Genuinely Sustainable Marine

Ecotourism in the EU Atlantic Area:

a Blueprint for Responsible Marketing
Co-financed by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF)
Genuinely Sustainable Marine Ecotourism
in the EU Atlantic Area:
a Blueprint for Responsible Marketing
© University of the West of England, Bristol
ISBN 1 86043 326 X
Genuinely Sustainable Marine Ecotourism
in the EU Atlantic Area:
a Blueprint for Responsible Marketing

Contents

1 Introduction

2 General Market Information for Marine Ecotourism

3 Making Marketing Work for Marine Ecotourism

4 A Step by Step programme for Marketing
Marine Ecotourism
5 Monitoring, Evaluation and Ecolabelling

Annex 1: the META-Model for genuinely sustainable marine ecotourism

Annex 2: Examples of Accreditation Criteria for Ecolabels
Notes
Acknowledgements

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 Genuinely Sustainable Marine Ecotourism in the EU Atlantic Area

1. Introduction
This blueprint first summarises what is meant by marine ecotourism and provides some
general market information on marine ecotourism with suggestions on how that
information may be used in a local context. Principles for the responsible marketing of
genuinely sustainable marine ecotourism are set out and the implications of these for the
use of a standard marketing approach are identified for the different aspects of marketing
that may be involved. These are then demonstrated in a step by step programme for
marketing marine ecotourism. This draws on the practical experience of the META- project’s
partner in the West of Ireland to derive a transnationally applicable model, which is finally
taken a step further towards an Ecolabel-assured branded marine ecotourism product.

1.1 Audience for this Blueprint

The audience for this document includes both potential ‘users’ and ‘readers’. It is aimed
primarily at local ‘initiators’ and ‘facilitators’ working in or for EU Atlantic Area coastal areas
that have actual, or potential for, marine ecotourism activities.

Local ‘initiators’ may include entrepreneurs who are operators of existing boat trips or
fishermen, accommodation providers, existing attraction providers, members of local marine
wildlife protection societies and residents’ groups. All these can be described as local
stakeholders, who will have an interest in the ways marine ecotourism is marketed even if
they are not themselves directly involved. However, in many cases such local initiatives to
develop genuinely sustainable marine ecotourism may, with advantage, be stimulated by
people working in the public sector or as agents of the public sector.

Such facilitators, whose role will be to build a capacity for independent, continuing, marine
ecotourism activity in a locality, may include:

• Regional Government Agencies

• Tourist boards

• Economic Development Boards

• Local Authority Departments:

Tourism
Planning
Environment
Heritage
Transportation
Local Economic Development
Local Agenda 21
Coastal Zone Management

• Associated organisations:
Trusts affiliated to a local authority
Joint public/private tourism marketing

Further readers and potential users of the document may be voluntary sector policymakers
and initiators including those working for, with or as members of

• NGO’s (non-governmental organisations)

• Semi-state bodies

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 Introduction

• QUANGO’s (Quasi-autonomous non- governmental organisations)

• QUALGOs (Quasi-autonomous local governmental organisations)

Private sector consultants working for such bodies may also be included.

The associated document “Good Practice Guidance for Planning for Marine Ecotourism in
the EU Atlantic Area” is aimed at an overlapping audience.

1.2 Purpose
To succeed, marine ecotourism needs to be marketed effectively. This document aims to
offer local marine ecotourism initiators and facilitators a blueprint for the responsible
marketing of genuinely sustainable marine ecotourism. It should be used in conjunction
with “Good Practice Guidance for Planning for Marine Ecotourism in the EU Atlantic Area”,
which considers issues important to and provides advice for policy makers. Marine
ecotourism concerns the activity of enabling tourists to appreciate and enjoy the natural
marine environment in all of its forms.

1.3 Scope
This blueprint is designed for use as part of a ‘bottom-up’ approach to marine ecotourism.
Yet the local stakeholders, whose active support and participation is essential for genuinely
sustainable marine ecotourism may see any ‘blueprint’ as an imposition from above unless
it is clearly open to interpretation in the local context. It is designed for use by more or less
formal associations of tourism providers, which are seen as a generally effective approach
to organising marine ecotourism in a competitive market place. Individually small
ecotourism providers may be unable to resource such a marketing approach, although they
may be able to adapt it.

