Communication Apprehension 1

Running head: COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION

The Effects of Technology on Generation Z’s Communication Apprehension Compared to Other

Generations

Andrea Skawinski
Bryant University
1150 Douglas Pike
Smithfield, RI 02917
askawinski@bryant.edu
401-633-2382

Conner Mahon
Bryant University
1150 Douglas Pike
Smithfield, RI 02917
cmahon3@bryant.edu
518-330-9267

Emilia Strazdis
Bryant University
1150 Douglas Pike
Smithfield, RI 02917
estrazdis@bryant.edu
978-696-6600

Hayley Berry
Bryant University
1150 Douglas Pike
Smithfield, RI 02917
hberry@bryant.edu
631-827-7161
 Communication Apprehension 2

Abstract

This study examined generational differences between Generation Z compared to other

generations in self-perceived communication apprehension. This study also explores the

relationship between attitudes towards technology and how this correlates with communication

apprehension. Participants were asked to complete a survey that was distributed through online

platforms. Subjects answered questions about their self-perceived communication apprehension

in multiple contexts and about their attitudes towards technology. Analyses revealed that

Generation Z is more communication apprehensive than earlier generations. In addition, those

who have positive attitudes towards technology will be more communication apprehensive.

Subjects with positive attitudes were members of the younger generation, Generation Z. This

supports the conclusion that Generation Z experiences higher levels of communication

apprehension due to their relationship with technology.

Keywords: communication apprehension, technology reliance, generation z, technology effects,

interpersonal communication
 Communication Apprehension 3

The Effects of Technology on Generation Z’s Communication Apprehension Compared to Other

Generations

In today’s modern world, there is a young generation that has never known life without

the Internet, mobile phones and social media sites (Morreale, Staley, Stavrositu & Krakwiak,

2015). Generation Z has been raised in a society where communication technologies are a critical

part of everyday life. Due to this, they turn to these technologies like the iPhone and iPad, to

typically compensate for conventional face-to-face interactions (Wright et al. 2013). The

generations before Generation Z, by comparison, have experienced a different relationship with

such technologies: this is because they have just recently been exposed to such technologies

(McLeod, 2009). Recognizing that communication interactions are continuously shifting towards

increased use of computer-mediated technologies, it is evident that those who have matured

without the influence of technology will behave and approach interpersonal interactions

differently. This study focuses on the generational differences in communication apprehension,

which is defined as the anxiety felt as a result of anticipating communication interactions with

either another person or group of people (Mellinger & Hanson, 2018). This communication gap

that exists between Generation Z and other generations in face-to-face interactions will function

as the foundation of this study. Through the discrepancies seen between generations in their

attitudes towards computer-mediated technologies, in addition, this study will investigate

technology reliant habits seen within generations and how these habits potentially correlate to

one generation being more communication apprehensive than another.

 Communication Apprehension 4

Review of Literature

Communication apprehension was defined by James McCroskey as being “an

individual’s level of fear or anxiety associated with either real or anticipated communication

with another person or persons” (McCroskey, 1977). Those with higher levels of communication

apprehension will try to avoid all situations in which they may experience the feeling of anxiety

or fear from communicating (McCroskey, 1977). Communication apprehension can be genetic,

but it can also be learned from other people and experiences (McCroskey, 2009).

Communication apprehension is most commonly a personality trait that people have. People can

be communication apprehensive at the state level as well, meaning they can be apprehensive

only in certain contexts, however, it is mostly rooted in being a personality trait. (McCroskey,

Daly, & Sorensen, 1976). An important aspect of communication is that it is anxiety related to

not just the actual communication interaction, but also the anticipation of the interaction itself. A

person can feel anxiety or fear just from thinking about communicating with others and

imagining the scenario in which they would do so. (Honeycutt, Choi, & DeBerry, 2009).

