Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Prerequisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3. Downloading and extracting the files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4. Compiling the Pololu AVR Library (Optional) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5. Installation of the Pololu AVR Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
6. Example programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6.a. Example program – AVR Studio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6.b. Example program – Linux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6.c. Orangutan Analog Input Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
6.d. Orangutan Buzzer Control Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
6.e. Orangutan Digital I/O Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.f. Orangutan LCD Control Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.g. Orangutan LED Control Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
6.h. Orangutan Motor Control Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.i. Orangutan Pushbutton Interface Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.j. Orangutan Serial Port Communication Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6.k. Orangutan Servo Control Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
6.l. Orangutan SVP Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6.m. Pololu QTR Sensor Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.n. Pololu Wheel Encoder functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
7. Using the Pololu AVR Library for your own projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
8. Additional resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Page 1 of 47
Pololu AVR C/C++ Library User's Guide © 2001–2010 Pololu Corporation
1. Introduction
This document is a guide to using the Pololu AVR C/C++ library, including installation instructions, tutorials, and example
programs. The Pololu AVR Library makes it easy for you to get started with the following Pololu products:
1. Introduction Page 2 of 47
Pololu AVR C/C++ Library User's Guide © 2001–2010 Pololu Corporation
Pololu Orangutan SVP-1284: based on the mega1284, the SVP-1284 is our newest Orangutan robot
controller. It is a super-sized version of the SV-328, with a built-in AVR ISP programmer, more I/O lines,
more regulated power, and more memory. It also features hardware that makes it easy to control up to eight
servos with a single hardware PWM and almost no processor overhead.
Pololu Orangutan SVP-324: based on the mega324, the SVP-324 is a version of the SVP-1284 with less
memory. The two versions are completely code-compatible (the same code will run on both devices as long
as it’s small enough to fit on the ATmega324PA).
Pololu Orangutan X2: based on the mega644, the X2 robot controller is the most powerful Orangutan. It
features an auxiliary microcontroller devoted to controlling much of the integrated hardware (it also acts as a
built-in AVR ISP programmer) and high-power motor drivers capable of delivering hundreds of watts.
1. Introduction Page 3 of 47
Pololu AVR C/C++ Library User's Guide © 2001–2010 Pololu Corporation
Encoder for Pololu Wheel 42×19 mm [http://www.pololu.com/catalog/product/1217]: a wheel encoder solution that
allows a robot to measure how far it has traveled.
For detailed information about all of the functions available in the library, see the command
reference [http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J18].
Note that the library is designed for Atmel’s AVR-based boards like the Orangutans: to use it with the QTR sensors, your
controller must be either an Orangutan or another board built with an ATmega48/168/328P or ATmega324PA/644P/1284P
AVR microcontroller.
This document covers the C/C++ version of the library, but it may also be used with Arduino [http://www.arduino.cc]: a
popular, beginner-friendly programming environment for the mega168/328, using simplified C++ code. See our guide to
using Arduino with Orangutan controllers [http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J17] for more information.
1. Introduction Page 4 of 47
Pololu AVR C/C++ Library User's Guide © 2001–2010 Pololu Corporation
2. Prerequisites
The free avr-gcc compiler, avr-libc, and other associated tools must be installed before the Pololu AVR library.
Windows Vista: WinAVR might not work without additional help from this WinAVR and Windows Vista
Guide [http://www.madwizard.org/electronics/articles/winavrvista]
• avr-libc
• gcc-avr
• avra
• binutils-avr
• avrdude (for use with the Pololu Orangutan Programmer)
2. Prerequisites Page 5 of 47
Pololu AVR C/C++ Library User's Guide © 2001–2010 Pololu Corporation
Next, if you are using Windows: open the .zip file and click “Extract all” to extract the Pololu AVR Library files to a folder
on your desktop.
If you are using Linux, run the command unzip libpololu-avr-yymmdd.zip, where yymmdd is replaced by the version of
the library that you have downloaded.
This section is optional, for people who want to modify the library or get a better understanding of how it
works. If you just want to install the library, proceed to Section 5.
Unpack the entire archive and open a command prompt within the libpololu-avr directory. If avr-gcc is correctly installed
on your system, you will be able to type “make clean”, then “make” to compile the entire library. Pay attention to any
errors that occur during the build process. If all goes well, this will generate three versions of the library, for the ATmega48,
ATmega168, ATmega328P, ATmega324PA, ATmega644P, and ATmega1284P. If you see errors, it is likely that avr-gcc
was installed improperly or in a way that is incompatible with the Makefile.
Compiling the Pololu AVR Library from the command prompt in Windows.
If the automatic installation works, you can proceed to Section 6 to try out some example programs. You can also find ready-
to-run example AVR Studio projects in the examples directory of the library download: libpololu-avr\examples. There are
examples preconfigured for all six microcontrollers supported by this library, so you should use the appropriate ones for your
particular microcontroller. For information on using the Pololu AVR library in your own programs (e.g. configuring AVR
Studio projects to use the library), please see Section 7.
If you currently have an older version of the Pololu AVR Library, your first step should be to delete all of the old include
files and the libpololu.a file or libpololu_atmegax.a files that you installed previously.
Finally, copy the entire pololu subfolder into the include subfolder. The Pololu include files should now be located in
avr\include\pololu.
You are now ready to use the Pololu AVR library. The next section provides example programs that are already set up to use
the library. For information on using the Pololu AVR library in your own programs (e.g. configuring AVR Studio projects to
use the library), please see Section 7.
6. Example programs
6.a. Example program - AVR Studio
A very simple demo program for the Orangutan or 3pi is available in the folder examples\atmegaXXX\simple-test, where
atmegaXXX is the model of the microcontroller on your board.
Double-click on the file test.aps, and the project should open automatically in AVR Studio, showing a C file that uses a
few basic commands from the Pololu AVR Library:
To compile this program, select Build > Build or press F7. Look for warnings and errors (indicated by yellow and red dots)
in the output displayed below. If the program compiles successfully, the message “Build succeeded with 0 Warnings…” will
appear at the end of the output, and a file test.hex will have been created in the simple-test\default folder.
Connect your programmer to your computer and your Orangutan board or 3pi robot, and turn on the target’s power. If you
are using a Pololu programer, its LEDs will give you feedback as to whether it has a good connection to the target (see the
programmer’s user’s guide for more information).
Select Tools > Program AVR > Connect to connect to the programmer. If you are using a Pololu programmer, select
“AVRISP” and “Auto”. When you click the “Connect” button, the AVRISP programming window should appear.
You will use AVRISP to load test.hex into the flash memory of your AVR. To do this, click “…” in the Flash section
and select file test.hex that was compiled earlier. Note that you have to first navigate to your project directory! Now click
“Program” in the Flash section, and the test code should be loaded onto your Orangutan or 3pi.
If your controller was successfully programmed and you not using a Baby Orangutan, you should hear a short tune, see the
message “Hello!” on the LCD (if one is present and the contrast is set correctly), and the LEDs on the board should blink. If
you are using a Baby Orangutan B, you will just see the red user LED blink.
In case you are having trouble performing the compilation, precompiled hex files for this example and all of the other
examples included with the C/C++ library are available in examples\processor\hex_files. You can load these hex files onto
your controller using AVR Studio as described above.
Change to this directory and inspect the Makefile. Depending on your system, you may need to update the paths to the avr-
gcc binaries and the device for your programmer. Then, you should be able to compile the example with make, which should
generate the output like this as it compiles the source code:
If make completed successfully, connect your programmer to your computer and your Orangutan board or 3pi robot, and
turn on the target’s power. The green status LED close to the USB connector should be on, while the other two LEDs should
be off, indicating that the programmer is ready. Type make program to load the program onto the Orangutan or 3pi. If
your programmer is installed on a port other than /dev/ttyUSB0 (for example if you are using the newer Pololu USB AVR
Programmer) you will have to edit the Makefile and enter the correct port.
