1.

Explain
about
Distributed
systems
It is depends on
networking.
Distributed
system is used
to share
resource on
network.
Network
protocol and
network adapter
are need for
distributed
systems.
Types of
network
LAN – Local
area Network,
exits with a
room, a floor, or
same buildings.
MAN –
Metropolitan
Network, could
link buildings
within a city.
WAN – Wide
Area Network,
usually exists
between
buildings, cities,
or countries.
Transmission
media that
includes, copper
wires, fiber
strands, and
wireless
transmission
between
satellites,
dishes, and
radios. Blue
tooth and
Infrared can be
used for short
distance
networking.
A. Client
Server systems
Terminal
(Client system)
connected to
centralized
system,
centralized
systems act as
server systems
to satisfy
requests
generated by
client systems.
There are two
types of system
i. Computer
server systems
– provide an
interface to
which clients
can send
request to
perform an
action.
ii. File server
systems –
provide a file
system interface
where clients
can create,
update, read,
and delete files.
B. Peer-to-
Pear systems.
It has a
collection of
processors that
do not share
memory or a
clock.
Each processor
has its own
local memory
and they
communicate
with one
another through
various
communication
lines such as
buses or
telephone lines.
These systems
are also
refereed to as
loosely coupled
systems.
2. Explain
about
functions of
operating
systems.
The operating
system
functions are
Process
manage
ment
Main
memory
manage
ment
 File
manage
ment
secondary
storage
manage
ment
I/O
manage
ment
a. Process
Management
Ø Process refers
to a program in
execution.
Ø A process is a
unit of work in
a system such a
system consist
of a collection
of processes
which are
Operating
system
processes and
user process.
The operating
system is
responsible for
the following
activities of the
process
management.
ü Creating and
deleting the
user and system
process.
ü Allocating
hardware
resources
among the
processes.
ü Controlling
the progress of
processes.
ü Providing
mechanisms for
process
communication
s.
ü Providing
mechanisms for
deadlock
handling.
b. Main
memory
management.
Main
memory(primar
y memory)
management is
concerned with
following
functions.
ü Keeping track
of the status –
Each memory
location is
either free or
allocated.
ü Determining
allocation
policy for
memory.
ü Allocation
technique –
specific location
must be
selected and
allocation
information
updated.
ü Deallocation
technique –
after
deallocation,
status
information
must be
updated.
c. File
Management.
ü Secondary
storage are
usually
organized into
named
collections
called files.
ü Computer
uses physical
media for
storing the
different
information.
ü A file may
contain a report,
an executable
program or a set
of commands.
ü A file consists
of a sequence of
bits, bytes, lines
or records.
ü Physical
media is used
for storing files.
ü Physical
media are
different types,
magnetic disk,
magnetic tape
and optical disk.
The operating
system is
responsible for
the following
activities of the
file
management.
ü Creating and
deleting of files.
ü Mapping files
onto secondary
storage.
ü Backing up
files on stable
storage media.
d. Secondary
storage
management.
Main memory
is too small to
accommodate
all data and
programs.
When power is
lost, main
memory lost
data, so
computer
system must
provide
secondary
storage to
backup main
memory.
The operating
system is
responsible for
the following
activities of the
secondary
storage
management.
ü Free space
management
ü Storage
allocation
ü Disk
scheduling.
e. I/O system
management.
ü Keeping track
the status of
devices is called
the I/O traffic
controller..
ü Each I/O
Device has
device handler
with that
device.
I/O subsystem
consists of
i. Memory
management of
I/O including
buffering
(storing data
temporarily
while it is being
transferred),
caching (storing
parts of data in
faster storage
for
performance),
spooling (the
overlapping of
output of one
job with input
of other jobs)
ii. General
device-driver
interface
iii. Drivers for
specific
hardware
devices
3. Define
process
concepts.
An operating
system executes
a variety of
programs:
l Batch system
– jobs
l Time-shared
systems – user
programs or
tasks
Textbook uses
the terms job
and process
almost
interchangeably
.
Process – a
program in
execution;
process
execution must
progress in
sequential
fashion.
A process
includes:
l program
counter
l stack
l data section
l heap
4. Write notes
on process
state.
As a process
executes, it
changes state
Ø new: The
process is being
created
Ø running:
Instructions are
being executed
Ø waiting: The
process is
waiting for
some event to
occur
Ø ready: The
process is
waiting to be
assigned to a
process
Ø terminated:
The process has
finished
execution
5. Explain
about Process
state
transition.
i. when a job
admitted to the
system, a
corresponding
process is
created and
inserted at the
back of the
ready list.
ii. The the
process moves
to the ready list.
iii. When the
process reaches
ready list it uses
the CPU.
iv. Then it is in
the running
state.
v. Dispatching –
transition from
ready to
running.
vi. Time run out
– Ready ->
running state.
vii. Running ->
waiting state
(blocked ) if a
running process
initiates an
input / output
operation,
process is
transferred to
waiting state.
viii. Blocked ->
ready state The
transition is
wakeup.
6. Explain
about Process
control Block.
OS maintains
information
about every
process in a
data structure
called a process
control block.