Honeycutt, Choi, and DeBerry found that people who imagine more positive communication

interactions will actually experience more positive interactions. So for people with

communication apprehension, having a positive attitude toward the upcoming communication

interaction can have a positive effect on the actual interaction (Honeycutt, Choi, & DeBerry,

2009).

Generations are defined as a group that shares their year of birth and experience major

life events around the same time as one another (Parry & Urwin, 2011). Being members of the

same generation allow populations of people to share similar characteristics. Generation Z has
 Communication Apprehension 5

also been nicknamed Generation C, with C standing for connected, computerized, continually

clicking, and so on (Morreale, Staley, Stavrositu, & Krakowiak, 2015). This generation has

grown up in a society that has always been technologically advanced, and this makes them

radically different than any generation prior because no other generation has had this type of

constant access to people and information. Technology has changed the way human beings relate

to one another, and this has had a profound impact on the way in which this generation has

grown up (Turner, 2015). According to Prensky (2001), a digital native is someone who has

never experienced life before the internet. No other generation apart from Generation Z has lived

in an era where technology is so prevalent and easily accessible at such a young age. Due to

recent technological advancements in portable technology, Generation Z is accustomed to being

connected throughout all parts of their day (Turner, 2015). Generation Z spends a great deal of

time with technology, more than any other generation thus far. Hilde Voorveld and Margot van

der Goot reported in a study that younger generations spend much more time multitasking with

various kinds of media than any other generation (Voorveld & van der Goot, 2013). This means

that Generation Z, the youngest generation, consumes the most media at a time in comparison to

older generations (Rosen et al., 2013). Turner (2015) reports that the only activity that they spend

more time in a day doing is sleeping. Online interactions have often been viewed as a

supplement for face-to-face communication because face-to-face communication is becoming an

impractical way to communicate with one another (Turner, 2015).

In the present day, it can be easily identified that computer-mediated technologies are

increasing in use. The world is becoming increasingly more digitized and technologically

mediated as time progresses (Morreale, Staley, Stavrositu, & Krakowiak, 2015). What has come
 Communication Apprehension 6

with this shift is people becoming increasingly reliant on these devices that had not always been

available and are now described as indispensable (McLeod, 2009). Del (2017) describes how

younger people since they have not known life without such technologies, are radicalizing their

reliance and it is becoming an addiction. Those who are surrounded by technology in nearly

every aspect of life can experience a side-effect called ‘technostress’​,​ which Shu, Tu and Wang

(2011) describe as a negative impact on people’s mental capacity like thoughts and attitudes, as

well as behaviors, that can be a result either directly or indirectly from technology. A level of

technology use that can be considered a sense of reliance comes with many side effects. The

development of technology has shifted people to think it will be consistently available whenever

they need, and McCune (1999) describes how this is not an accurate belief to have. McCune

(1999) uses the pager satellite crash as an example of technology failing and not being available.

Although presently no one uses pagers, the example still applies to devices such as the iPhone.

McCune (1999) mentions that the crisis caused 90 percent of pagers in the United States to stop

receiving messages. Outages and technology failures like this one can cause major problems for

those reliant and dependent on technology, like becoming anxious and stressed knowing

technology is not readily available (Del, 2017). Understanding that there is now a generation that

has not lived a day without the influence of technology on their life, allows researchers to

recognize that technological reliance is what differentiates the newer generation from the older

ones (Morreale, Staley, Stavrositu, & Krakowiak, 2015).

 Communication Apprehension 7

Rationale and Hypotheses

Due to the most recent technological developments, younger generations do not know a

life without technology and are becoming addicted (Del, 2017). According to Prensky (2001),

individuals in Generation Z are the first generation to be considered Digital Natives. The

unlimited access to technology has formed a dependency among young individuals and as a

result are supplementing face-to-face interactions for online interactions (Turner, 2015). Due to

the continued decrease in interpersonal interactions among youth, we may hypothesize that

Generation Z is lacking in communication skills that older generations possess. Therefore,

H1: Generation Z will prove to be more communication apprehensive than any other

generation.