If your controller was successfully programmed and you are not using a Baby Orangutan, you should hear a short tune, see
the message “Hello!” on the LCD (if one is present and the contrast is set correctly), and the LEDs on the board should blink.
If you are using a Baby Orangutan, you will just see the red user LED blink.
C++ users: See Section 5.a of Programming Orangutans and the 3pi Robot from the Arduino
Environment [http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J17] for examples of this class in the Arduino environment, which is almost identical
to C++.
Complete documentation of the functions can be found in Section 2 of the Pololu AVR Library Command
Reference [http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J18].
Usage Examples
This library comes with two examples in libpololu-avr\examples. The Orangutan Motors examples also make limited use
of this section.
1. analog1
Demonstrates how you can use the methods in this library to read the analog voltage of the trimmer potentiometer in the
background while the rest of your code executes. If the ADC is free, the program starts a conversion on the TRIMPOT analog
input (channel 7 on all devices except the SVP), and then it proceeds to execute the rest of the code in loop() while the
ADC hardware works. Polling of the analog_is_converting() method allows the program to determine when the conversion is
complete and to update its notion of the trimpot value accordingly. Feedback is given via the red user LED, whose brightness
is made to scale with the trimpot position.
On the Orangutan SVP, this example code will work, but it is not the recommended way of reading the trimpot. The trimpot
reading and averaging is done on the auxiliary processor, so a simple avg=analog_read(TRIMPOT); is sufficient to get the
value of the trimpot and will not burden the CPU significantly. You can, however, change the channel number in the code
below from TRIMPOT to a channel number from 0 to 7 in order to measure one of the eight analog ports on the AVR.
#include <pololu/orangutan.h>
/*
* analog1: for the Orangutan LV/SV-xx8 or Baby Orangutan B
*
* This example uses the OrangutanAnalog functions to read the voltage
* output of the trimpot in the background while the rest of the main
* loop executes. The LED is flashed so that its brightness appears
* proportional to the trimpot position. This example will work on
* both the Orangutan LV/SV-xx8 and Baby Orangutan B.
*
* http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J20
* http://www.pololu.com
* http://forum.pololu.com
*/
int main()
{
set_analog_mode(MODE_8_BIT); // 8-bit analog-to-digital conversions
sum = 0;
samples = 0;
avg = 0;
start_analog_conversion(TRIMPOT); // start initial conversion
while(1)
{
if (!analog_is_converting()) // if conversion is done...
{
sum += analog_conversion_result(); // get result
start_analog_conversion(TRIMPOT); // start next conversion
if (++samples == 20) // if 20 samples have been taken...
{
avg = sum / 20; // compute 20-sample average of ADC result
samples = 0;
sum = 0;
}
}
2. analog2
Intended for use on the Orangutan LV-168. Note that it will run on the 3pi robot and Orangutan SV-xx8, but the displayed
temperature will be incorrect as the analog input connected to the temperature sensor on the Orangutan LV-168 is connected
to 2/3rds of the battery voltage on the 3pi and to 1/3rd of the battery voltage on the Orangutan SV-xx8. It displays on the
LCD the trimmer potentiometer output in millivolts and the temperature sensor output in degrees Farenheit. If you hold a
finger on the underside of the Orangutan LV-168’s PCB near the center of the board, you should see the temperature reading
slowly start to rise. Be careful not to zap the board with electrostatic discharge if you try this!
#include <pololu/orangutan.h>
/*
* analog2: for the Orangutan LV/SV-xx8
*
* This example uses the OrangutanAnalog functions to read the voltage
* output of the trimpot (in millivolts) and to read the Orangutan
* LV-168's temperature sensor in degrees Farenheit. These values are
* printed to the LCD 10 times per second. This example is intended
* for use with the Orangutan LV/SV-xx8 only.
*
* You should see the trimpot voltage change as you turn it, and you can
* get the temperature reading to slowly increase by holding a finger on the
* underside of the Orangutan LV/SV-xx8's PCB near the center of the board.
* Be careful not to zap the board with electrostatic discharge if you
* try this!
*
* http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J20
* http://www.pololu.com
* http://forum.pololu.com
*/
int main()
{
set_analog_mode(MODE_10_BIT); // 10-bit analog-to-digital conversions
Note: The OrangutanServos and OrangutanBuzzer libraries both use Timer 1, so they will conflict with each
other and any other code that relies on or reconfigures Timer 1.
This library is incompatible with some older releases of WinAVR. If you experience any problems when using
this library, make sure that your copy of the compiler is up-to-date. We know that it works with WinAVR
20080610.
The benefit to this approach is that you can play notes on the buzzer while leaving the CPU mostly free to execute the rest of
your code. This means you can have a melody playing in the background while your Orangutan does its main task. You can
poll the isPlaying() method to determine when the buzzer is finished playing.
C++ users: See Section 5.b of Programming Orangutans and the 3pi Robot from the Arduino
Environment [http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J17] for examples of this class in the Arduino environment, which is almost identical
to C++.
Complete documentation of the functions can be found in Section 3 of the Pololu AVR Library Command
Reference [http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J18].
Usage Examples
This library comes with three examples in libpololu-avr\examples.
1. buzzer1
Demonstrates one way to use this library’s play_note() method to play a simple melody stored in RAM. It should
immediately start playing the melody, and you can use the top user pushbutton to stop and replay the melody. The example
is structured so that you can add your own code to the main loop and the melody will still play normally in the background,
assuming your code executes quickly enough to avoid inserting delays between the notes. You can use this same technique
to play melodies that have been stored in EEPROM (the mega168 has enough room in EEPROM to store 170 notes; the
mega328 has enough room in EEPROM to store 340 notes).
#include <pololu/orangutan.h>
/*
* buzzer1:
*
* This example uses the OrangutanBuzzer library to play a series of notes
* on the Orangutan's/3pi's buzzer. It also uses the OrangutanLCD library
* to display the notes its playing, and it uses the OrangutanPushbuttons
* library to allow the user to stop/reset the melody with the top
* pushbutton.
*
* http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J20
* http://www.pololu.com
* http://forum.pololu.com
*/
#define MELODY_LENGTH 95
375, 125, 250, 375, 250, 250, 125, 250, 167, 167, 167, 250, 125, 125,
125, 250, 125, 125, 375,
375, 125, 250, 375, 250, 250, 125, 250, 167, 167, 167, 250, 125, 125,
125, 250, 125, 125, 375,
250, 125, 125, 125, 250, 125, 125, 125, 125, 125, 125, 125, 125, 125,
250, 125, 125, 125, 250, 125, 125, 200, 50, 100, 25, 500,
250, 125, 125, 125, 250, 125, 125, 125, 125, 125, 125, 125, 125, 125,
// For example, let the top user pushbutton function as a stop/reset melody button
if (button_is_pressed(TOP_BUTTON))
{
stop_playing(); // silence the buzzer
if (currentIdx < MELODY_LENGTH)
currentIdx = MELODY_LENGTH; // terminate the melody
else
currentIdx = 0; // restart the melody
wait_for_button_release(TOP_BUTTON); // wait here for the button to be released
}
}
return 0;
}
2. buzzer2
Demonstrates how you can use this library’s play() function to start a melody playing. Once started, the melody will play all
the way to the end with no further action required from your code, and the rest of your program will execute as normal while
the melody plays in the background. The play() function is driven entirely by the Timer1 overflow interrupt. The top user
pushbutton will play a fugue by Bach from program memory, the middle user pushbutton will quietly play the C major scale
up and back down from RAM, and the bottom user pushbutton will stop any melody that is currently playing or play a single
note if the buzzer is currently inactive.
#include <pololu/orangutan.h>
/*
* buzzer2:
*
* This example uses the OrangutanBuzzer functions to play a series of notes
* on the Orangutan's/3pi's buzzer. It uses the OrangutanPushbuttons
* library to allow the user select which melody plays.
