EECE 210

Electric Circuits

Techniques of Circuit Analysis

Circuit Terminology
 Node: A point where two or more circuit elements join
 a, b, c, d, e, f and g

 Essential node: A node where three or more circuit elements join

 b, c, e, and g

 Path: A trace of adjoining basic elements with no element

included more than once
 Examples: R1-R5-R6, v2-R2

 Branch: A path that connects

two nodes
 V1, v2, R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7 and I
Circuit Terminology
 Essential branch: A path which connects two essential nodes
without passing through an essential node
 V1-R1, R2-R3, v2-R4, R5, R6, R7, I

 Loop: A path whose last node is the same as the starting node
 V1-R1-R5-R6-R4-v2

 Mesh: A loop that does not enclose any other loops

 V1-R1-R5-R3-R2, v2-R2-R3-R6-R4, R5-R7-R6, and R7-I
Circuit Analysis
 A circuit is said to be solved when the voltage across
and the current in every element have been determined
 How many unknowns need to be determined?

 How many equations need to be solved?

 Can one reduce the number of needed equations?
Circuit Analysis: Techniques
 Ohm’s law

 Kirchhoff’s laws (KVL and KCL)

 Resistor series-parallel and ∆-to-Y transformations

 Voltage divider rule

 Current divider rule

 Node voltage method

 Mesh current method

 Source transformations

 Thevenin equivalent circuits

 Norton equivalent circuits

 Superposition
Systematic Approach
 Apply KVL in the meshes

 Apply KCL at the essential nodes: b, c, and e

 Get 6 equations and 6 unknowns

 Direct method becomes cumbersome

 Two new circuit analysis techniques

 Node-Voltage Method
 Mesh-Current Method
Node-Voltage Method
 Step 1: Make neat circuit

 No branches cross over

 Step 2: Identify the essential nodes (ne)

 Step 3: Choose reference node

 Usually node that connects to most branches

 Step 4: Need (ne-1) node voltage equations to solve the circuit

 Step 5: Define the node

voltages at all other essential

nodes
 Voltage node: Voltage rise from
the reference node to one non-reference
essential node (v1 and v2)
Node-Voltage Method: Example I

 Apply KCL at node 1

 Substitute the values of currents by voltages using
 KVL
 Ohm’s Law
 Similar procedure at node 2
 2 equations 2 unknowns (ne-1)  The system is solved
Node-Voltage Method: Example II

 Modify the example: Substitute the 4 A source with a resistor

and solve
 Modify the example: Substitute the 30V voltage source by a
current source and solve
 Modify the example: Insert a resistor between points a and b
Node-Voltage Method: Special Cases
 A wire is between two nodes (1 and 2 for example)
 Same node
 V1 is the same across 60 and 15 Ω resistors
Node-Voltage Method: Dependent
Sources

 2 equations

 1 additional constraint due to the dependent source

Node-Voltage Method: Special Cases
 Voltage source is only element between two essential
nodes (one of them is the reference node):
 Reduce number of required equation
 Node voltage equation on node 1 is useless (cannot
find current in the 100V source); but v1 is known
 Node-Voltage Method: Supernode
 Voltage source is only element between two essential
nodes (non reference nodes):
 Reduce number of required equations
 Form supernodes

 Supernode :node 2 and 3

Node-Voltage Method: Supernode
 Voltage source is only element between two essential
nodes (non reference nodes):
 Form supernode (node 2 and 3)
• Temporarily remove the voltage source
 Write 2 equations (node 1 and supernode)
• Voltage known at node 1  only 1 equation
 Return back the source (relate voltages)
 In this example: additional constraint equation
(dependent source)
Circuit Analysis: Techniques
 Ohm’s law

 Kirchhoff’s laws (KVL and KCL)

 Resistor series-parallel and ∆-to-Y transformations

 Voltage divider rule

 Current divider rule

 Node voltage method

 Mesh current method

 Source transformations

 Thevenin equivalent circuits

 Norton equivalent circuits

 Superposition
Circuit Terminology
 Planar circuits:
 Circuits that can be drawn on a
plane with no crossing
branches
 Nonplanar circuits:
 Circuits that cannot be drawn
in such a way that all the node
connections are maintained
and no branches overlap
Mesh-Current Method
1. Applies only to planar circuits
2. Write a set of mesh-current equations using KVL
 How many equations are needed?

3. Mesh current is the current that exists only in the

perimeter of a mesh
 Can be different from corresponding branch currents

4. Need be-(ne-1) equations

 Number of meshes
in the circuit
Mesh-Current Method: Example I
 Apply KCL at the
node
 KVL in the two
meshes
 Alternative quick
simple method
 Mesh Current
Mesh-Current Method: Example II
Mesh-Current Method: Dependent
Source

 Additional
constraint equation
Mesh-Current Method: Super Mesh
 Current source is only element in an essential branch

 Form supermesh (merge the 2 meshes into 1 big mesh)

• Temporarily remove the current source
• Keep the original mesh currents
 Save one mesh current equation
 Return back the current source (relate currents)
Node-Voltage vs. Mesh-Current: The
Winner is?
 Both reduce number of required equations

 Both are systematic

 Which method is better?

 Which requires less equations?