Individuals that rely heavily on technology to perform daily tasks have more positive

attitudes towards technology than those who do not (McLeod, 2009). Generation Z consumes the

most media at a time than any other generation, proving that their reliance is the most significant

(Rosen et al., 2013). Because computer mediated communication is readily replacing the need

for daily interpersonal interactions, we might hypothesize that those who rely more on

technology could be more nervous to communicate face-to-face. Therefore,

H2: Generation Z will prove that those with more positive attitudes towards technology

will be more communication apprehensive.

Method

Research Design

Participants are undergraduate students, a majority attending Northeastern colleges and

universities, and also an older demographic, primarily from the Northeast. A total of 145 people
 Communication Apprehension 8

participated in the survey. Of the 145 participants, 23 were male (15.9%) and 122 were female

(84.1%). 54 of the participants were of Generation Z (37.2%) and 91 of the participants were

born in other generations (62.8%). To complete this study, a survey created with Qualtrics will

be administered consisting of pre-establish scales. One scale is the Media and Technology Usage

and Attitudes scale created by Rosen et al. (2013), and the second is James McCroskey’s (1982)

Personal Report of Communication Apprehension (PRCA-24). A survey is an appropriate way

to collect useful data because participants can self-report on their opinions and experiences in

regards to their own communication apprehension in face-to-face and computer-mediated

interactions. This is the most effective design because it can be administered on numerous social

media platforms, including but not limited to: Facebook and Instagram. Each member will be

able to have a different reach, allowing us to have a variation in participants.

Variable Specification

Age.​ In order to gather all participants’ ages, we are going to have them type in how old

they are as the first item in our survey. Collecting all participants’ ages will allow us to later

group them by larger age groups and make assumptions about technology reliance in relation to

one’s age based off of prior research that has been completed.

Attitudes Towards Media and Technology.​ To measure the participant’s attitudes towards

media and technology, the Media and Technology Usage and Attitudes scale created by Rosen et

al. (2013) will be utilized. This scale consists of fifteen subscales, however, only three subscales

will be used. Each individual subscale was found to have high reliability. Participants in this

study will be asked to indicate on a 12-item Likert scale (Strongly Disagree=1, Strongly

Agree=5) their feelings and attitudes towards technology. Participants with higher scores are said
 Communication Apprehension 9

to have higher technology reliance than those with lower scores (​M​=35.86, ​SD=
​ 5.907). The

Cronbach’s alpha for this scale was .763. (Rosen et al., 2013).

​ articipants’ communication apprehension will be

Communication Apprehension. P

measured using the Personal Report of Communication Apprehension that was created by James

McCroskey (1982). More specifically the PRCA-24 will be used, as this version is the most

recent. This scale has four subscales, all of which will be used in the study. Participants will

respond to a 24-item Likert scale (Strongly Disagree=1, Strongly Agree= 5) answering questions

about their feelings about communication in various contexts. Scores can range from 24-120

​ 69.15, ​SD=
(​M= ​ 15.497). The Cronbach’s Alpha for this scale was .948.

Sampling Method & Sample

The goal is to have a minimum of 200 participants complete the survey. It will be

administered primarily online via social platforms, so participants will be sampled based on who

agrees to take the survey. This is the most appropriate way of sampling because many people can

answer the survey in a short amount of time which is needed due to time restrictions. In order for

responses to be considered valuable, they must be completed entirely. If all questions are not

answered, that particular survey will be disregarded and not counted in the final collection. The

responses will also not be considered useful data.

Procedure

Once participants agree to complete the survey, they will use an online link through the

website Qualtrics. Participants will first be asked to provide their age and sex. They will then be

asked to indicate their feelings about communicating with others in face-to-face communication.

Once this section of the survey is completed, the participants will then be asked to indicate their
 Communication Apprehension 10

feelings and attitudes about technology and their reliance on it. After completion of the survey,

participants will submit it. Participants will complete the surveys in April of 2019, having

approximately a month to do so. They will be able to fill out the survey at any location of their

convenience because they can take the survey on any device that they own.