*
* This example demonstrates the use of the play() method,
* which plays the specified melody entirely in the background, requiring
* no further action from the user once the method is called. The CPU
* is then free to execute other code while the melody plays.
*
* http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J20
* http://www.pololu.com
* http://forum.pololu.com
*/
#include <avr/pgmspace.h> // this lets us refer to data in program space (i.e. flash)
// store this fugue in program space using the PROGMEM macro.
// Later we will play it directly from program space, bypassing the need to load it
// all into RAM first.
const char fugue[] PROGMEM =
"! O5 L16 agafaea dac+adaea fa<aa<bac#a dac#adaea f"
"O6 dcd<b-d<ad<g d<f+d<gd<ad<b- d<dd<ed<f+d<g d<f+d<gd<ad"
"L8 MS <b-d<b-d MLe-<ge-<g MSc<ac<a ML d<fd<f O5 MS b-gb-g"
"ML >c#e>c#e MS afaf ML gc#gc# MS fdfd ML e<b-e<b-"
"O6 L16ragafaea dac#adaea fa<aa<bac#a dac#adaea faeadaca"
"<b-acadg<b-g egdgcg<b-g <ag<b-gcf<af dfcf<b-f<af"
"<gf<af<b-e<ge c#e<b-e<ae<ge <fe<ge<ad<fd"
"O5 e>ee>ef>df>d b->c#b->c#a>df>d e>ee>ef>df>d"
"e>d>c#>db>d>c#b >c#agaegfe f O6 dc#dfdc#<b c#4";
if (button == TOP_BUTTON)
{
play_from_program_space(fugue);
print("Fugue!");
lcd_goto_xy(0, 1);
print("flash ->");
}
if (button == MIDDLE_BUTTON)
{
play("! V8 cdefgab>cbagfedc");
print("C Major");
lcd_goto_xy(0, 1);
print("RAM ->");
}
if (button == BOTTOM_BUTTON)
{
if (is_playing())
{
stop_playing();
print("stopped");
}
else
{
play_note(A(5), 200, 15);
print("note A5");
}
}
}
lcd_goto_xy(0, 1);
print("button..");
while(1)
loop();
return 0;
}
3. buzzer3
Demonstrates the use of this library’s playMode() and playCheck() methods. In this example, automatic play mode is used to
allow the melody to keep playing while it blinks the red user LED. Then the mode is switched to play-check mode during a
phase where we are trying to accurately measure time. There are three #define macros that allow you to run this example in
different ways and observe the result. Please see the comments at the top of the sketch for more detailed information.
#include <pololu/orangutan.h>
/*
* buzzer3:
*
* This example uses the OrangutanBuzzer functions to play a series of notes
* on the Orangutan's/3pi's buzzer. It uses the OrangutanPushbuttons
* functions to allow the user select which melody plays.
*
* This example demonstrates the use of the play_mode()
* and play_check() methods, which allow you to select
* whether the melody sequence initiated by play() is
* played automatically in the background by the Timer1 interrupt, or if
* the play is driven by the play_check() method in your main loop.
*
* Automatic play mode should be used if your code has a lot of delays
* and is not time critical. In this example, automatic mode is used
* to allow the melody to keep playing while we blink the red user LED.
*
* Play-check mode should be used during parts of your code that are
* time critical. In automatic mode, the Timer1 interrupt is very slow
* when it loads the next note, and this can delay the execution of your.
* Using play-check mode allows you to control when the next note is
* loaded so that it doesn't occur in the middle of some time-sensitive
* measurement. In our example we use play-check mode to keep the melody
* going while performing timing measurements using Timer2. After the
* measurements, the maximum time measured is displayed on the LCD.
*
* Immediately below are three #define statements that allow you to alter
* the way this program runs. You should have one of the three lines
* uncommented while commenting out the other two:
*
* If only WORKING_CORRECTLY is uncommented, the program should run in its
* ideal state, using automatic play mode during the LED-blinking phase
* and using play-check mode during the timing phase. The maximum recorded
* time should be 20, as expected.
*
* If only ALWAYS_AUTOMATIC is uncommented, the program will use automatic
* play mode during both the LED-blinking phase and the timing phase. Here
* you will see the effect this has on the time measurements (instead of 20,
* you should see a maximum reading of around 27 or 28).
*
* If only ALWAYS_CHECK is uncommented, the program will be in play-check
* mode during both the LED-blinking phase and the timing phase. Here you
* will see the effect that the LED-blinking delays have on play-check
* mode (the sequence will be very choppy while the LED is blinking, but
* sound normal during the timing phase). The maximum timing reading should
* be 20, as expected.
*
* http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J20
* http://www.pololu.com
* http://forum.pololu.com
*/
// *** UNCOMMENT ONE OF THE FOLLOWING PRECOMPILER DIRECTIVES ***
// (the remaining two should be commented out)
#define WORKING_CORRECTLY // this is the right way to use playMode()
//#define ALWAYS_AUTOMATIC // playMode() is always PLAY_AUTOMATIC (timing is inaccurate)
#include <avr/pgmspace.h>
const char rhapsody[] PROGMEM = "O6 T40 L16 d#<b<f#<d#<f#<bd#f#"
"T80 c#<b-<f#<c#<f#<b-c#8"
"T180 d#b<f#d#f#>bd#f#c#b-<f#c#f#>b-c#8 c>c#<c#>c#<b>c#<c#>c#c>c#<c#>c#<b>c#<c#>c#"
"c>c#<c#>c#<b->c#<c#>c#c>c#<c#>c#<b->c#<c#>c#"
"c>c#<c#>c#f>c#<c#>c#c>c#<c#>c#f>c#<c#>c#"
"c>c#<c#>c#f#>c#<c#>c#c>c#<c#>c#f#>c#<c#>c#d#bb-bd#bf#d#c#b-ab-c#b-f#d#";
int main()
{
TCCR2A = 0; // configure timer2 to run at 78 kHz
TCCR2B = 0x06; // and overflow when TCNT2 = 256 (~3 ms)
play_from_program_space(rhapsody);
while(1)
{
// allow the sequence to keep playing automatically through the following delays
#ifndef ALWAYS_CHECK
play_mode(PLAY_AUTOMATIC);
#else
play_mode(PLAY_CHECK);
#endif
lcd_goto_xy(0, 0);
print("blink!");
int i;
for (i = 0; i < 8; i++)
{
#ifdef ALWAYS_CHECK
play_check();
#endif
red_led(1);
delay_ms(500);
red_led(0);
delay_ms(500);
}
lcd_goto_xy(0, 0);
print("timing");
lcd_goto_xy(0, 1);
print(" "); // clear bottom LCD line
// turn off automatic playing so that our time-critical code won't be interrupted by
// the buzzer's long timer1 interrupt. Otherwise, this interrupt could throw off our
// timing measurements. Instead, we will now use playCheck() to keep the sequence
// playing in a way that won't throw off our measurements.
#ifndef ALWAYS_AUTOMATIC
play_mode(PLAY_CHECK);
#endif
unsigned char maxTime = 0;
for (i = 0; i < 8000; i++)
{
TCNT2 = 0;
while (TCNT2 < 20) // time for ~250 us
;
if (TCNT2 > maxTime)
maxTime = TCNT2; // if the elapsed time is greater than the previous max, save it
#ifndef ALWAYS_AUTOMATIC
play_check(); // check if it's time to play the next note and play it if so
#endif
}
lcd_goto_xy(0, 1);
print("max=");
print_long((unsigned int)maxTime);
print(" "); // overwrite any left over characters
}
return 0;
}
digital output. The program running on the AVR can change the configuration of these pins on the fly using the functions in
this library.
Complete documentation of these functions can be found in Section 4 of the Pololu AVR Library Command
Reference [http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J18].
