Ecological Engineering 10 (1998) 341 – 354

Preliminary investigation of an integrated

aquaculture – wetland ecosystem using
tertiary-treated municipal wastewater in Los
Angeles County, California

Barry A. Costa-Pierce a,b,*

a
Department of En6ironmental Analysis and Design, School of Social Ecology, Uni6ersity of California,
Ir6ine, CA 92697 -7070, USA
b
The Center for Regenerati6e Studies (CRS), California State Polytechnic Uni6ersity Pomona,
4105 West Uni6ersity A6enue, Pomona, CA 91768, USA

Received 24 February 1997; received in revised form 31 December 1997; accepted 19 January 1998

Abstract

The objective of this study was to determine the feasibility of using a designed integrated
aquaculture–wetland ecosystem (AWE) for experimental food production and inorganic
nitrogen removal from tertiary-treated wastewater. The AWE connected polyculture aqua-
culture ponds with in-pond aquatic plant systems (water hyacinths, Eichhornia crassipes, and
Chinese water spinach, Ipomea aquatica), a solar energy aeration system, and an artificial
wetland. Ponds were stocked with hybrid tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus × O. urolepis
hornorum), common carp (Cyprinus carpio), mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis), and red swamp
crayfish (Procambarus clarkii ), and were flushed weekly with new wastewater at 20%. Fish
were fed a 32% protein floating ration at 1% fish body weight per day, and wheat bran was
added at 1 mg l − 1 when water conductivities exceeded 900 mmhos cm − 1. Plants were
allowed to grow until they reached approximately 50% of the pond surface area, then
maintained at this area by manual harvesting. Pond water quality (temperature, conductivity,
pH, oxygen) was monitored twice daily, and weekly water samples were taken for analyses
of inorganic nitrogen (ammonia and nitrate-N) in the ponds, wetland, and wetland discharge
waters (n= 30). Tilapia harvest from three ponds was 1134.5 kg. Fish standing crop biomass
increased from 0.16 to 0.21 at stocking to 1.50 – 2.00 kg m − 3 at harvest. Tilapia grew from

* Tel.: + 1 714 8248573; fax: + 1 714 8243571; e-mail: bcp@uci.edu

0925-8574/98/$19.00 © 1998 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

PII S0925-8574(98)00003-2
342 B.A. Costa-Pierce / Ecological Engineering 10 (1998) 341–354

an average stocking weight of 21 to 362 – 404 g at harvest but had poor survival (48 – 64%)
due to heavy bird predation. Total food conversion ratios ranged 0.9 – 1.2. Approximately
70% of the tilapia were marketed live at $2.20 kg − 1. An estimated standing crop of 1.4 tons
wet weight of Ipomea aquatica grew luxuriantly in one 200-m2 polyculture pond which could
be harvested sustainably at 20 kg week − 1. Water hyacinths removed approximately 90% of
the ammonia and nitrate-N in wastewater, and the wetland removed an additional 7% (total
removal was 97% of wastewater input concentrations). Overflow water exiting the wetland
had less than 0.4 mg ammonia–nitrogen l − 1 and no detectable nitrate – nitrogen. The
experimental AWE accomplished aquatic food production and almost complete removal of
inorganic nitrogen from wastewater, functioning as a ‘quartenary’ wastewater treatment/food
production ecosystem. However, more rigorous experimentation is required to optimize fish-
and plant-carrying capacities, nutrient cycles, and testing for bioaccumulation of metals in
order for the AWE to be socially and economically relevant. The concept of using
tertiary-treated wastewater for aquatic food production may be attractive in the peri-urban
areas of many meagcities like Los Angeles, both for fish markets and to stem the growing
discharges of wastewaters that are causing coastal pollution. © 1998 Elsevier Science B.V. All
rights reserved.