Results

Hypothesis one predicted that Generation Z would prove to be more communication

apprehensive in comparison to other generations. With a sample size of 145, an independent

t-test was used to compare the differences between these two groups. Results showed that

Generation Z is in fact more communication apprehensive (​μ = 71.69, x̅ = 16.754) than any other

generation (μ = 65.90, x̅ = 16.665). With a mean difference between the two groups of 5.784 and

a slight significance of .046, this provides enough significant statistical evidence to support our

first hypothesis.

The second hypothesis predicted that those with more positive attitudes towards

technology will be more apprehensive when communicating interpersonally. A correlation was

used to compare Generation Z’s attitudes towards technology and their level of communication

apprehension [r= 0.355, p= .008]. These results showed a positive correlation between positive

attitudes toward technology and higher levels of communication apprehension. Therefore, this

positive correlation provides significant statistical evidence to support our second hypothesis.

Discussion

Summary of Findings

Through comprising and distributing the survey that explored attitudes towards

technology and one’s self-reported communication apprehension, we tested two hypotheses that
 Communication Apprehension 11

examined the effects of technology on communication apprehension. We specifically looked at

Generation Z in comparison to all previous generations. This study was able to obtain significant

results that coincide with previously published literature.

The first hypothesis predicted that Generation Z would be more communication

apprehensive than other generations. The results we obtained indicated that, Generation Z has a

higher level of communication apprehension than any other generation. Our statistical results

allow us to accept our first hypothesis. These results are not surprising as Generation Z utilizes

computer-mediated technologies at a higher rate than other generations who have more

experience in interpersonal contexts. Because Generation Z utilizes technology more frequently

than other generations, it can be assumed that face-to-face interactions will be compromised,

therefore inducing more communication apprehension (Turner, 2015). Because Generation Z has

not known life without technology, individuals rationalize their addiction and overdependence on

technology and fail to see the importance of interpersonal interactions, furthering their level of

communication apprehension (Del, 2017). This relationship between communication

apprehension and technology use could be explored further in future research to help understand

other potential implications of technology use among youth and its impact on the development of

communication skills.

Our second hypothesis predicted that those who experience positive attitudes towards

technology will, consequently, be more communication apprehensive. The results we received

showed a positive correlation between an individual's level of communication apprehension and

their attitudes toward technology. Our statistical results support our hypothesis, and it can be

assumed that those with negative attitudes toward technology have lower levels of apprehension
 Communication Apprehension 12

while communicating interpersonally. These findings were not surprising because computer

mediated communication is rapidly replacing interpersonal communication. Understanding that

there now exists a generation that has not experienced a lifestyle without immense technological

influence, allows researchers to recognize that different experiences and relationships with

technology is what differentiates this newer generation, and future generations to come, from the

older ones (Morreale, Staley, Stavrositu, & Krakowiak, 2015). Individuals are relying on the ease

of technology more and more everyday, and technology has become indispensable to some

(McLeod, 2009). Those who rely on technology and use it day to day have more positive

attitudes than those who do not use technology. Many individuals who use technology are

replacing face-to-face interactions for online interactions, are therefore not developing essential

skills for effective interpersonal communication. Because of their lack of skills, these individuals

have a higher level of communication apprehension and insecurity while communicating. These

findings are important to explore and understand because each generation from now on will be

exposed to increasing influence from technology. With this, is can be assumed that future

generations will become increasingly communication apprehensive compared to the generations

that came before.

Limitations

The research that was conducted was found to have many limitations. To start, the survey

that was used to gather data was not pilot tested. By pilot testing the survey, potential flaws in

the survey and scales being used could have been brought forth. If there were issues that were

known from completing a pilot test, these issues could have been fixed. By not carrying out a

pilot test, the results of the survey could have been impacted negatively, as there could have been
 Communication Apprehension 13

flaws in the survey design that were not eliminated because they were not discovered from a

pilot test.