Digital outputs
When a pin is configured as a digital output, the AVR is either driving it low (0 V) or high (5 V). This means that the pin
has a strong electrical connection to either 0 V (GND) or 5 V (VCC). An output pin can be used to send data to a peripheral
device or supply a small amount of power (for example, to light an LED).
Digital inputs
When a pin is configured as a digital input, the AVR can read the voltage on the pin. The reading is always either low (0)
or high (1). Basically, a low reading means that the voltage is close to 0 V, while a high reading means that the voltage is
close to 5 V (see the DC characteristics section of your AVR’s datasheet for details). Note that when we talk about absolute
voltages in this document, we are assuming that the voltage of the ground (GND) line is defined to be 0 V.
Every I/O pin on the AVR comes with an internal 20–50 kilo-ohm pull-up resistor that can be enabled or disabled. A pull-
up resistor is a resistor with a relatively high resistance that connects between a pin and the 5 V supply (VCC). If nothing
is driving the pin strongly, then the pull-up resistor will pull the voltage on the pin up to 5 V. Pull-up resistors are useful
for ensuring that your input pin reaches a well-known state when nothing is connected to it. If your input pin has nothing
connected to it and the pull-up resistor is disabled, then it is called a floating pin. In general, it is not recommended to take a
digital reading on a floating pin, because the reading will be unpredictable.
An input pin can be used to read data from a sensor or other peripheral.
When the AVR powers up, all I/O pins are configured as inputs with their pull-up resistors disabled.
Caveats
To use your digital I/O pins correctly and safely, there are several things you should be aware of:
• Maximum voltage ratings: Be sure to not expose your input pins to voltages outside their allowed range, which is
-0.5 V – 5.5 V (assuming a VCC of 5 V). For example, do not connect any AVR pins directly to an RS-232 output,
which varies between -12 V and 12 V. You can use a voltage divider circuit to overcome this limitation.
• Drawing too much current from an output pin: Be sure you do not attempt to draw too much current from your
output pin; it may break. Basically, each output pin can supply up to 20 mA of current (see the DC characteristics section
of your AVR’s datasheet for details). This is enough to power typical LEDs, but is too small for many other devices.
You can use a transistor to overcome this limitation.
• Shorts: Be sure that you do not connect a high output pin to a low output pin. This connection is called a short
because it results in a low-resistance path from VCC to ground which will conduct large amounts of current until
something breaks.
• Alternative functions: Many of the pins on the AVR have alternative functions. If these alternate functions are
enabled, then the functions in this library may not work on those pins. For example, if you have enabled UART0, then
you can not control the output value on PD1 using these functions because PD1 serves as the serial transmit line.
Usage Example
This library comes with an example in libpololu-avr\examples.
1. digital1
This example program takes a digital reading on PC1, and uses that reading to decide whether to drive pin PD1 (the red LED
pin) low or high. You can test that the example is working by connecting a wire from PC1 to ground. When the connection
is made the red LED should change state.
#include <pololu/orangutan.h>
/*
* digital1: for the Orangutan controllers and 3pi robot
*
* This example uses the OrangutanDigital functions to read a digital
* input and set a digital output. It takes a reading on pin PC1, and
* provides feedback about the reading on pin PD1 (the red LED pin).
* If you connect a wire between PC1 and ground, you should see the
* red LED change state.
*
* http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J20
* http://www.pololu.com
* http://forum.pololu.com
*/
int main()
{
// Make PC1 be an input with its internal pull-up resistor enabled.
// It will read high when nothing is connected to it.
set_digital_input(IO_C1, PULL_UP_ENABLED);
while(1)
{
if(is_digital_input_high(IO_C1)) // Take digital reading of PC1.
{
set_digital_output(IO_D1, HIGH); // PC1 is high, so drive PD1 high.
}
else
{
set_digital_output(IO_D1, LOW); // PC1 is low, so drive PD1 low.
}
}
}
This library is designed to gracefully handle alternate use of the four LCD data lines. It will change their data direction
registers and output states only when needed for an LCD command, after which it will immediately restore the registers to
their previous states. This allows the LCD data lines to additionally function as pushbutton inputs and an LED driver.
C++ users: See Section 5.c of Programming Orangutans and the 3pi Robot from the Arduino
Environment [http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J17] for examples of this class in the Arduino environment, which is almost identical
to C++.
Complete documentation of this library’s methods can be found in Section 5 of the Pololu AVR Library Command
Reference [http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J18].
Usage Examples
This library comes with two examples in libpololu-avr\examples.
1. lcd1
Demonstrates shifting the contents of the display by moving the word “Hello” around the two lines of the LCD.
#include <pololu/orangutan.h>
/*
* lcd1: for the Orangutan controllers and 3pi robot
*
* This example uses the OrangutanLCD library to display things on the LCD.
*
* http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J20
* http://www.pololu.com
* http://forum.pololu.com
*/
int main()
{
while(1)
{
print("Hello"); // display "Hello" at (0, 0), a.k.a. upper-left
delay_ms(200);
lcd_scroll(LCD_RIGHT, 3, 200);// shift the display right every 200ms three times
clear(); // clear the LCD
lcd_goto_xy(3, 1); // go to the fourth character of the second LCD line
print("Hello"); // display "Hello" at (3, 1), a.k.a. lower-right
delay_ms(200);
lcd_scroll(LCD_LEFT, 3, 200); // shift the display left every 200ms three times
clear(); // clear the LCD
}
return 0;
}
1. lcd2
Demonstrates creating and displaying custom characters on the LCD. The following picture shows an example of custom
characters, using them to display a bar graph of sensor readings and a smiley face:
#include <pololu/orangutan.h>
/*
* lcd2: for the Orangutan controllers and 3pi robot
*
* This example uses the OrangutanLCD functions to display custom
* characters on the LCD. Simply push a any user pushbutton to
* display a new, randomly chosen, custom mood character.
*
* http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J20
* http://www.pololu.com
* http://forum.pololu.com
*/
char prevMood = 5;
int main()
{
lcd_load_custom_character(happy, 0);
lcd_load_custom_character(sad, 1);
lcd_load_custom_character(indifferent, 2);
lcd_load_custom_character(surprised, 3);
lcd_load_custom_character(mocking, 4);
clear(); // this must be called before we can use the custom characters
print("mood: ?");
// initialize the random number generator based on how long they hold the button the first time
wait_for_button_press(ALL_BUTTONS);
long seed = 0;
while(button_is_pressed(ALL_BUTTONS))
seed++;
srandom(seed);
while(1)
{
char mood;
do
{
mood = random()%5;
} while (mood == prevMood); // ensure we get a new mood that differs from the previous
prevMood = mood;
return 0;
}
Note that the red LED is on the same pin as the UART0 serial transmitter (PD1), so if you are using UART0 for serial
transmission then the red LED commands will not work, and you will see the red LED blink briefly whenever data is
transmitted on UART0. Note that the green LED is on the same pin as an LCD control pin; the green LED will blink briefly
whenever data is sent to the LCD, but the two functions will otherwise not interfere with each other.
C++ users: See Section 5.d of Programming Orangutans and the 3pi Robot from the Arduino
Environment [http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J17] for examples of this class in the Arduino environment, which is almost identical
to C++.
Complete documentation of these functions can be found in Section 10 of the Pololu AVR Library Command
Reference [http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J18].
1. led1
A simple example that blinks LEDs.
#include <pololu/orangutan.h>
/*
* led1: for the 3pi robot, Orangutan LV 168, Orangutan SV-xx8, Orangutan SVP,
* or Baby Orangutan B
*
* This program uses the OrangutanLEDs functions to control the red and green
* LEDs on the 3pi robot or Orangutan. It will also work to control the red
* LED on the Baby Orangutan B (which lacks a second, green LED).