Keywords: Integrated aquaculture–wetland ecosystem; Inorganic nitrogen removal; Tertiary-

treated wastewater; Eichhornia crassipes; Solar energy aeration system

1. Introduction

In Los Angeles County (LA), ten wastewater reclamation plants discharged an

estimated 1965.6 km3 day − 1 of wastewater effluents from treatment systems
ranging from undisinfected secondary, to coagulated, filtered and chlorinated
tertiary wastewater in 1994 – 95 (SDLA, 1995). While there has been increased reuse
of reclaimed water in inland areas of southern California since 1970, water markets
have been slow to develop. Only 5% (91.0 km3 day − 1) of the wastewater generated
by the ten treatment plants was sold, and mostly to non-agricultural users (of the
322 users of reclaimed water only nine were agricultural; SDLA, 1995). Over 90%
of LA’s wastewater was discharged into the San Gabriel River then to ocean, or
directly into the ocean at San Pedro Bay. There has been an increasing effort to
upgrade all of LA’s treatment plants to tertiary wastewater facilities and to expand
water markets for wastewater reuse inland as an alternative to ocean disposal.
Reclaimed water in LA is available at a substantial discount in comparison with
potable water. In 1995, the costs of reclaimed water ranged from $61.78 km − 3 at
the Pomona plant to $411.24 km − 3, a 15–72% discount from purchased water
from the Colorado River (SDLA, 1995). But water markets have not developed
rapidly enough to stem the increased disposal of wastewaters in the ocean.
It is a common perception that tertiary sewage treatment plants (TSTPs) are the
preferred method of waste utilization and are ‘environmentally friendly’ (SDLA,
1995). However, many TSTPs do not remove inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus to
levels below which these nutrients stimulate marine aquatic production. For exam-
ple, total inorganic nitrogen concentrations (ammonia-N, nitrite-N, nitrate-N) in
 B.A. Costa-Pierce / Ecological Engineering 10 (1998) 341–354 343

wastewater effluents from the Pomona TSTP in 1995 averaged 12.71 mg l − 1 (range
7.79 – 18.82 mg l − 1). Nitrogen is the primary limiting factor to marine plankton
production in the Southern California Bight off San Pedro Bay (Eppley et al., 1972;
Thomas et al., 1974; MacIssac et al., 1979), and increased nitrogen loadings have
been implicated in stimulating nuisance algal blooms and in degrading the structure
and function of coastal marine ecosystems of the Bight (Mearns, 1981; Reish,
1984).
In this study, an experimental aquaculture–wetland ecosystem (AWE) and
management protocol was tested to see if the available tertiary-treated wastewater
could be used to simultaneously accomplish aquatic food production and inorganic
nitrogen removal from wastewater received from the Pomona, CA, TSTP.

2. Materials and methods

Studies were conducted at the Center for Regenerative Studies (CRS), an

education/research unit of California State Polytechnic University, Pomona (Lyle,
1994). The experimental ecosystem comprised a 28-m3 wastewater supply tank,
three 200 – 240-m2 (1-m deep) aquaculture ponds, and a 0.05-ha artificial wetland
(Fig. 1). Each pond had a 2.5:1.0 pond bank slope that was stabilized by concrete,
and a bottom liner (polypropylene, drinking water quality) that was covered with
approximately 5 – 8 cm of washed river sand. Each pond had separate 5 cm PVC
water inlets and 15 cm outlets. All three ponds received constant nighttime aeration
from three, 0.1-hp, 12-V d.c. air pumps connected with diffuser tubing to each pond
bottom (Aquatic Ecosystems, Apopka, FL). A tracking, solar photovolatic array
charged a bank of deep cell batteries that powered the d.c. air pumps. Air pumps
were set by a timer to turn on after sunset and off 1 h after sunrise. On the few
cloudy days, the switch was reset manually and air pumps remained on. All pond
effluents flowed in 15 cm PVC pipes by gravity downstream into an artificial
wetland. The wetland was a simple, approximately 0.05-ha, bowl-shaped depression
where waters were impounded by a rock dam. The wetland developed a Typha–wa-
ter hyacinth – duckweed (Lemna sp.) aquatic plant community on its own, with the
emergent plants and duckweed comprising about 50% of the surface area of the
wetland, and the water hyacinths occupying the remainder.
Reclaimed wastewater was pumped from the Pomona TSTP to a 28.3-m3 storage
tank located on an hill. Ponds were filled initially by gravity with a mixture of 50%
potable water/50% reclaimed water to allow water hyacinths to get established,
thereafter they were flushed 20% per week with reclaimed water.
A polyculture species stocking was used which defined ‘target’ and ‘janitor’
species. The target species was a water-column fish and the ‘janitor’ species were
organisms stocked to assist with biological control of the aquatic ecosystem
(Costa-Pierce et al., 1982, 1984; Costa-Pierce, 1992). The target species chosen were
hybrid, all male, sex-reversed tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus×O. hornorum)
(Costa-Pierce and Doyle, 1997). Tilapia were stocked on 8 May 1996 when average
daily pond temperatures reached 20°C (Argue and Phelps, 1995), along with a base
344 B.A. Costa-Pierce / Ecological Engineering 10 (1998) 341–354