Another issue with the survey is the way in which people were sampled to take part in

the survey. Due to having the time restraint of one semester, a random sample was not able to be

used. Ideally, a random sample would be used when conducting research because this type of

sample would be the best representation of the population as a whole. However, a voluntary

nonrandom sample was used when conducting the research because this type of sampling was

able to provide the most participants in such a short time. By not randomly selecting participants

for the study, the sample was not representative of the actual population, which can in turn affect

the results because certain segments of the population were isolated from taking part in the study.

Additionally, the representation of the survey was impacted by the fact that of the 145

participants, only 23 were male. This means that our data is based in large part off of females,

which impacts the results as women have been found to typically have more communication

apprehension than men (McCroskey, Simpson & Richard, 1982). Also, participants were mostly

from the Northeast, which means that the sample was not representative of the entire country. By

not having a representative sample the generalizability of our study was affected, as it is difficult

to generalize the findings of a study if the sample does not accurately reflect the actual

population.

Additionally, in order to reach participants the link to our survey was posted on various

social media platforms. By doing this, virtually the entire segment of the population that does not

heavily use technology or social media was unable to participate in the study. This could

potentially have had a major impact on our study as attitudes towards technology and their
 Communication Apprehension 14

impact on communication apprehension was being studied. Because people had to use

technology to complete the study, this more than likely means that they are familiar with using it,

which in turn could mean that they have more positive attitudes towards technology to begin

with. Essentially, by distributing the survey through the means of social media, the segment of

the population who does not use much technology and therefore could have more negative

attitudes towards it, may have been isolated from taking the survey. Moreover, it is said that

technology and internet engagement decreases with age (Hill, ​Beynon-Davies & Williams,

2008). This means that less older people were likely to take the survey because it was distributed

online, so this segment of the population was slightly isolated as well. This negatively impacts

the study because the first hypothesis was that Generation Z would have more communication

apprehension than any other generation, but since social media was used to obtain participants,

more younger people were likely to take it than older people which could have skewed the

significance of the results as there was less data to support any of the conclusions made.

Moreover, there were specific aspects of the survey that could have limited the results. To

find out what participant’s ages were, participants were asked to select the generation in which

they were born. To find out what generation they were, the range of years that span each

generation was listed on the survey. There was a flaw with this, however, as the year 1976 was

left off of the survey, with the generation ending with 1975 and the next generation beginning

with 1977. This means that participants who were born in 1976 were unable to take the survey,

again, isolating a segment of the population. Another flaw with how the age was listed on the

survey is that by listing the generations in categories, this made the variable of age a nominal
 Communication Apprehension 15

variable. Age is a variable that can be ratio because it has an absolute zero. A ratio variable can

be turned into a nominal variable, but a nominal variable cannot be turned into a ratio variab​le.

Finally, a limitation that may have impacted the study is the lack of a good scale for

measuring attitudes towards technology. A scale from outside the discipline of communication

had to be used as there was no scale within that measures such a thing. Subscales from a more

general scale that measures technology usage and attitudes had to be used for this study. The lack

of a better scale may have impacted the results of the study because if there was a better measure

available the results could be a better reflection of what was trying to be measured.

Suggestions for Future Research

A suggestion for future research is to continue to study communication apprehension at

the trait and state levels to figure out what category it truly falls under. By being able to tell if

communication apprehension is present in all contexts for some people or present in just specific

settings for some people, this will greatly help to guide future research. In addition, it would be

helpful for future research if a better scale was developed regarding people’s attitudes towards

technology. A scale that relates to this and the discipline of communication would be beneficial

for future studies.

Another suggestion for future research would be to continue our study regarding

communication apprehension within different generations. However, a few changes would need

to happen. First, we would have to broaden our population in order to receive more

representative results. With a wider population we could receive more results that could possibly

give us a more in depth look at communication apprehension that could be better generalized.
 Communication Apprehension 16

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