*
* http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J20
* http://www.pololu.com
* http://forum.pololu.com
*/
int main()
{
while(1)
{
red_led(1); // red LED on
delay_ms(1000); // waits for a second
red_led(0); // red LED off
delay_ms(1000); // waits for a second
green_led(1); // green LED on (will not work on the Baby Orangutan)
delay_ms(500); // waits for 0.5 seconds
green_led(0); // green LED off (will not work on the Baby Orangutan)
delay_ms(500); // waits for 0.5 seconds
}
return 0;
}
C++ users: See Section 5.e of Programming Orangutans and the 3pi Robot from the Arduino
Environment [http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J17] for examples of this class in the Arduino environment, which is almost identical
to C++.
Complete documentation of these functions can be found in Section 7 of the Pololu AVR Library Command
Reference [http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J18].
Usage Examples
This library comes with two examples in libpololu-avr\examples.
1. motors1
Demonstrates controlling the motors using the trimmer potentiometer and uses the red LED for feedback.
#include <pololu/orangutan.h>
/*
* motors1: for the Orangutan LV-168, Orangutan SV-xx8, Orangutan SVP,
* and Baby Orangutan B
*
* This example uses the OrangutanMotors functions to drive
* motors in response to the position of user trimmer potentiometer
* and blinks the red user LED at a rate determined by the trimmer
* potentiometer position. It uses the OrangutanAnalog library to measure
* the trimpot position, and it uses the OrangutanLEDs library to provide
* limited feedback with the red user LED.
*
* http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J20
* http://www.pololu.com
* http://forum.pololu.com
*/
int main()
{
while(1)
{
// note that the following line could also be accomplished with:
// int pot = analogRead(7);
int pot = read_trimpot(); // determine the trimpot position
int motorSpeed = pot/2-256; // turn pot reading into number between -256 and 255
if(motorSpeed == -256)
motorSpeed = -255; // 256 is out of range
set_motors(motorSpeed, motorSpeed);
2. motors2
Demonstrates controlling the motors using the trimmer potentiometer, but it uses the LCD for most of the feedback, so it will
not fully work on the Baby Orangutan.
#include <pololu/orangutan.h>
/*
* motors2: for the 3pi robot, Orangutan LV-168,
* Orangutan SVP, and Orangutan SV-xx8.
*
* This example uses the OrangutanMotors and OrangutanLCD libraries to drive
* motors in response to the position of user trimmer potentiometer
* and to display the potentiometer position and desired motor speed
* on the LCD. It uses the OrangutanAnalog library to measure the
* trimpot position, and it uses the OrangutanLEDs library to provide
* limited feedback with the red and green user LEDs.
*
*
* http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J20
* http://www.pololu.com
* http://forum.pololu.com
*/
C++ users: See Section 5.f of Programming Orangutans from the Arduino Environment [http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J17]
for examples of this class in the Arduino environment, which is almost identical to C++.
Complete documentation of these functions can be found in Section 9 of the Pololu AVR Library Command
Reference [http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J18].
1. pushbuttons1
Demonstrates interfacing with the user pushbuttons. It will wait for you to push either the top button or the bottom button, at
which point it will display on the LCD which button was pressed. It will also detect when that button is subsequently released
and display that to the LCD.
#include <pololu/orangutan.h>
/*
* OrangutanPushbuttonExample: for the Orangutan LV-168,
* Orangutan SV-xx8, Orangutan SVP, and 3pi robot
*
* This example uses the OrangutanPushbuttons library to detect user
* input from the pushbuttons, and it uses the OrangutanLCD library to
* display feedback on the LCD.
*
* http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J20
* http://www.pololu.com
* http://forum.pololu.com
*/
int main()
{
while(1)
{
clear();
print("Waiting");
The serial port routines normally use the USART_UDRE_vect, USART_RX_vect, USART0_UDRE_vect,
USART0_RX_vect, USART1_UDRE_vect, and USART1_RX_vect interrupts, so they will conflict with any code that
also uses these interrupts.
On the 3pi robot, Orangutan SV, Orangutan LV-168, and Baby Orangutan B, using these functions will cause the red
user LED functions to stop working, because the red LED is on the same pin as the UART transmitter (PD1/TXD). When the
AVR is not transmitting bytes on TXD, the red LED will be on. When the AVR is transmitting bytes on TXD, the red LED
will flicker.
On the Orangutan SVP, using these functions to control UART0 will cause the red user LED functions to stop working,
because the red LED is on the same pin as the UART0 transmitter (PD1/TXD0). When the AVR is not transmitting bytes on
TXD0, the red LED will be off. When the AVR is transmitting bytes on TXD0, the red LED will flicker. However, the AVR
on the Orangutan SVP has two UARTs, so if you want to use the red LED and you only need one UART then you can use
UART1 instead of UART0.
Complete documentation of this library’s methods can be found in Section 10 of the Pololu AVR Library Command
Reference [http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J18].
Usage Examples
Example code for making the 3pi Robot into a serial slave, controlled by another microcontroller, is given in Section 10.a
of the Pololu 3pi Robot User’s Guide [http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J21]. This library also comes with an example program in
libpololu-avr\examples:
serial1
#include <pololu/orangutan.h>
/*
* serial1: for the Orangutan controllers and 3pi robot.
*
* This example listens for bytes on PD0/RXD. Whenever it receives a byte, it
* performs a custom action. Whenever the user presses the middle button, it
* transmits a greeting on PD1/TXD.
*
* The Baby Orangutan does not have a green LED, LCD, or pushbuttons so
* that part of the code will not work.
*
* To make this example compile for the Orangutan SVP, you
* must add a first argument of UART0 to all the serial_*
* function calls.
*
* http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J20
* http://www.pololu.com
* http://forum.pololu.com
*/
// receive_buffer_position: This variable will keep track of which bytes in the receive buffer
// we have already processed. It is the offset (0-31) of the next byte
// in the buffer to process.
void check_for_new_bytes_received()
{
while(serial_get_received_bytes() != receive_buffer_position)
{
// Process the new byte that has just been received.
process_received_byte(receive_buffer[receive_buffer_position]);
// Increment receive_buffer_position, but wrap around when it gets to
// the end of the buffer.
if (receive_buffer_position == sizeof(receive_buffer)-1)
{
receive_buffer_position = 0;
}
else
{
receive_buffer_position++;
}
}
}
int main()
{
// Set the baud rate to 9600 bits per second. Each byte takes ten bit
// times, so you can get at most 960 bytes per second at this speed.
serial_set_baud_rate(9600);
while(1)
{
// Deal with any new bytes received.
check_for_new_bytes_received();
// Wait for the user to release the button. While the processor is
// waiting, the OrangutanSerial library will take care of receiving
// bytes using the serial reception interrupt. But if enough bytes
// arrive during this period to fill up the receive_buffer, then the
// older bytes will be lost and we won't know exactly how many bytes
// have been received.
wait_for_button_release(MIDDLE_BUTTON);
}
}
}
Complete documentation of these functions can be found in Section 11 of the Pololu AVR Library Command
Reference [http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J18].
Note: The OrangutanServos and OrangutanBuzzer libraries both use Timer 1, so they will conflict with each
other and any other code that relies on or reconfigures Timer 1.
Servos
A servo motor (also called hobby servo or RC servo) is a device containing a motor that you can command to turn to a specific
location. To control a servo, you must connect its three wires properly. The black wire is ground, and should be connected
to the ground line of your Orangutan. The red line is power, and should be connected to power supply with a voltage that
is within the operating range of your servo, and that is capable of supplying all the current that your servo might draw. The
white line is signal, and should be connected to a pin that generates servo pulses, such as an I/O line on the Orangutan. The
Orangutan I/O header blocks make it easy to connect your servos, because each column of the block contains ground, power,
and an I/O line in the correct order.
To make your servo move, you must output a high pulse to the signal line every 20 ms. The pulse width (also called pulse
length or pulse duration) determines which position the servo will move to. Thus, every pulse width (typically measured in
microseconds) corresponds to some angle (typically measured in degrees) of the servo’s output shaft. Typical servos have a
limited range of motion, and this entire range of motion can be reached with pulse widths between 1 ms and 2 ms.