population of 200 red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clarkii ). Janitor fish species
stocked were common carp (Cyprinus carpio) and mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis).
Tilapia and carp were batch harvested 182–202 days later. Mosquitofish and
crayfish were not enumerated at harvests.
Water hyacinths (Eichhornia crassipes) were added to all ponds at 10–20% of the
pond area and maintained at about 50% of the pond surface area by use of floating

Fig. 1. The Center for Regenerative Studies aquaculture-wetland ecosystem (AWE) in Phase I of its
development as reported in this study. The Pomona tertiary treatment plant produces approximately
12.8 millions of gallons per day (MGD) of wastewater. Of this amount it sells 7.2 MGD and discharges
5.6 MGD to local waterways. The AWE used approximately 28 m3 per week of Pomona’s wastewater
in Phase I.
 B.A. Costa-Pierce / Ecological Engineering 10 (1998) 341–354 345

booms and manual harvesting every 2 weeks. Harvested water hyacinths were
spread out to sun dry. In one pond, Chinese water spinach (Ipomea aquatica) was
planted in moist soil alongside the pond about 60 days after stocking fish and its
adventitious roots allowed to grow into the previously-established water hyacinth
mat. After 123 days, the water spinach had grown luxuriantly, and the water
hyacinth was removed from that pond.
Fish were fed a floating, 32% protein feed (Star Milling, Perris, CA) at 1% of the
tilapia stocking biomass day − 1 in two daily feedings (07:00–10:00 and 15:00–
20:00). Twice during the culture period a sample of 20 fish were weighed and
feeding rates adjusted to the new standing crop biomass; however, the 1% ration
remained unchanged throughout the culture period. When pond water conductivi-
ties exceeded 900 mmhos cm − 1, wheat bran (13.5% crude protein) was added to
ponds at 1 mg l − 1 in an attempt to stimulate microbial production, detritus
formation, reductions in inorganic nitrogen, and reductions in phytoplankton
biomass (Avinmelech et al., 1992).
The Pomona TSTP provided monthly water quality reports on the wastewater
effluent received and used. Daily water quality was measured in all three ponds at
06:00 – 09:00 and 16:00 – 21:00 using a hand held multiprobe (AquaCheck, Perstop
Analytical, Wilsonville, OR) that stored pond water temperature, conductivity, pH,
and dissolved oxygen concentrations. Weekly, when ponds were flushed, 1-l samples
of surface waters were taken using clean plastic bottles from the three ponds, the
wetland, and the overflow water from the wetland. Surface water samples from
three ponds were then mixed to make a single, composite sample. Water samples
were filtered through Whatman GF/F filters and filtrates analyzed for ammonia-N
and nitrate-N concentrations according to Standard Methods (1989).

