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Literature Review
COCOMO II Investigation
Version 0.1
Literature Review Version: 0.1
COCOMO II Investigation Date: 29/April/2005
COCOMO_investigation.doc

Revision History
Date Version Description Author
29/April/2005 0.1 This is just first literature review about Hawk Wang (汪浩)
COCOMO II. The main resource is the
book, cf. reference section.

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Table of Contents
1. Introduction 4

2. COCOMO II models 4
2.1 General methodology 5
2.2 Concrete Models - Early Design Model & Post-Architecture Model 6
2.2.1 Model Formula 6
2.2.2 Scale Factors 7
2.2.3 Effort Multipliers 7
2.3 Model Calibration and Customization 9
2.4 Model Application 10

3. Good Points for Research Project 11

4. Summery 11

5. Reference 11

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1. Introduction
The COCOMO cost estimation model is used by thousands of software project managers, and is based on a
study of hundreds of software projects. Unlike other cost estimation models, COCOMO is an open model, so all of
the details are published, including:
• The underlying cost estimation equations

• Every assumption made in the model

• Every definition

• The costs included in an estimate are explicitly stated

Because COCOMO is well defined, and because it doesn't rely upon proprietary estimation algorithms, it
has following advantages:
• COCOMO estimates are more objective and repeatable than estimates made by methods relying on proprietary
models

• COCOMO can be calibrated to reflect your software development environment, and to produce more accurate
estimates
Now, COCOMO II is the current version of COCOMO model. It is enhanced based on COCOMO 81
model to accommodate different approaches to software development, for example, incremental development.
COCOMO II incorporates a range of sub-models that produce increasingly detailed software estimates:
• Application composition model. Used in the earliest phases or spiral cycles, which will generally involve
prototyping using application composition capability.

• Early design model. Used in next phases or spiral cycles, which will generally involve exploring architectural
alternatives or incremental development strategies.

• Post-architecture model. Once the project is ready to develop and sustain a fielded system, it should have a life-
cycle architecture, which provides more accurate information on cost driver inputs and enables more accurate cost
estimates. Post-architecture model is suitable for such phases.
Generally speaking, COCOMO II can be used for:
• Software development approach

• Budget decisions

• Production tradeoffs

• IT capital planning

• Investment options

• Management decisions

• Prioritizing projects

• SPI strategy

Since COCOMO model has a lot of aforementioned advantages, how its approach can be used for our current
research work is worth investigating.

2. COCOMO II models
According the applicability, three COCOMO II models are introduced. Following figure gives an

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illustration about model applicability. In this documentation, only Early Design Model and Post-Architecture Model
are discussed to simplify the contents.

Figure 1 Model Applicability

2.1 General methodology

The essence of COCOMO II model is non-linear regression modeling. Figure 2 is used to depict such
approach.

COCOMO II Cost
Size (Parameters)
Schedule

Factors
(Software Platform, Product,
Personnel & Project attributes)

Figure 2 COCOMO II model illustrations

Here, size can be estimated as KLOC or Function Points. In order to estimate system size, four important
factors should be considered.

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Automatically
Req. Evolution
Translated Code

Reuse
Maintenance

Size

Figure 3 Size estimation factors

2.2 Concrete Models - Early Design Model & Post-Architecture Model

2.2.1 Model Formula

The Early Design Model is a high-level model that is used to explore architectural alternatives or
incremental development strategies, while the Post-Architecture Model is a detailed model that is used once the
project is ready to develop and sustain a fielded system.
The formula is given as following to estimate effort and schedule. The amount of effort in person-months,
PM , is estimated by the formula:
n
PM = A × Size E × ∏ EM i
i =1
5
Where E = B + 0.01 × ∑ SF
j =1
j

The amount of calendar time, TDEV , it will take to develop the product is estimated by the formula:

TDEV = C × ( PM ) F
5
Where F = D + 0.2 × 0.01 × ∑ SF
j =1
j = D + 0 .2 × ( E − B )

Here, A, B, C and D can be regarded as model parameters. While EM i and SF j are the main factors,
which will mainly affect effort and schedule estimation. EM i is effort multiplier and SF j is scale factor.
For Scale Factors, we can use following figure to demonstrate the factors.

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2.2.2 Scale Factors

RESL
FLEX TEAM

PREC PMAT

Scale Factors

Figure 4 Scale Factors

Table 1 gives the detailed descriptions for each scale factors. Following factors are not only suitable for Post-
Architecture Model, but also suitable for Early Design Model.

Table 1 Scale Factors Glossary

Abbreviation Full Term Description

PREC Precedentedness It is used to describe the similarity to previously
developed projects. If a product is similar to several
previously developed projects, then the precedentedness is
high.
FLEX Development Flexibility It is used to describe the uncontrollability of project.
RESL Architecture/Risk Resolution As full term
TEAM Team Cohesion Accounts for the sources of project turbulence and
entropy.
PMAT Process Maturity Used to capture organization level development process
maturity.