1.4 Context
Many coastal communities are now turning to ‘new’ forms of tourism. In general, ‘new’
tourism, contrasted with traditional mass tourism, is a response by an ‘environment-
intensive’ industry to global imperatives demonstrating the limitations to unrestrained
growth1. The development of marine ecotourism represents an important opportunity for
peripheral communities to improve the quality (including environmental quality) of their
tourism product to meet the expectations of the ‘new’ consumers of the ‘new’ tourism.

Tourism is the system of leisure or holiday travel, away from home for the day or overnight.
The components of tourism include activities, facilities, transport and (when overnight)
accommodation as well as local and international tour operators. Ecotourism is tourism
that is based on enabling people to experience the natural environment in ways consistent
with the principles of sustainable development. Because it is dependent on and seeks to be
supportive of the local and global ecosystem, ecotourism must focus on the natural world
but to be successful needs also to be economically viable and socially and culturally
supportive of the local human community. This relationship between the ecosystem
resource base for ecotourism and the business and social systems involved has specific
implications for marketing.

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 Genuinely Sustainable Marine Ecotourism in the EU Atlantic Area

‘Marine ecotourism’ as used in this document means ecotourism that takes place in the
coastal zone, in the marine environment, or in both. The local providers of ecotourism
activities may be specialist local operators of tours or may be from the local accommodation
or transport sectors.

1.5 How this document has been prepared

This document has been prepared as part of an EU Interreg IIc transnational research project–
Marine Ecotourism for the Atlantic Area (META-). META- is part-funded by the European
Regional Development Fund (via the Interreg IIc Atlantic Area Programme) and the UK
Department for the Environment, Transport and the Regions. (since June 7th 2001
Department for Transport, Local Government and the Regions) with significant co-funding
from the partners themselves – Torbay Council, Marine Institute (Dublin), MBA Escuela (Gran
Canaria) and UWE, Bristol.

This marketing blueprint draws on the practical experience of developing marine ecotourism
in West Clare in the West of Ireland2. The Irrus website (www.irrus.com) promotes that
product. Throughout the points made will be illustrated from that experience.

4
2. General Market Information for Marine Ecotourism
World tourism has grown rapidly over the past 50 years, so much so that it is now
considered to be the world’s largest industry, contributing over 10% of world gross
domestic product and employing more than 10% of the global workforce. Ecotourism,
meanwhile, is reputed to be the fastest-growing sector of the world tourism industry, with
estimates of its rate of growth ranging anywhere between 10% and 30% per annum.
Ecotourism is reputed to attract high spending tourists, and estimates suggest it to be
‘worth’ between (Euros) =
C 12 and =C 20 billion worldwide, although the bases on which such
figures are calculated are rarely explained. Ecotourism activities of some kind now take place
in almost every country of the world, including those located along the EU’s Atlantic
coastline.

2.1 What is Marine Ecotourism?

The focus of this document is on the particular form of ecotourism known as marine
ecotourism. Whale and dolphin watching is a high-profile example of the sort of activity
that might qualify as marine ecotourism. Whales and dolphins have become important
symbols of the environmental movement and cetacean watching is estimated, by research
carried out for the (UK) Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society, to be growing at 10% a
year. In 1998, 300 communities around the world hosted 6 million whale watchers and
generated some =
C 500 million. Not all this revenue remains in the host community and not
all whale and dolphin watching is genuine sustainable ecotourism but on the other hand
there is much marine ecotourism that does not involve whale and dolphin watching. These
figures do therefore give an initial idea of the current size and growth potential of the
global market for marine ecotourism. Localising these figures to the European marine area,
based partly on estimates by Hoyt3 (2000), Berrow4 (2001) identified approximately 1.5
C 32 million
million whale watchers, benefiting some 67 communities with a direct value of =
C 121 millions.
and indirect cash benefits of =

Table 1 indicates that 70% of these were in the Canary Islands and a further 20% or more
in the rest of the Atlantic Area (some of France may be in the Mediterranean). By value 80%
is in the Atlantic Area, with 57% in the Canaries, indicating that the spend per head in the
Canaries is much lower than other whale watching areas.