Take care when choosing pulse widths, because some servos are capable of breaking themselves if they are commanded to
move to a position outside their range of motion. To start off, you can send pulse widths of 1.5 ms and then slowly change
the pulse width until you discover its upper and lower limits.
On every Orangutan except the Orangutan SVP, each servo requires one free I/O pin. The library allows you to choose
which I/O pins to use for your servos. On the Baby Orangutan B, there are enough free I/O lines for you to control the full
16 servos. On the Orangutan SV and Orangutan LV-168, there are 8 free I/O lines so you can easily control eight servos,
but you can control more servos if you remove the LCD or other unused hardware. The pulses are generated using software
PWM.
On the Orangutan SVP, the pulses (for your first 8 servos) are all generated on pin PD5. This pin is a hardware PWM output
(OC1A), so the OrangutanServos library generates the servo pulses using hardware PWM, which is more accurate and takes
less CPU time than software PWM. Pin PD5 is connected to the input line of an on-board 8-output demultiplexer. If you just
need to control one servo, you can leave the demultiplexer input lines disconnected, and plug your servo in to servo port 0. If
you want to control more than one servo, then you must choose which free I/O lines to connect to the demultiplexer’s three
output-selection lines. If you use one I/O line, you can control two servos. If you use two I/O lines, you can control up to
four servos. If you use three I/O lines, then you can control up to eight servos. If you need to control more than 8 servos then
you can use software PWM to control up to eight more servos (for a total of 16).
Usage Examples
This library comes with several examples in libpololu-avr\examples.
1. svp-one-servo
This example program demonstrates how to control one servo on the Orangutan SVP using PD5.
#include <pololu/orangutan.h>
/*
* svp-one-servo: for the Orangutan SVP.
*
* This example uses the OrangutanServos functions to control one servo.
* The servo pulse signal is sent on pin PD5, which is hardwired to the
* input of the demux. The servo signal is available on demux output 0.
* This example uses the OrangutanPushbuttons functions to take input
* from the user, and the OrangutanLCD functions to display feedback on
* the LCD.
*
* http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J20
* http://www.pololu.com
* http://forum.pololu.com
*/
int main()
{
const unsigned char demuxPins[] = {};
servos_init(demuxPins, sizeof(demuxPins));
if (button_is_pressed(BOTTOM_BUTTON))
{
// While the user holds down the bottom button, move the servo
// slowly towards position 1800.
set_servo_speed(0, 60);
set_servo_target(0, 1800);
wait_for_button_release(BOTTOM_BUTTON);
// When the user releases the bottom button, print its current
// position (in microseconds) and then move it back quickly.
clear();
print_long(get_servo_position(0));
print_from_program_space(PSTR(" \xE4s"));
set_servo_speed(0, 0);
set_servo_target(0, 1300);
}
}
}
// Local Variables: **
// mode: C **
// c-basic-offset: 4 **
// tab-width: 4 **
// indent-tabs-mode: t **
// end: **
2. svp-eight-servo
This example program demonstrates how to control up to eight servos on the Orangutan SVP using the hardware
demultiplexer.
#include <pololu/orangutan.h>
/*
* svp-eight-servo: for the Orangutan SVP.
*
* This example uses the OrangutanServos functions to control eight servos.
* To use this example, you must connect the correct AVR I/O pins to their
* corresponding servo demultiplexer output-selection pins.
* - Connect PB3 to SA.
* - Connect PB4 to SB.
* - Connect PC0 to SC.
*
* http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J20
* http://www.pololu.com
* http://forum.pololu.com
*/
int main()
{
// This array specifies the correspondence between I/O pins and DEMUX
// output-selection pins. This demo uses three pins, which allows you
// to control up to 8 servos. You can also use two, one, or zero pins
// to control fewer servos.
const unsigned char demuxPins[] = {IO_B3, IO_B4, IO_C0}; // eight servos, B3=SA, B4=SB, C0=B5.
//const unsigned char demuxPins[] = {IO_B3, IO_B4}; // four servos, B3=SA, B4=SB
//const unsigned char demuxPins[] = {IO_B3}; // two servos, B3=SA
//const unsigned char demuxPins[] = {}; // one servo
servos_init(demuxPins, sizeof(demuxPins));
// Set the servo speed to 150. This means that the pulse width
// will change by at most 15 microseconds every 20 ms. So it will
// take 1.33 seconds to go from a pulse width of 1000 us to 2000 us.
set_servo_speed(0, 150);
set_servo_speed(1, 150);
set_servo_speed(2, 150);
set_servo_speed(3, 150);
set_servo_speed(4, 150);
set_servo_speed(5, 150);
set_servo_speed(6, 150);
set_servo_speed(7, 150);
3. svp-sixteen-servo
This example program demonstrates how to control up to sixteen servos on the Orangutan SVP using the hardware
demultiplexer.
#include <pololu/orangutan.h>
/*
* svp-sixteen-servo: for the Orangutan SVP.
*
* This example uses the OrangutanServos functions to control sixteen servos.
* To use this example, you must connect the correct AVR I/O pins to their
* corresponding servo demultiplexer output-selection pins.
* - Connect PB3 to SA.
* - Connect PB4 to SB.
* - Connect PC0 to SC.
* Servos a0-a7 will be on the servo demux outputs.
* Servos b0-b7 will be on pins PA0-PA7.
*
* http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J20
* http://www.pololu.com
* http://forum.pololu.com
*/
int main()
{
// This array specifies the correspondence between I/O pins and DEMUX
// output-selection pins. This demo uses three pins, which allows you
// to control up to 8 servos from the demux.
const unsigned char demuxPins[] = {IO_B3, IO_B4, IO_C0}; // B3=SA, B4=SB, C0=B5.
// Set the servo speed to 150. This means that the pulse width
}
}
// Local Variables: **
// mode: C **
// c-basic-offset: 4 **
// tab-width: 4 **
// indent-tabs-mode: t **
// end: **
Complete documentation of the SVP-specific functions can be found in Section 13 of the Pololu AVR Library Command
Reference [http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J18].
An overview of the analog input functions, which support reading the analog inputs on the SVP’s auxiliary processor, can
be found in Section 6.c. An overview of the serial port communication functions, which support sending and receiving bytes
from the computer via the auxiliary processor’s USB connection, can be found in Section 6.j.
If you want to use quadrature encoders, you can use the SVP_MODE_ENCODERS mode and let the auxiliary processor
handle the readings from two quadrature encoders on lines A, B, C and D/RX.
If you want to maximize the number of analog inputs available, you can use the SVP_MODE_ANALOG mode which makes
A, B, C, and D/RX be analog inputs. The ADC/SS line is also available as an analog input. It is hardwired to a user trimpot,
but you can cut the labeled trace between ADC/SS and POT on the bottom of the board to disconnect the pot, and then
connect something else to that pin. This allows you to use a total of 13 analog inputs: eight on the AVR and five on the
auxiliary processor. All 13 inputs can be read using the same functions (see Section 6.c), so you don’t need to worry too
much about which processor is converting them.
If you want to receive TTL-level serial bytes on your computer, you can use the SVP_MODE_RX mode (the default) which
makes A, B, and C be analog inputs and D/RX be the serial receive line. In this mode, TTL-level serial bytes received on
the RX line will be sent to the computer on the Pololu Orangutan SVP TTL Serial Port. The RX line, along with the TX line
(which is always the serial transmit line) make the Orangutan SVP’s auxiliary processor function as a USB-to-TTL-serial
adapter for your computer, allowing you to control serial devices from your computer. Alternatively, you can control the
serial devices directly from the AVR using the functions in Section 6.j and you can use the RX line to monitor and debug
the bytes that are being transmitted (or received) by the AVR.