 Does circuit contain supernodes?
 Does circuit contain supermeshes?
 Does it help to solve some portion of the circuit?
 Etc.
Node-Voltage vs. Mesh-Current: The
Winner is?
 Find power dissipated in the 300Ω resistor
 Need to find the voltage or the current

 Mesh_Current Method: 5 mesh equations & 1 constraint equation

 Node-Voltage Method: 3 equations reduce to 2 equations since a

voltage source is between 2 nodes, & 1 constraint equation
Node-Voltage vs. Mesh-Current: The
Winner is?
 Find v0

 Node-Voltage Method: 3 equations and 2 constraint equations

 Mesh_Current Method: 3 mesh equations reduce to 1 equation

(super mesh) & 2 constraint equation
Circuit Analysis: Techniques
 Ohm’s law

 Kirchhoff’s laws (KVL and KCL)

 Resistor series-parallel and ∆-to-Y transformations

 Voltage divider rule

 Current divider rule

 Node voltage method

 Mesh current method

 Source transformations

 Thevenin equivalent circuits

 Norton equivalent circuits

 Superposition
Source Transformations
 From voltage source in
series with a resistor to a
current source in parallel
with same resistor (or vice
versa)
 Connect RL If same
current flowing from a to b
 same voltage drop
 Equivalent circuits

vs R
iL  iL  is
R  RL R  RL
vs
is 
R
Source Transformations: Example I
 Find the power associated with the 6 V source
Source Transformations:
Special case
 From voltage source in series with
a resistor to a current source in
parallel with same resistor (or vice
versa)
 Nothing is changed at terminals
a and b
Source Transformations: Example II
 Find v0
Circuit Analysis: Techniques
 Ohm’s law

 Kirchhoff’s laws (KVL and KCL)

 Resistor series-parallel and ∆-to-Y transformations

 Voltage divider rule

 Current divider rule

 Node voltage method

 Mesh current method

 Source transformations

 Thevenin equivalent circuits

 Norton equivalent circuits

 Superposition
Thevenin and Norton Equivalents
 Motivation: Concentrate on circuit
supplying outlet only at the outlet
terminals
 How?
 Apply Thevenin and Norton equivalents to
simplify analysis!
Thevenin Norton
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
 Determine Thevenin voltage Vth
 Determine Thevenin resistance Rth
 Three cases:
 Case 1: Independent voltage and current
sources
 Case 2: Independent and Dependent voltage and
current sources
 Case 3: Only dependent voltage and current
sources
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit:
Case 1
 Determine Thevenin voltage Vth
 Increase load resistance to have an open circuit
 Calculate open circuit voltage across ab
 Use any circuit analysis technique
 Vth=32 V
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit:
Case 1
 Determine Thevenin resistance Rth
 Replace voltage source by a short circuit
 Replace current source by an open circuit
 Find Req as looking from the two terminals a and b

 Rth=8Ω
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
 Mission accomplished 
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit:
Case 2
 Determine Thevenin voltage Vth
 Same as Case 1
 Find V open circuit from terminals a and b

 Vth=-5 V
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit:
Case 2
 Determine Thevenin resistance Rth
 Short circuit the terminals a and b
 Find isc
 Rth =Vth/isc

 Isc=-50mA
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
 Mission accomplished 
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit:
Case 3
 Determine Thevenin voltage Vth
 Vth equals to zero (all dependent sources)
 Determine Thevenin resistance Rth
 Use injection method
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit:
Case 3
 Injection Method
 Find Thevenin resistance Rth
 Excite the circuit from terminals a and b by a
test voltage source (usually =1 V for simpler
calculations)
 Find iT
 Rth=vT/iT
 Can also
inject a
current
source
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit:
Summary
 Thevenin voltage Vth : open circuit voltage
 Thevenin resistance Rth (case dependent)
 Case 1: Independent voltage and current sources
 Can also use method of case 2 (isc)
 Can also use method of case 3 BUT
• first deactivate independent sources
 Case 2: Independent and Dependent voltage and
current sources
 Can also use method of case 3 BUT
• first deactivate independent sources and keep
dependent sources
Norton Equivalent Circuit

 Similar to Thevenin circuit except that it consists of

an independent current source in parallel with a
Norton equivalent resistor
 Find Norton Equivalent
 Sometimes easier to find it directly from initial
circuit
 Sometimes easier to get Thevenin equivalent and
do source transformation to get the Norton
equivalent
 Hint: Analyze the circuit well before finding
Thevenin equivalent to get Norton equivalent
Norton Equivalent Circuit
Maximum Power Transfer
 Transfer from a source to a load
 Efficiency of the transfer (e.g. power utility systems)
 Amount of transferred power (e.g. communications or
instrumentation systems)
 Maximum power transfer
 Matched load: RL=Rth
Maximum Power Transfer:
Example
 Find RL such that there is maximum power
transfer and calculate the power
 Matched load: RL=Rth
 Need to find Thevenin Equivalent
Superposition
 Principle of superposition: when linear system is excited
with more than one independent source of energy, the
total response is the sum of the individual responses
 Useful in design and analysis of circuits
 Voltage source replaced by short circuit and current source
replaced by open circuit
 Sometime makes the analysis more complicated; when to use it?
Superposition: Example