Marine ecotourism activities may be water-based, land-based, or both. They may be

formally organised or undertaken independently. They may form the basis of a specialist
holiday or simply be an element of a conventional holiday. Examples of activities that could
be marine ecotourism include: watching whales, dolphins, sharks, seals and other marine
animals, seabird ornithology, diving and snorkelling, nature-based sightseeing trips by
surface boat or submarine, rock-pooling, coastal footpath and beach walking and visiting
seashore and sea life centres. Whether such activities are indeed marine ecotourism
depends on how they are planned, managed and marketed.

Marine ecotourism can generate positive outcomes for the natural environment, for
example by raising funds that can be used for environmental protection, by providing
economic alternatives to activities that degrade or deplete the natural environment, and by
more widely propagating eco-awareness and the principles of sustainable development. Yet,
experience has shown that if marine ecotourism is to play this role effectively, it must be
developed and marketed within a planning framework that ensures that the practice of

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 Genuinely Sustainable Marine Ecotourism in the EU Atlantic Area

The Value of Marine Ecotourism

(adapted from Hoyt (2000), further adapted from Berrow (2001)

Country/ Year No of Communities Direct value Indirect Value %of European Market share
area began whale- total WW’s (% of indirect
watchers C
= C
= value)

Azores 1989 9,500 2 652,000 3,774,000 1% 3%

Canaries late 80s 1,000,000 5 19,902,000 69,658,000 70% 57%
Croatia 1991 21 1 16,800 20,000 - -
Cyprus late90s minimal
Denmark mid 90s minimal 1
Faroe Islands 1996 minimal
France 1983 750 6 460,000 573,000 - -
Germany early 90s minimal 1
Gibralter 1980 18,750 2 504,000 3,024,000 1% 2%
Greece late 80s 3,678 3 157,000 292,000 - -
Greenland early 90s 2,500 6 932,000 3,080,000 - -
Iceland 1991 30,330 8 3,313,000 7,246,000 2% 6%
Italy 1988 5,300 2 270,000 608,000 0% 1%
Ireland 1986 177,600 3 1,480,000 7,973,000 12% 7%
Monaco early90s minimal 1
Norway 1988 22,380 2 1,828,000 13,488,00 2% 11%
Portugal early 80s 1,398 1 35,000 97,000 - -
Spain late 80s 33,000 11 616,000 2,156,000 2% 2%

UK mid 80s 121,125 12 2,110,000 9,219,000 8% 8%

Europe 1,426,332 67 32,275,800 121,208,000 100% 100%

Atlantic Area 1,362,123 42 25,759,000 96,474,000 95% 80%

ecotourism is compatible with sustainability considerations. Marketing marine ecotourism

Geniunely Sustainable
Marine Ecotourism
Is focused on the enjoyment and
appreciation of nature, involving: (a) local
participation in planning and management;
(b) sustainable management with
environmental protection as the key
priority; (c) appropriate interpretation and
education of the natural environment; (d) a
judicious mix of formal and voluntary
management measures; (e) collaboration
among stakeholders; (f ) responsible
marketing; and (g) appropriate monitoring
and evaluation.
encourages tourists to come close to nature: an activity that carries with it the risk of
causing serious harm to the very things that ecotourism providers are helping tourists to
experience. Marine ecotourism that is done badly, or excessively, may do more harm than it
does good. Any marketing plan for ecotourism therefore needs to be based on awareness
of these risks
Marine ecotourism is fundamentally about attempting to establish and maintain a symbiotic
relationship between tourism and the natural marine environment. Good ecotourism
marketing dictates that the tourism be designed in such a way that tourists receive a
satisfying experience - one that they will pay for - while respecting the natural environment
in which such activities take place and on which such activities depend. Bearing these
points in mind, the META- project has derived the following definition:

These features of genuinely sustainable marine ecotourism are dynamic, in that they
identify sustainability as a necessary orientation for marine ecotourism, rather than simply a
set of qualifying conditions which marine ecotourism must achieve. Local participation in
planning and management as well as the collaboration of stakeholders will ensure that the
ecotourism benefits local people economically as well in other ways.