You can use the setMode() command at the beginning of your program to set the mode of the auxiliary processor. See the
Pololu AVR Library Command Reference for details.
Powered by SPI
Whenever you call a function in the Pololu AVR Library that uses the auxiliary processor, the function might initiate SPI
communication to the auxiliary processor. This means that the MOSI (PB5) and SCK (PB7) pins will be set to outputs, the
MISO (PB6) pin will be set as an input, a pull-up resistor will be enabled on SS (PB4) if it is an input, and the AVR’s
hardware SPI module will be enabled. The functions that do this include any analog input function that uses an input
on the auxiliary processor, any function for reading the battery voltage or trimpot, any serial port function that uses the
USB_COMM port, and any function specific to the Orangutan SVP (Section 13 of the Command Reference).
Usage Examples
This library comes with an example program in libpololu-avr\examples.
1. svp1
A simple example that demonstrates some SVP-specific functions.
#include <pololu/orangutan.h>
/*
* svp1: for the Orangutan SVP.
*
* This example uses the OrangutanSVP functions to set the mode of the
* auxiliary processor, take analog readings on line D/RX, and display
* information about the Orangutan's current USB device state on the LCD.
*
* http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J20
* http://www.pololu.com
* http://forum.pololu.com
*/
int main()
{
// Make SSbar be an output so it does not interfere with SPI communication.
set_digital_output(IO_B4, LOW);
// Set the mode to SVP_MODE_ANALOG so we can get analog readings on line D/RX.
svp_set_mode(SVP_MODE_ANALOG);
while(1)
{
clear(); // Erase the LCD.
if (usb_configured())
{
// Connected to USB and the computer recognizes the device.
print("USB");
}
else if (usb_power_present())
{
// Connected to USB.
print("usb");
}
if (usb_suspend())
{
// Connected to USB, in the Suspend state.
lcd_goto_xy(4,0);
print("SUS");
if (dtr_enabled())
{
// The DTR virtual handshaking line is 1.
// This often means that a terminal program is conencted to the
// Pololu Orangutan SVP USB Communication Port.
lcd_goto_xy(8,0);
print("DTR");
}
if (rts_enabled())
{
// The RTS virtual handshaking line is 1.
lcd_goto_xy(12,0);
print("RTS");
}
These functions are used by the 3pi support described in the 3pi Robot User’s Guide [http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J21]. We do
not recommend using these functions directly on the 3pi unless you are adding additional sensors.
C++ and Arduino users: See Section 3 of Arduino Library for the Pololu QTR Reflectance
Sensors [http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J19] for examples of this class in the Arduino environment, which is almost identical to
C++. Please note that the Arduino version of this library [http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J19] is implemented differently from the
Pololu AVR Library version, so make sure you download the version appropriate for your platform.
Complete documentation of these functions can be found in Section 16 of the Pololu AVR Library Command
Reference [http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J18].
Usage Notes
Calibration
This library allows you to use the calibrate() method to easily calibrate your sensors for the particular conditions it will
encounter. Calibrating your sensors can lead to substantially more reliable sensor readings, which in turn can help simplify
your code. As such, we recommend you build a calibration phase into your application’s initialization routine. This can be as
simple as a fixed duration over which you repeated call the calibrate() method. During this calibration phase, you will need
to expose each of your reflectance sensors to the lightest and darkest readings they will encounter. For example, if you have
made a line follower, you will want to slide it across the line during the calibration phase so the each sensor can get a reading
of how dark the line is and how light the ground is. A sample calibration routine would be:
#include <pololu/orangutan.h>
int main()
{
// initialize your QTR sensors
unsigned char qtr_rc_pins[] = {IO_C0, IO_C1, IO_C2};
qtr_rc_init(qtr_rc_pins, 3, 2000, 255); // 800 us timeout, no emitter pin
// int qtr_analog_pins[] = {0, 1, 2};
// qtr_analog_init(qtr_analog_pins, 3, 10, IO_C0); // 10 samples, emitter pin is PC0
// optional: wait for some input from the user, such as a button press
// then start calibration phase and move the sensors over both
// reflectance extremes they will encounter in your application:
int i;
for (i = 0; i < 250; i++) // make the calibration take about 5 seconds
{
qtr_calibrate(QTR_EMITTERS_ON);
delay(20);
}
// optional: signal that the calibration phase is now over and wait for further
// input from the user, such as a button press
while (1)
{
// main body of program goes here
}
return 0;
}
1. You can request raw sensor values using the read() method, which takes an optional argument that lets you perform
the read with the IR emitters turned off (note that turning the emitters off is only supported by the QTR-8x reflectance
sensor arrays).
2. You can request calibrated sensor values using the qtr_read_calibrated() function, which also takes an optional
argument that lets you perform the read with the IR emitters turned off. Calibrated sensor values will always range from
0 to 1000, with 0 being as or more reflective (i.e. whiter) than the most reflective surface encountered during calibration,
and 1000 being as or less reflective (i.e. blacker) than the least reflective surface encountered during calibration.
3. For line-detection applications, you can request the line location using the qtr_read_line() functions, which takes
as optional parameters a boolean that indicates whether the line is white on a black background or black on a white
background, and a boolean that indicates whether the IR emitters should be on or off during the measurement.
qtr_read_line() provides calibrated values for each sensor and returns an integer that tells you where it thinks the line
is. If you are using N sensors, a returned value of 0 means it thinks the line is on or to the outside of sensor 0, and a
returned value of 1000 * (N-1) means it thinks the line is on or to the outside of sensor N-1. As you slide your sensors
across the line, the line position will change monotonically from 0 to 1000 * (N-1), or vice versa. This line-position
value can be used for closed-loop PID control.
A sample routine to obtain the sensor values and perform rudimentary line following would be:
void loop() // call this routine repeatedly from your main program
{
unsigned int sensors[3];
// get calibrated sensor values returned in the sensors array, along with the line position
// position will range from 0 to 2000, with 1000 corresponding to the line over the middle sensor
int position = qtr_read_line(sensors, QTR_EMITTERS_ON);
// if all three sensors see very low reflectance, take some appropriate action for this situation
if (sensors[0] > 750 && sensors[1] > 750 && sensors[2] > 750)
{
// do something. Maybe this means we're at the edge of a course or about to fall off a table,
// in which case, we might want to stop moving, back up, and turn around.
return;
}
// compute our "error" from the line position. We will make it so that the error is zero when
// the middle sensor is over the line, because this is our goal. Error will range from
// -1000 to +1000. If we have sensor 0 on the left and sensor 2 on the right, a reading of -1000
// means that we see the line on the left and a reading of +1000 means we see the line on
// the right.
int error = position - 1000;
// set motor speeds using the two motor speed variables above
}
PID Control
The integer value returned by qtr_read_line() can be easily converted into a measure of your position error for line-following
applications, as was demonstrated in the previous code sample. The function used to generate this position/error value is
designed to be monotonic, which means the value will almost always change in the same direction as you sweep your sensors
across the line. This makes it a great quantity to use for PID control.
Explaining the nature of PID control is beyond the scope of this document, but Wikipedia has a very good
article [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PID_controller] on the subject.