3. Results

Water quality of the wastewater supplied from the Pomona TSTP is summarized
in Table 1. Average monthly ranges of water quality parameters were: temperature
(19– 30°C), pH (6.5 – 8.0), BOD (1–33 mg l − 1), ammonia-N (6.2–11.7 mg l − 1),
nitrite-N (0.46 – 1.20 mg l − 1), nitrate-N (0.46–1.20 mg l − 1), and orthophosphate-P
(5.8 – 6.1 mg l − 1). The mean BOD was 10 mg l − 1, and COD 35 mg l − 1.
Concentrations of heavy metals (Fe, Pb, Cu, Hg, Zn, Se) were all within California
primary drinking water standards (SDLA, 1995). Major features of the wastewater
analysis were the high quantity of total dissolved solids (mean of 531 mg l − 1); the
fact that the mean total hardness exceeded the mean total alkalinity (197 vs. 180 mg
l − 1); and the high inorganic nitrogen and phosphate concentrations (12.72 mg l − 1
total inorganic N; 5.95 mg l − 1 orthophosphate P).
During the first year of operation of the AWE (1994), aquaculture ponds were
filled entirely with wastewater; tilapia were added at densities one-half those used in
this study, and water quality was monitored twice daily. Rapid and severe water
quality deterioration occurred within the first 1–5 days after pond filling. Dissolved
oxygen concentrations 300 – 500% of saturation were recorded, followed by nui-
346 B.A. Costa-Pierce / Ecological Engineering 10 (1998) 341–354

Table 1
Water quality of tertiary-treated wastewater from the Pomona, CA, USA sewage treatment plant
(means of monthly values, 1996; n= 12)

Parameter (mg l−1) Mean Range

Temperature 24 19 – 30
pH 7.1 6.5 – 8.0
Total alkalinity 180 145 – 229
Total hardness 197 177 – 215
Total organic nitrogen 1.4 1.0 – 1.8
Total ammonia—nitrogen 9.4 6.2 – 11.7
Nitrite–nitrogen 0.81 0.46 – 1.20
Nitrate–nitrogen 2.51 1.13 – 5.92
Orthophosphate–P 5.95 5.80 – 6.10
Sulfate 79 62 – 104
Total dissolved solids 531 348 – 695
Total organic carbon 11.8 8.8 – 15.0
BOD 10 1 – 33
COD 35 24 – 49
Ar 0.002 0.002 – 0.003
Cu B0.01 B0.01
Pb B0.006 B0.002 – 0.02
Zn B0.05 0.05
Cd B0.003 B0.003
Hg B0.0001 B0.0001 – 0.001
Se B0.001 B0.001 – 0.001
Fe B0.04 B0.02 – 0.09

sance blue – green algal blooms and pH readings above 10.5, and fish mortalities
(\ 80% of stocked fish). During this (1995) study, it was also observed that, even
if the ponds were stocked with water hyacinths at 10–20% of their surface area,
where ponds were filled initially with 100% wastewater, intense algal production,
high pH and lethal un-ionizied ammonia concentrations reoccurred, and water
hyacinths turned yellow, and stopped growing. We hypothesized that the high solar
irradiation and nutrient levels favored phytoplankton over the hyacinths, so
decided to start up ponds with more than 20% of their surface area covered by
hyanciths for shading, and used a 50% wastewater/50% potable water mix initially.
With this procedure, water hyacinths grew luxuriantly, and pH and other water
quality problems did not reoccur throughout the experimental period.
Aquaculture pond water quality data is summarized in Table 2. Mean conductiv-
ities ranged from 810 to 843 mmhos cm − 1. Mean dissolved oxygen concentrations
(DOs) were 4.3 – 8.4 mg l − 1, and there were 6 days when dissolved oxygen dropped
below 1.0 mg l − 1 (ponds 1, 3). No DO depletions were recorded in pond 2.
Yield characteristics are summarized in Table 3. Individual tilapia grew from a
mean stocking weight of 21 g to 362–404 g in 182–202 days. Tilapia specific growth
rates (1.44 – 1.62% day − 1) exceeded carp (0.11–0.21 day − 1), but tilapia survival
rates were low in comparison (48–64 vs. 88–100%). Net total fish yields ranged
Table 2
Water quality in surface waters of aquaculture ponds during the experimental period