Sustainability is the key concept in defining genuine ecotourism. It has been argued,

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 General Market Information for Marine Ecotourism

however, that the requirement of sustainability often represents the weak link between the
Target Species for Marine
principles and practices of ecotourism. While those responsible for ecotourism areas tend to
be very willing to sign up to the concept of sustainability, too often the driver of ecotourism
Ecotourism
in practice is the desire to generate economic returns from otherwise under-used (and Marine ecotourism is typically not targeted
on a single species of wildlife. Due to the
hence low opportunity cost) resources. Typically this implies stimulating progressive incidental nature of sightings for many of
increases in visitor numbers (often through aggressive inappropriate marketing), inevitably the species of interest to marine ecotourists,
many tour operators focus their provision
leading to greater damaging impacts to the natural environment, in addition to various
on multiple species. Other marine ecotours
adverse socio-cultural impacts on the local population. The irony is that poorly planned and are concerned with the appreciation of the
managed ecotourism can contribute to its own demise since genuinely sustainable marine environment in general, rather than
with watching particular species of wildlife.
ecotourism requires a high quality environment in which to operate.

When analysing the potential for marine ecotourism in a particular area, there needs to be a Non-Wildlife Resources for
recognition that the universal dependence of marine ecotourism on a high quality natural Marine Ecotourism
environment is at the same time both its major weakness and its major strength. On the Marine ecotourism has the potential to
one hand, marine ecotourism is an activity that involves bringing people into contact with utilise a wide variety of non-wildlife
resources. Tours based on the appreciation
the natural environment, risking damage. Whale watching activities from motorised boats
of seascapes and geological features (such as
may, for example, have the effect of disturbing the animals concerned at critical points in caves) are good examples. Many coastal
their life cycle (e.g. mating or suckling young). This in turn may threaten the biological communities also have a rich maritime
heritage and unique cultural characteristics
viability of the population of whales that the ecotourists are being encouraged to watch. that will also be of interest to tourists.
On the other hand, the reliance of marine ecotourism providers on a high quality Land-based facilities, such as marine
environment in which to operate presents them with a strong incentive to respect and interpretation and sea life centres, can also
help to extend the spectrum of ecotourism
protect it. Furthermore, marine ecotourism can help to provide the necessary funds for the activities. Not only do such facilities extend
management of the activity and for conservation work relating to the components of the the spectrum of ecotourism activities, but as
natural environment concerned. ‘wet weather’ attractions they help iron out
seasonality (an example is the Hebridean
International experience suggests that those ecotourism providers that are most seriously Whale & Dolphin centre in Mull,
Scotland). Furthermore, they can facilitate
and effectively addressing the criteria set out in the above definition tend to operate in participation by a broader section of the
relatively remote areas, have evolving environmental and tourism management structures in population (crafts, artisanal skills, local
place, and be run by self-motivated operators. Moreover, as ecosystem-based tourism, products etc. and, very importantly, can
even act as ‘drop in’ educational centres for
marine ecotourism has an obligation also to respect the global environment, which may be the local population.
adversely affected by the global warming implications of the transport needed to reach It is important that marketing plans
recognise such opportunities, since this will
such remote areas. For the European tourism market, one of the largest in the world, the
help marine ecotourism to grow without
Atlantic periphery is relatively close at hand but includes many areas still remote from unduly increasing the burden of pressure on
industrial and other human interference with wildlife and the natural world. marine wildlife.