pointer process state

process number

program
counter

Registers

memory limits

list of open files

…………
a) Pointer
points to the
another process.
b) Process state
– the state may
be new, ready,
running,
waiting or
terminated.
c) Program
counter –
Indicates the
address of the
next instruction
to be executed
for this process.
d) Register – It
includes general
purpose
register, stack
pointer, index
register,
accumulators
etc..
e) CPU
scheduling
information – It
includes a
process priority,
pointers to the
scheduling
queues and
other
scheduling
parameters.
f) Memory
management
information –
This
information
may include the
value of based
and limit
register. This
information is
useful for the
allocating the
memory when
the process
terminates.
g) Accounting
information –
amount of CPU
and real time
used, time
limits, account
numbers, job or
process
numbers.
h) I/O status
information –
Includes the list
of I/O devices
allocated to the
process.
7. Write notes
on context
Switching.
ü When CPU
switches to
another process,
the system must
save the state of
the old process
and load the
saved state for
the new
process.
ü Context-
switch time is
overhead; the
system does no
useful work
while switching
ü Time taken
dependent on
hardware
support
To switch
between
processes, the
OS must
a) save the
context of the
currently
executing
process, and
b) restore the
context of that
being resumed.
Thread
A thread in
computer is
short for a
thread of
execution.
Thread is basic
unit of CPU
utilization.
• Each thread
contains:
– an
instruction
pointer (IP), a
register with
next instruction.
– a stack for
temporary data
(eg, return
addresses,
parameters)
– a data area
for data
declared
globally and
statically
A thread is
sometimes
called a
lightweight
process
l It is comprised
over a thread
ID, program
counter, a
register set and
a stack
l It shares with
other threads
belonging to the
same process its
code section,
data section and
other OS
resources (e.g.,
open files)
l A process that
has multiples
threads can do
more than one
task at a time
Benefits
Responsiveness
l One part of a
program can
continue
running even if
another part is
blocked
Resource
Sharing
l Threads of the
same process
share the same
memory space
and resources
Economy
l Much less
time consuming
to create and
manage threads
than processes
Utilization of
Multiprocessor
Architectures
l Each thread
can run in
parallel on a
different
processor
User and
Kernel
Threads
Threads may be
provided at
either the user
level threads or
by the kernel
level threads.
1. User threads
Library
provides
support for
thread
createion,
scheduling.
All thread
creation and
scheduling is
done in user
space.
User level
threads are fast
to create and
manage.
2. Kernel
threads
Supported
directly by the
operating
system.
It performs
thread creation
scheduling and
management.
Management is
done by the OS,
kernel threads
are slower to
create and
manage.
If a thread
performs a
blocking system
called, the
kernel can
schedule
another thread
in the
application.
In multi
processor
environment,
the kernel can
schedule
threads on
different
processors.

2. Write notes
on Scheduling
Criteria.
CPU
utilization
ü keep the CPU
as busy as
possible
ü In real-time 0
to 100 % CPU
utilization
possible.
ü 40% (lightly
loaded system)
to 90%
( heavily loaded
system) CPU
utilization
Throughput
ü The number
of processes
completed per
time unit.
ü For long
Process – this
rate may be 1
process per
hour.
ü For short
process - might
be process per
hour
Turnaround
time.
ü How long it
takes to execute
that processes.
ü The Interval
from the time of
submission of a
process to the
time of
completion is
the turnaround
time.
Waiting time .
ü Amount of
time a process
has been
waiting in the
ready queue
Response time
ü Amount of
time it takes
from when a
request was
submitted until
the first
response is
produced, not
output (for
time-sharing
environment)
1. What are
the different
types of
schedulers?
Briefly explain
them
There are three
types.
i. Long term
scheduler
ii. Short term
scheduler
iii. Medium
term scheduler
Long-term
scheduler (or
job scheduler)
ü Selects which
processes
should be
brought into the
ready queue.
ü Job scheduler
selects
processes from
the queue and
loads them into
memory for
execution.
ü Long term
scheduler
should select a
good process
mix of
processes to
better the
system
performance
such as I/O-
bound process
and CPU-bound
process. I/O-
bound process -
spends more
time doing I/O
than
computations,
many short
CPU
bursts.CPU-
bound process -
spends more
time doing
computations;
few very long
CPU bursts.
ü The long-term
scheduler
controls the
degree of
multiprogram
ming
ii. Short-term
scheduler (or
CPU scheduler)
ü Selects which
process should
be executed
next and
allocates CPU.
ü Short-term
scheduler is
invoked very
frequently (once
every 100
milliseconds)
ü must be fast
or else waste
too much time
scheduling and
not executing
ü Short time
scheduler is
faster then long
term scheduler.
iii. Medium
term Scheduler
ü Time sharing
OSs may
introduce a
medium term
scheduler
ü Removes
processes from
memory (and
thus CPU
contention) to
reduce the
degree of
multiprogrammi
ng – swapping
ü Swapping
may be needed
to improve the
process mix or
to free up
memory if it has
become
overcommitted
2. Write notes
on Scheduling
Criteria.
CPU
utilization
ü keep the CPU
as busy as
possible
ü In real-time 0
to 100 % CPU
utilization
possible.
ü 40% (lightly
loaded system)
to 90%
( heavily loaded
system) CPU
utilization
Throughput
ü The number
of processes
completed per
time unit.
ü For long
Process – this
rate may be 1
process per
hour.
ü For short
process - might
be process per
hour
Turnaround
time.
ü How long it
takes to execute
that processes.
ü The Interval
from the time of
submission of a
process to the
time of
completion is
the turnaround
time.
Waiting time .
ü Amount of
time a process
has been
waiting in the
ready queue
Response time
ü Amount of
time it takes
from when a
request was
submitted until
the first
response is
produced, not
output (for
time-sharing
environment)