Pond ecosystem (n) Temp (°C) Conductivity pH Mean Lowest No. of days DO less than
(mmhos cm−1) DO (mg l−1) DO (mg l−1) 1.0 mg l−1

Pond 1 (fish –hyacinths) 24.3 (6.1) 829 (167) 8.43 (1.87) 4.9 (4.3) 0.2 6
(n= 404)
Pond 2 (fish –hyacinths) 24.5 (6.6) 810 (98) 7.80 (1.10) 8.4 (5.5) 1.2 0
(n= 364)
Pond 3 (fish –water spinach) 24.6 (5.8) 843 (130) 8.51 (1.86) 4.3 (3.2) 0.1 6
(n= 364)

Values are means of pooled 1-l samples collected weekly (standard deviations in parentheses).
B.A. Costa-Pierce / Ecological Engineering 10 (1998) 341–354
347
 348

Table 3
Fish yield characteristics from aquaculture ponds

Species Pond 1 Pond 2 Pond 3

Number Fish weight Total weight Number Fish weight Total weight Number Fish weight Total weight
(g) (kg) (g) (kg) (g) (kg)

Stocking
Tilapia 1848 21.2 39.18 1812 21.2 40.53 1640 21.2 34.77
Carp 17 456 7.75 19 566 10.75 15 413 6.20
Total 1865 nc 46.95 1931 nc 51.28 1655 nc 40.97
Harvest
Days 202 182 182
Tilapia 892 393 350.6 994 404 401.6 1056 362 382.3
Carp 15 624 9.4 18 703 12.6 15 611 9.2
Total 907 nc 360.0 1012 nc 414.2 1071 nc 391.5
Survival (%)
Tilapia 48 52 64
Carp 88 95 100
SGR (% day−1)
Tilapia 1.44 1.62 1.56
Carp 0.14 0.11 0.21
Feed (kg) 280.5 373.4 288.9
Bran (kg) 29.7 53.2 31.4
Total 310.2 426.6 320.3
Net fish gain 313.0 362.9 350.5
B.A. Costa-Pierce / Ecological Engineering 10 (1998) 341–354

(kg)
FCR 1.0 1.23 0.9

nc, not calculated; SGR, specific growth rate (ln W2−ln W1)/T2−T1)×100; FCR, food conversion ratio (total dry weight feed added/total net wet weight
of fish produced) (Jauncey, 1979).
 B.A. Costa-Pierce / Ecological Engineering 10 (1998) 341–354 349

from 313.1 – 362.9 kg per 200 – 240-m2 pond. Total food conversion ratios (FCRs)
ranged 0.9 – 1.2.
Ammonia-N and nitrate-N concentrations in the outlet from the wetland were
reduced significantly from input ammonia– and nitrate–nitrogen concentrations
(pB0.05, t-test) (Table 4). The AWS removed 97% of the inorganic N in the input
wastewater. Mean pH increased and was more variable in the surface waters of the
wetland (8.139 1.10) than in ponds (7.069 0.27), but was 6.30 in overflow waters
out of the wetland.

4. Discussion

Wastewater flows from Los Angeles County have increased from 946 to 1892
km3 day − 1 from 1958 – 88 (SDLA, 1995). Investments in tertiary sewage treatment
systems will undoubtedly increase worldwide in the next century. As a result, the
quantities of fertilizer nutrients discharged to the ocean will increase, causing
degradation of coastal ecosystems. It is important that new water markets be
developed, and that more productive uses be found for the increasing volume of
nutrient-rich wastewaters being generated by cities such as Los Angeles.
The use of tertiary-treated wastewaters for the development of integrated aqua-
culture – wetland ecosystems requires an understanding and control of water qual-
ity. Arid southern California has one of the highest solar insolations in the world.
The tertiary-treated wastewater used in this preliminary study had a low inorganic
N:P ratio (2.1), indicative of its high potential for nutrient stimulation in aquatic
environments (Eppley et al., 1978; Welch and Lindell, 1980; Hecky et al., 1993;
Costa-Pierce, 1996). In the initial stages of our work, the combination of high solar
insolation and inorganic nutrients (Table 1) caused massive blue–green algal
blooms; pH levels rose above 10.0; toxic levels of un-ionized ammonia (Russo and
Thurston, 1991) occurred; and fish kills resulted. By starting up ponds by diluting
the nutrients in wastewater by half with potable water, and thereafter flushing
ponds by 20% week − 1 with full-strength wastewater, providing shade by maintain-
ing water hyacinths at approximately 50% of pond area, and using nightly aeration,
we were successful in maintaining water quality throughout the experimental period