2.2 Who are Marine Ecotourists?

There exists a whole range of niche markets in which the ecotourist might be found, while
those who are located in other tourism markets might still engage in ecotourism
experiences. One widely cited classification of ecotourists is based on their level of
dedication and time commitment5:

• Hard-core nature tourists: scientific researchers or members of tours specifically

designed for education, removal of litter, or similar purposes

• Dedicated nature tourists: people who take trips specifically to see protected areas
and who want to understand local natural and cultural history

• Mainstream nature tourists: those who visit natural destinations primarily to take an
unusual tourism experience

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 Genuinely Sustainable Marine Ecotourism in the EU Atlantic Area

• Casual nature tourists: those who experience nature incidentally as part of a

broader-based holiday

And the effects they have?

Different levels of ecotourism can also be distinguished from one another by their effects
rather than their intentions. These effects take two main forms:

• The effect on the ecotourist, in which participating in ecotourism moves the

ecotourist experience beyond mere enjoyment and progressively toward incorporating
learning and changes in the ecotourist’s behaviour, both while on holiday and after
return home

• The effect on the environment, in which participating in ecotourism moves the

ecotourist from a passive role, where their satisfaction is based purely on enjoyment of
the natural setting, to an active role, where their activities actually contribute to
protecting and/or enhancing the quality of the natural environment.

There is also a useful framework, which is based on a spectrum between ‘hard’ and ‘soft’
ecotourism6 as ideal types against which the characteristics of actual ecotourists can be
measured. The following figure illustrates these ‘types’. In most cases, particular ecotourists
(or groups of ecotourists) will fall somewhere between these two polar cases:

Hard and Soft Ecotourism

HARD SOFT
(Active, Deep) (Passive, Shallow)
The Ecotourism Spectrum
Strong environmental commitment Moderate or superficial environmental commitment
Enhancive sustainability Steady state sustainability
Specialized trips Multi-purpose trips
Long trips Short trips
Small groups Larger groups
Physically active Physically passive
Physical challenge Physical comfort
Few if any services expected Services expected
Deep interaction with nature Shallow interaction with nature
Emphasis on personal experience Emphasis on interpretation
Make own travel arrangements Rely on travel agents and tour operators

While, it is perhaps safest to conclude that the ‘typical ecotourist’ simply does not exist with
an identifiable market profile, ecotourists can be found in a very wide spectrum of markets.
The range extends from the small niche market of the dedicated wildlife watcher at one
extreme, to the larger but under-researched casual nature-based tourist at the other.

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The West Clare Ecotourist
The META- partners have conducted surveys within their own tourism markets and identified
the local awareness of, and potential for, marine ecotourism. While the areas are not necessarily
typical of the Atlantic Area as a whole they do represent examples from three different types of
tourism and three different marine eco-systems. Spreading from the subtropics to the sub-Arctic
seasonality in the EU Atlantic Area is largely dictated by sea temperature. West Clare, in the West
of Ireland has a short two-month summer season.
The West Clare ecotourism survey illustrated that the ‘dedicated wildlife watcher’ type of
ecotourist is in the minority. This became evident when the respondents were asked whether they
(a) would choose a holiday mainly for the ecotourism experience(s), (b) would choose a holiday
with some ecotourism experience(s), (c) would not be interested in an ecotourism experience, or
(d) don’t know. Only 10% chose (a) while 69% chose (b). Respondents to (b) could be classified
as ‘casual nature-based tourists’ as they would like an ecotourism experience but as a part of their
normal holiday experience. This point was even more strongly emphasised when only 27 out of
312 respondents were members of any organisation involved with the conservation of wildlife or
the natural environment and of those 27 respondents only 4 would choose a holiday ‘mainly for
the ecotourism experience’, while 20 chose ‘some ecotourism experience’. There was therefore a
moderate or superficial environmental commitment from the majority of respondents. This
response supports the argument that the ecotourism product is desirable but cannot stand on its
own and must be integrated with other tourism activities. Marketing packages should therefore
be constructed with this in mind.
Further response showed a strong preference for undertaking ecotourism activities in small
groups (less than 7 people), which would include family and friends and would take place in
scenic areas. Respondents expressed a preference for operators offering such packages to provide
good quality information on the natural resources and conservation issues of the region through
printed material and guiding services, while providing opportunities to view these natural
resources without impacting on the environment. Operators should be active in conservation
matters and abide by codes of conduct and regulations to reduce their and their visitors’ impact
on the environment.
From these findings the West Clare ‘ecotourist’ appears to be located at the ‘softer’ end of the
ecotourism spectrum. which suggests that there may be an opportunity to market ‘harder’ forms
of ecotourism which may also, in this case, be more commercially attractive. While ‘harder’
ecotourism tends to be a smaller market, it may also be less seasonable and, while more expensive
to provide for7, may attract higher spending visitors.