2.2.3 Effort Multipliers

The later in project development, the more information can be retrieved for effort and schedule estimation. So, 17
effort multipliers for Post-Architecture Model are introduced, while only 6 ones for Early Design Model.

Figure 5 and 6 are used to describe effort multipliers for Post-Architecture Model and Early Design Model. We can
regard the Early Design Model as a simplification of Post-Architecture Model.

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RELY ACAP

DATA PCAP TOOL

TIME

CPLX PCON
STOR SITE

RUSE APEX
PVOL SCED
PLEX
DOCU
LTEX

Platform Factors Personnel Factors

Product Factors Project Factors

Effort Multipliers

Figure 5 Effort Multipliers for Post-Architecture Model

PERS PREX FCIL

RCPX RUSE PDIF
SCED

Platform Factors Personnel Factors

Product Factors Project Factors

Effort Multipliers

Figure 6 Effort Multipliers for Early Design Model

Table 2 gives the detailed descriptions for each effort multipliers. We add column scope to indicate the model
related.

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Table 2 Effort Multipliers Glossary

Abbreviation Full Term Scope Description

RELY Required Software Post-Architecture Model As full term
Reliability
DATA Database Size Post-Architecture Model As full term
CPLX Product Post-Architecture Model As full term
Complexity
DOCU Documentation Post-Architecture Model As full term
match to life-cycle
needs
RUSE Developed for Post-Architecture Model As full term
Reusability Early Design Model
TIME Execution Time Post-Architecture Model As full term
Constraint
STOR Main Storage Post-Architecture Model As full term
Constraint
PVOL Platform volatility Post-Architecture Model As full term
ACAP Analyst Capability Post-Architecture Model As full term
PCAP Programmer Post-Architecture Model As full term
Capability
PCON Personnel Post-Architecture Model As full term
Continuity
APEX Applications Post-Architecture Model As full term
Experience
LTEX Language & Tool Post-Architecture Model As full term
Experience
PLEX Platform Post-Architecture Model As full term
Experience
TOOL Use of SW tools Post-Architecture Model As full term
SITE Multi-site Post-Architecture Model As full term
development
SCED Required Dev. Post-Architecture Model As full term
Schedule Early Design Model
RCPX Product Reliability Early Design Model Used to synthesize RELY, DATA,
and Complexity CPLX, and DOCU conditions.
PDIF Platform Difficulty Early Design Model Used to synthesize TIME, STOR,
and PVOL conditions.
PERS Personnel Early Design Model Used to synthesize ACAP, PCAP,
Capability and PCON conditions.
PREX Personnel Early Design Model Used to synthesize APEX, PLEX,
Experience and LTEX conditions.
FCIL Facilities Early Design Model Used to synthesize TOOL, and SITE
conditions.

2.3 Model Calibration and Customization

Current model parameters are estimated using 161 projects data. If COCOMO II model is selected by a
concrete organization, model calibration and customization should be considered.

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The calibration procedure is the regression procedure. The data from the concrete organization are used to
estimate the parameter A, B, C and D.

In some situation, organization may focus more on some cost drivers or factors that are not included in the
COCOMO II model, for example, security constraints. Then we can add one factor as SCON - security
constraints to the current model. A suitable rating scale for such factor should be developed and then the
model parameters can be calibrated again according to the real project data.

2.4 Model Application

The following figure gives an illustration about how to use COCOMO II model.

Re-scope

Cost,
No
System Objectives: Schedules, Execute
Functionality, Yes project to next
Risks
performance, quality OK? milestone Revise
COCOMO II
milestones,
Milestone plans,
Project Parameters: Milestone plans, resources
resources
Personnel, Team, Result
Sites, Platform
No
Milestone
Expectations OK?
Corporate Parameters: Revised
Tools, Processes, Yes expectations
Accumulate
Reuse
COCOMO II
calibration data
Cost, Schedules,
Improved
Quality drivers
Corporate No
parameters Done?
Recalibrate or
extend Yes
Evaluate Corporate
OCOMO II
SW Improvement
Stratigies End

Figure 7 COCOMO II Application Illustrations

By using COCOMO II model, lots of analysis can be made:

„ Making investment decisions and business-case analysis

„ Setting project budgets and schedules

„ Performing tradeoff analysis

„ Cost risk management

„ Development vs. reuse decisions

„ Legacy software phase-out decisions

„ Software reuse and product line decisions

„ Process improvement decisions

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Weakness: no cause analysis

3. Good Points for Research Project

During investigation of COCOMO II models, following good points are raised and may be used for our current
research projects.

„ Factor Selection

„ Value Rating & Estimation

„ Model Predictability

„ Model Customization

„ Model Application

4. Summery
In this documentation, we introduced the COCOMO II model, including modeling methodology, formula,
concrete models and its usage. Furthermore, some good points from investigation are raised for our current research
project.

5. Reference
[Bar00] Barry W. Boehm, etc., Software Cost Estimation with COCOMO II, Prentice Hall, 2000

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