Table 4
Nutrient levels in surface waters of aquaculture ponds, wetland, and in overflow waters exiting the
wetland taken weekly over the experimental perioda

Parameter Ponds Wetland Overflow

pH 7.06 (0.27) 8.13 (1.10) 6.30 (2.70)

Ammonia–N (mg l−1) 8.9* (3.2) 0.7** (0.8) 0.4** (0.9)
Nitrate–N (mg l−1) 3.7* (1.5) 0.6** (0.5) nd
Total Inorganic N 12.6 1.3 0.4

a
Numbers are means 9standard deviations in parentheses; n = 30. *,**Indicate significant differences at
p50.05 by t-test; nd, not detected (Zar, 1984).
350 B.A. Costa-Pierce / Ecological Engineering 10 (1998) 341–354

within the optimal range for growing freshwater aquatic organisms (Redner and
Stickney, 1979; Palachek and Tomasso, 1984; Russo and Thurston, 1991; Avault,
1996).
Aquatic ecosystems reaching pH levels higher than 10.0 are unusual (Horne and
Goldman, 1994). Wastewater had a mean annual total hardness concentration of
197 mg l − 1, concentrations higher than mean total alkalinity (180 mg l − 1),
indicating permanent hardness was present (Boyd, 1982). Univalent cations
(sodium, potassium) comprised the majority of the hardness (mean of 100.7 mg
l − 1), exceeding concentrations of divalent cations (calcium, magnesium) (mean of
74.8 mg l − 1) (Table 1). Under these conditions univalent cations are soluble and
bound to sulfate, chloride, nitrate, etc., allowing pH to rise above 10.0. Such high
pH causes a shift to toxic un-ionized ammonia and fish kills (Boyd, 1982).
Water hyacinths were managed to occupy approximately 50% of pond surface
area. It is hypothesized that the hyacinths controlled algal blooms and water
quality problems by: (1) competing for nutrients with algae; (2) competing for light
with algae; and (3) providing abundant root surface area for nitrifying bacteria
which decreased ammonia-N concentrations. Harvested water hyacinths were used
to make compost, as mulch on foot paths and on agricultural areas, and for animal
feed (geese). However, manual harvesting was labor-intensive. In contrast, Chinese
water spinach (Ipomea aquatica) is an edible, readily marketable vegetable with a
high food value, and has a proven ability to control water quality (Abe et al., 1992).
Chinese water spinach was planted in moist soil by one pond and grew poorly at
first in the dry, arid air even though it was manually irrigated daily with pond
water. Plants were then put under a simple plastic enclosure to increase atmospheric
humidity for 2 weeks. Thereafter, the spinach grew luxuriantly. At first the water
spinach runners were allowed to weave into the floating water hyacinth bed. As the
standing crop increased to a dense mat extending to about 50% of the pond surface,
the water hyacinths were removed. pH in this pond increased 8.5–9.0, but tilapia
feeding was not impaired. At 123 days into the experiment, the standing crop of
water spinach was estimated to be 1.4 tons wet weight, and could be harvested
sustainably at 20 kg week − 1.
Tilapia stocking densities, production, and survival rates were low, but specific
growth rates good in comparison with other commercial scale integrated aquacul-
ture ecosystems (McMurtry et al., 1990; Rakocy and Hargreaves, 1993; Rakocy,
1997). There were high rates of bird predation on fish observed. The CRS
agroecosystem is a research and demonstration site in ecosystem restoration of a
damaged peri-urban environment, and the AWE is not only important for its
production of aquatic foods but also important for its ‘ecosystem service’ as
artificial wetlands for attracting wildlife (Lyle, 1994). In the arid and stark urban
environment of Los Angeles County, the ponds and wetlands have been observed
to be vital habitats for a variety of threatened bird species, notably black crowned
night herons, blue and green herons, and rails (R. Quinn, pers. commun.).
Low quantities of a commercial 32% protein diet were fed to fish at 1% of initial
fish stocking biomasses, and applications of wheat bran were made when pond
conductivities reached above 900 mmhos cm − 1. If ponds were not fed a commercial
 B.A. Costa-Pierce / Ecological Engineering 10 (1998) 341–354 351