9
 3. Making Marketing Work for Marine Ecotourism
3.1 Responsible Marketing
The starting point for making marketing work for genuinely sustainable marine ecotourism
is the set of principles for responsible marketing set out in the META- document: “Good
Practice Guidance for Planning for Marine Ecotourism in the EU Atlantic Area”. That
document sets responsible marketing into the wider context of the “META- model” (See
Annex 1 of this document) for Marine ecotourism:

To quote:
• “The marketing and management of marine ecotourism are necessarily interdependent
activities; there needs to be a process of integration to ensure mutual compatibility/
complementarity.

• “Sustainability requires that management and marketing is supply-led – influencing

demand to meet supply constraints, which are themselves determined by sustainability
considerations.

• “The involvement of stakeholders (and particularly the community) is essential in the

development and implementation of both management and marketing plans.

• “The process of developing and implementing management and marketing plans is

not achievable through individual agents – collaboration and co-operation are
necessary.

• “There needs to be a process of continual monitoring and review of marine ecotourism

marketing and management plans.

“The central aspect of the principle is that the management and marketing of marine
ecotourism are necessarily interdependent activities. It therefore advises that a
management plan pays due consideration not only to the resource base and existing
planning policies relating to it (the supply side) but also to associated patterns of actual
and potential demand for marine ecotourism activities (the demand side). The
underlying principle linking these two aspects of marine ecotourism activity is that any
management, and therefore marketing, should be supply-led. The drawing up of a
management plan should provide a robust foundation for the development of an
appropriate marketing plan. Furthermore, the information that is required for drawing
up such a management plan might additionally serve to meet the data requirements
for the development of an associated marketing plan. It is also argued that stakeholder
involvement is essential at the development and implementation stages of both the
management and marketing plans. Finally, both types of plan should undergo a
mutually informing process of periodic monitoring and review. ”8

At first sight, this set of principles may appear incompatible with conventional marketing.
Normally, marketing as a philosophy for a company or other organisation is founded on the
premise that the customers’ needs are the starting point. It is about finding out what the
customer wants and then producing a product to meet the demand. This is the marketing-
orientated approach, carefully distinguished by marketers from the product-orientated
approach, which looks to find a market for and ways of selling a given product or service. It
is this marketing-orientated approach, with its ‘the consumer as king’ viewpoint which has
given marketing its successes (on its own terms) over the past 50 years, from Ford to
McDonald’s to Thomson Holidays.

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 Making Marketing Work for Marine Ecotourism

Tourism marketing9 within that philosophy does recognise certain general peculiarities of
tourism. It can therefore also be about regulating and managing rather than simply The ‘Intangibility’,
stimulating demand and sales. Tourism as a product has been described as ‘intangible’, ‘Heterogeneity’,
‘heterogeneous’, ‘perishable’ and ‘inseparable’. Marine ecotourism shares these attributes Perishability’ and
and each is illustrated in an Irish marine ecotourism context below but is briefly described in ‘Inseparability’ of Tourism.
the box. (Holloway and Robinson 1995)
‘Intangibility’: tourism usually has to be
‘Sustainable marketing’10 seeks to incorporate sustainability principles and specifically
bought before it can be experienced and it is
recognises the dilemma posed in Hardin’s classic “tragedy of the commons” The tragedy of a service rather than a physically product
the commons occurs when a limited (typically natural) resource is in common ownership based.
and therefore unpriced to any one seeking to exploit its value. Without regulation, it will be
‘Heterogeneity’: is the opposite of
worthwhile for any and each individual to go on exploiting the resource until it has been standardisation: no holiday experience is
overexploited (as with fish stocks). exactly like another as is the case with a
branded physical product or commodity

