yellow, and 2 blue bulbs be arranged in a string of
 Christmas tree lights with 9 sockets?

Circular Permutations
Ex: a) In how many ways can 7 boys be seated in a circular order?
b) In how many ways can beads be arranged to form a necklace?

Exercises: Answer the following:

A. Evaluate
1. 9P4 2. 7P2 3. 100P100 4. 11P4 5. 18P9
B. How many ways can Vanessa hang 8 pictures?
a. in a row?
b. in a circular arrangement?
c. three at a time?
C. On a trip to Baguio, Ren went to visit 10 historical sites. If the order of the visit matters, how many ways can she plan
the trip?
D. How many ways can Victor arrange 8 computer books, 11 mathematics books and 8 chess books in a shelf so that all
books on a subject are together?
E. How many ways can Celierose, Kimberly, and Joylene choose movies to watch if nine different movies are available?
F. How many permutations can be made from the letters in the following words:
a. MATHEMATICS c. ILOCOS e. MATABUNGKAY
b. PAGUDPUD d. SPEEDSTERS

Combination
Deals with the selection or group of things or objects. The number of combination of n things taken r at a time is C
(n,r)= ( nr )= r ! ( n−r
n!
)!
.

Ex: a) In a Stat 101 exam, a student has a choice of 8 questions out of 10. In how many ways can he
choose a set of 8 questions if he chooses arbitrarily?
b) Find the number of ways of selecting the 6 winnng numbers in the original version of the game of
lotto.
c) How many committees of five members can be formed from eight sales executives?
d) How many committees of five, with two accountants and three lawyers, be formed from a
selection of six accountants and eight lawyers?
d) How many ways can you invite one or more of your 4 friends to a seminar?

Combination in Series
Ex: a) in a group of boys and girls, four children are to be selected. In how many different ways can they
be selected such that at least one boy should be there?
b) from a group of 7 men and 6 women, five persons are to be selected to form a committee so that
at least 3 men are there in the committee. In how many ways can it be done?

Exercises: Answer the following:

A. Evaluate
1. 8C3 2. 12C5 3. 90C90 4. 15C9 5. 21C8
B. How many subsets of 6 elements can be formed from a set of 21 elements?
C. How many groups of six can be formed from 18 students?
D. How many ways can one select a committee of 4 instructors and 2 professors from a group containing 9 instructors and
10 professors?
E. How many ways can you select 6 blue cards and 8 white cards from a deck of 14 blue cards and 12 white cards?
F. How many ways can five men of each ethnicity be selected from ten Ilocanos and eight Cebuanos.
G. How many ways can Sharmaine invites one or more of her seven friends?
H. How many ways can a committee of four accountants and five lawyers be selected from nine accountants and eight
lawyers.

Probability of an Event
If event E has n(E) equally likely outcomes and its sample space S has n(S) equally likely outcomes, the probability of
n( E)
event E is P(E)= , where:
n(S)
 1) The probability of an event E is 0≤ P(E)≤1.
2) The probability of an impossible event is P(Ø)= 0.
3) The probability of a sure event is P(S)=1.
Ex: A class consists of 12 economics, 15 banking and finance, and 18 accounting students. A student is chosen at random to
represent the class. Find the probability that the student is:
a. An economic student
b. A banking and finance student
c. An accounting student

The Probability of the Union of Two Events

If A and B are events in the same sample space, the probability of A or B occurring is given by:
P(A∪B)= P(A) + P(B)- P(A∩B); If A and B are mutually exclusive, P(A∪B)= P(A)+P(B)

The Probability of a complement of an Event

Let A be an event and let A' be its complement. If the probability of A is P(A), the probability o the complement is
P(A')= 1- P(A).
Ex: A bowl contains 4 red, 5 blue and 6 white chips. If chip is taken at random, find the probability of having a) a red or
blue chip b) a red or white chip c) a blue or white chip d) not a blue chip

Exercises: Answer the following

1. A coin is tossed three times. Find the probabilities of the following:
a. The probability of getting one head
b. The probability of getting two heads
c. The probability of getting three heads.
2. A card is drawn from a deck of cards numbered 1 to 90. Find the probability that the number on the card is:
a. A king b. a queen c. a spade d. a black card
3. One card is selected at random from cards numbered 1 to 90. Find the probability that the number on the card is a)
divisible by 6; and b) prime
4. A card is drawn from a deck of 52 well-shuffled cards. Find the probability of having
a. A queen or a king b. a jack or a ten c. a six or a face card
c. A six or a face card d. a nine or a diamond e. a jack or a face card
f. A two or a black card g. an ace, a king, a queen, or a jack

The Probability of Independent and Dependent Events

If A and B are independent events, the probability of A and B occurring is given by P(A∩B)=P(A) P(B).
If A and B are dependent events, the probability of A and B occurring is given by P(A ∩B)=P(A) P(B/A).
Ex: 1.A box contains 9 tickets numbered 1 to 9 inclusive. If three tickets are drawn from the box one at a
time without replacement, find the probability that they are alternately a) odd, even and odd and b)
even, odd and even.
2. A box contains 9 tickets numbered 1 to 9 inclusive. If three tickets are drawn from the box one at
a time with replacement, find the probability that they are alternately a) odd, even and odd and b) even,
odd and even.

Exercises: Answer the following

1. A bowl contains 4 red, 5 blue and 6 white balls. IF 4 balls are taken at random, with replacement, find the probability of
having
a. 4 blue balls b. 4 white balls c. 2 red balls d. 2 red, 1 blue, and white ball
2. Of 10 girls in a class, 3 speak Ilokano, if two girls are chosen at random what is the probability that
a. Both speak Ilokano b. neither speak Ilokano
3. Four cards are drawn from an ordinary deck of 52 well-shuffled cards. Find the probability of having:
a. Four aces b. four hearts c. two aces and two kings