The following code gives a very simple example of PD control (I find the integral PID term is usually not necessary when
it comes to line following). The specific nature of the constants will be determined by your particular application, but you
should note that the derivative constant Kd is usually much bigger than the proportional constant Kp. This is because the
derivative of the error is a much smaller quantity than the error itself, so in order to produce a meaningful correction it needs
to be multiplied by a much larger constant.
int lastError = 0;
void loop() // call this routine repeatedly from your main program
{
unsigned int sensors[3];
// get calibrated sensor values returned in the sensors array, along with the line position
// position will range from 0 to 2000, with 1000 corresponding to the line over the middle sensor
int position = qtr_read_line(sensors, QTR_EMITTERS_ON);
// compute our "error" from the line position. We will make it so that the error is zero when
// the middle sensor is over the line, because this is our goal. Error will range from
// -1000 to +1000. If we have sensor 0 on the left and sensor 2 on the right, a reading of -1000
// means that we see the line on the left and a reading of +1000 means we see the line on
// the right.
int error = position - 1000;
// set the motor speed based on proportional and derivative PID terms
// KP is the a floating-point proportional constant (maybe start with a value around 0.1)
// KD is the floating-point derivative constant (maybe start with a value around 5)
// note that when doing PID, it's very important you get your signs right, or else the
// control loop will be unstable
int motorSpeed = KP * error + KD * (error - lastError);
lastError = error;
// M1 and M2 are base motor speeds. That is to say, they are the speeds the motors should
// spin at if you are perfectly on the line with no error. If your motors are well matched,
// M1 and M2 will be equal. When you start testing your PID loop, it might help to start with
// small values for M1 and M2. You can then increase the speed as you fine-tune your
// PID constants KP and KD.
int m1Speed = M1 + motorSpeed;
int m2Speed = M2 - motorSpeed;
if (m2Speed < 0)
m2Speed = 0;
// set motor speeds using the two motor speed variables above
}
This section of the library makes uses of pin-change interrupts to quickly detect and record each transition on the encoder.
Interrupt vectors for PCINT0, PCINT1, PCINT2 will be defined if functions from this library are used, even if the pins
selected are all on a single port, so this section of the library will conflict with any other uses of these interrupts. The
interrupt service routine (ISR) will take about 20-30 us. If you need better control of the interrupts used, or you want to write
a more efficient ISR, you can copy the library code from PololuWheelEncoders.cpp into your own project and modify it as
necessary.
Complete documentation of this library’s methods can be found in Section 18 of the Pololu AVR Library Command
Reference [http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J18].
Usage Notes
The two sensors A and B on the encoder board go through a four-step cycle as each tooth of the wheel passes by, for a total
of 48 counts per revolution. This corresponds to about 3 mm for each count, though you will have to calibrate values for your
own robot to get a precise measure of distance.
Normally, there will be at least 1 ms between counts, which gives the ISR plenty of time to finish one count before
the next one occurs. This is very important, because if two counts occur quickly enough, the ISR will not be able to
determine the direction of rotation. In this case, an error can be detected by the functions encoders_check_error_m1() or
encoders_check_error_m2(). An error like this either corresponds to a miscalibration of the encoder or a timing issue with
the software. For example, if interrupts are disabled for several ms while the wheels are spinning quickly, errors will probably
occur.
Usage Examples
This library comes with one example program in libpololu-avr\examples. The example measures the outputs of two
encoders, one connected to ports PC2 and PC3, and another connected to ports PC4 and PC5 – these are the leftmost four
ports on the Orangutan. The values of the two encoder outputs are displayed on the LCD, and errors (if any) are reported
below. For use on the Baby Orangutan, remove the LCD display code (and come up with some other way to use the values).
1. wheel_encoders1
#include <pololu/orangutan.h>
#include <avr/interrupt.h>
int main()
{
encoders_init(16,17,18,19); // the Arduino numbers for ports PC2 - PC5
while(1)
{
lcd_goto_xy(0,0);
print_long(encoders_get_counts_m1());
print(" ");
lcd_goto_xy(4,0);
print_long(encoders_get_counts_m2());
print(" ");
if(encoders_check_error_m1())
{
lcd_goto_xy(0,1);
print("Error 1");
}
if(encoders_check_error_m2())
{
lcd_goto_xy(0,1);
print("Error 2");
}
delay_ms(50);
}
}
Usually, the easiest way to adapt this code to your own projects will be to start with a working example and gradually add
the things that you need, one step at a time. However, if you want to start from scratch, there are just a few things that you
need to know. First, to use the library with C, you must place one of the following lines
C
#include <pololu/orangutan.h>
#include <pololu/3pi.h>
#include <pololu/qtr.h>
#include <pololu/encoders.h>
at the top of any C file that uses functions provided by the library. To use the library with C++, the equivalent lines are
C++
#include <pololu/orangutan>
#include <pololu/Pololu3pi.h>
#include <pololu/PololuQTRSensors.h>
#include <pololu/PololuWheelEncoders.h>
The line or lines that you include depend on which product you are using with the library.
Second, when compiling, you must link your object files with the appropriate libpololu_atmegaX.a file. This is
accomplished by passing the -lpololu_atmegaX option to avr-gcc during the linking step, where X can be 48, 168, 328p,
324p, 644p, or 1284p.
To add the -lpololu_atmegaX option within AVR studio, select Project > Configuration Options > Libraries. You
should see libpololu_atmega48.a, libpololu_atmega168.a, libpololu_atmega328p.a, libpololu_atmega324p.a,
libpololu_atmega644p.a, and libpololu_atmega1284p.a listed as options in the left column. Select the file that matches
the microcontroller you are programming and click “add library” to add it to your project. Note that the 3pi robots with
serial numbers less than 0J5840 use the ATmega168 microcontroller; 3pi robots with serial number 0J5840 or greater use
the ATmega328 microcontroller.
7. Using the Pololu AVR Library for your own projects Page 44 of 47
Pololu AVR C/C++ Library User's Guide © 2001–2010 Pololu Corporation
AVR Studio library settings for using the Pololu AVR library (libpololu).
Finally, we also strongly recommend the linker option -Wl,-gc-sections. This causes unused library functions to not be
included, resulting in a much smaller code size. To include this in AVR Studio, select Project > Configuration Options >
Custom Options. Click on [Linker options] and add:
-Wl,-gc-sections
to the list. This linker option is included in both the AVR Studio and Linux-based example programs described earlier.
7. Using the Pololu AVR Library for your own projects Page 45 of 47
Pololu AVR C/C++ Library User's Guide © 2001–2010 Pololu Corporation
Recommended AVR Studio linker options for projects using the Pololu AVR Library.
7. Using the Pololu AVR Library for your own projects Page 46 of 47
Pololu AVR C/C++ Library User's Guide © 2001–2010 Pololu Corporation
8. Additional resources
To learn more about programming AVRs and using the Pololu AVR Library, see the following list of resources:
• Pololu AVR Library Command Reference [http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J18]: detailed information about every
function in the library.
• Programming Orangutans and the 3pi Robot from the Arduino Environment [http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J17]:
information about using this library to program Orangutans and the 3pi robot from within the Arduino environment.
• Arduino Library for the Pololu QTR Reflectance Sensors [http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J19]: information about using
the QTR sensor portion of this library from within the Arduino environment.
• Pololu 3pi Robot User’s Guide [http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J21]
• Pololu Orangutan SV and LV-168 User’s Guide [http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J27]
• Pololu Orangutan SVP User’s Guide [http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J39]
• Pololu Baby Orangutan B User’s Guide [http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J14]
• Pololu USB AVR Programmer User’s Guide [http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J36]
• Pololu Orangutan USB Programmer User’s Guide [http://www.pololu.com/docs/0J6]
• WinAVR [http://winavr.sourceforge.net/]
• AVR Studio [http://www.atmel.com/avrstudio/]
• AVR Libc Home Page [http://www.nongnu.org/avr-libc/]
• ATmega328P documentation [http://www.atmel.com/dyn/products/product_card.asp?PN=ATmega328P]
• ATmega324PA documentation [http://www.atmel.com/dyn/products/product_card.asp?PN=ATmega324PA]
• ATmega1284P documentation [http://www.atmel.com/dyn/products/product_card.asp?PN=ATmega1284P]
• ATmega168 documentation [http://www.atmel.com/dyn/products/product_card.asp?PN=ATmega168]
• Tutorial: AVR Programming on the Mac [http://bot-thoughts.blogspot.com/2008/02/avr-programming-on-mac.html]
Finally, we would like to hear your comments and questions over at the Pololu Robotics Forum [http://forum.pololu.com/]!