Fig. 2. Phase II expansion of the aquaculture-wetland ecosystem (AWE) includes planning for develop-
ment of a stream aquatic ecosystem and associated riparian wetland at the outlet of the existing wetland.
Stream water will then empty into an approximately 0.4 ha reservoir that will have a fish community
dominated by grazers (tilapia, mosquitofish) confined in cages and also stocked in the open waters to
further bioremediate the wastewater. Solar energy will be used to pump water to an additional storage
tank on an adjacent hill to create pumped storage and to complete the recycling loop in the AWE (Lyle
et al., 1997).

ration, fish would not have been able to reach marketable sizes in the sub-tropical
environment of inland southern California since tilapias are inefficient grazers of
phytoplankton and algae (Moriarty and Moriarty, 1973; Costa-Pierce, 1980).
352 B.A. Costa-Pierce / Ecological Engineering 10 (1998) 341–354

Wheat bran was used to test the idea that formulated feed use can be reduced
markedly in eutrophic ponds by adding carbon sources to nitrogen-rich environ-
ments to stimulate detritus production, to balance C:N ratios and stimulate
on-particle microbial production, and to increase nitrification rates which will
decrease toxic ammonia levels (Avinmelech et al., 1992). The amount of feed used
was small in comparison with commercial practices. Normal rations for commercial
aquaculture are 3% of total fish biomass per day adjusted by regular sampling and
subsequent biomass increases (Avault, 1996). While the trophic ecology of these
carbon and low feed applications and their widespread utility remain to be studied
in detail in our ponds, the FCRs achieved were lower than reported in the tilapia
aquaculture literature (Jauncey, 1979; Stickney, 1997).
These studies were of a preliminary nature and were done without controls, so
results can only be treated as speculative. The ecological roles in pond water quality
control by stocked fish, plant and crustaceans were especially important, but were
inadequately studied and, in at least two cases, neglected completely (mosquito fish
and crayfish) due to a lack of scientific labor. However, the AWS using readily
available tertiary-treated wastewater produced over 1000 kg of fish, the majority of
which was marketed live at $2.20 kg − 1 to small fish stores in the Southern
California basin. The AWS accomplished significant protein production while
simultaneously removing 97% of the inorganic N in the original wastewater, and
pond effluents were treated effectively by the in-pond plants and wetland compo-
nents of the ecosystem. We plan to expand our research site to increase the
efficiency of wastewater use, to become more efficient in aquatic/terrestrial integra-
tion, and to conduct further ecosystem-level research with this land/water interac-
tive agroecosystem (Fig. 2).
While development of such aquaculture–wetland ecosystems are potentially new
productive uses for treated, nutrient-rich wastewaters in the peri-urban areas
around major urban centers, the economic, regulatory, and public perceptions
about these systems, none of which were addressed in this study, need to be
examined. However, increasing the reuse and efficiency of wastewater recycling by
developing wastewater food production ecosystems, especially in arid regions of the
world like Los Angeles (Khalil and Hussein, 1997), and keeping these wastewaters
inland away from the coastal ocean, are priority issues for global sustainability
(Vitousek et al., 1997). Such agroecosystems could make cities less heterotrophic
(Odum, 1993), and be new, important, non-polluting contributors to world food
production.

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