‘Perishability’:unsold transport seats,

The Paramount Need to Protect the Marine Ecosystem unsold beds in an hotel or unsold places on
The ecology and behaviour of many species of wildlife that are the subject of marine ecotourism group tours become instantly worthless
are still relatively poorly understood. A vital prerequisite for genuinely sustainable marine
ecotourism, therefore, is to ensure that appropriate programmes for achieving a better ‘Inseparability’: tourism has diverse
understanding of the interactions between ecotourism and wildlife are implemented. In the elements – transport, accomodation,
meantime, it would seem prudent to adopt a strongly precautionary approach to the development activities, with many different people
of marine ecotourism, avoiding those operations and practices where there is a high degree of involved, each of whom can critically affect
scientific uncertainty about their possible negative impacts on the marine ecosystem. Responsible the quality of a holiday.
marketing has an important role to play in the implementation of such an approach.
Brundtland’s challenge is that “there is still time to save species and their ecosystems. It is an
indispensable prerequisite for sustainable development. Our failure to do so will not be forgiven
by future generations”11.

The basic marketing philosophy of primacy for the consumer or the sovereignty of the
tourist remains problematic for genuinely sustainable marine ecotourism, which must focus
on conserving and enhancing the marine ecosystem, which in marketing terms appears to
be the ‘product’. However, the marine ecosystem is only a part of the raw materials of the
‘product’, which does not come to market as a packaged product before being combined,
inseparably, with other more standard tourism elements like transport and accommodation.

It is through the ‘packaging’ process to create a “range of integrated marine ecotourism

products” (see below), that marketing techniques and skills can be responsibly applied to
marine ecotourism. The advantages of the marketing philosophy can be garnered without
putting at risk the resource, which is the marine ecosystem if due care is taken. This should
involve the ‘precautionary principle’, which demands that because irreversible changes can
occur with long lead times, action needs to be taken to avoid them even before the science
is certain. This is how responsible marketing may reflect the supply-led emphasis that is
required for genuinely sustainable marine ecotourism.

This Blueprint sets the objective for marketing clearly to enhance the quality of the marine
ecosystem, while recognising that, to achieve this goal, pleasing and serving the tourist is
critical to success. Similarly critical is providing economic benefit to the local community,
working with local stakeholders and working within global environmental constraints such
as the greenhouse effect.

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 Genuinely Sustainable Marine Ecotourism in the EU Atlantic Area
The Global Environmental
Cost of Travel
This global effect is largely from the
transport involved. Taking the figures for
whale watching alone and making the
assumption that the origins of
whalewatchers within Europe reflect more
general visitors to the Atlantic area’s
destinations, about a million tonnes of CO2
are deposited into the atmosphere each year.
If all went instead to (eg) the great Barrier
Reef, Australia, it would be four million
tonnes or more (see Hoyt’s figures for the
numbers (quoted above) and the Transport
Impact Toolkit of the “Good Practice
Guidance for Planning Marine Ecotourism
in the EU Atlantic Area” for the analysis)
12
Responsible marketing of marine ecotourism needs to balance the cost to the global
environment of air and motor traffic but not discourage local or world regional travel, in
such a way that longer-distance (air) travel is made relatively more attractive.12
Hyper-taxing leisure car travel may therefore simply encourage air travel, especially long-
haul air travel, which uses untaxed fuel no less inefficiently per kilometre per head than the
private car. Nevertheless, information for surface public transport needs to be provided.
A key tool, which is also discussed in more depth in the META – Good Practice Guidance for
Planning13 is interpretation and education of the tourist. This can raise their ecological
awareness of the constraints of the natural environment as assets to be enjoyed and so
manage their expectations and subsequent satisfaction.
3.2 Using Different Types of Marketing for Marine
Ecotourism
Conventionally, marketing comprises Social, Industrial and Consumer marketing. In tourism
terms, social marketing, which is the marketing of non-commercial ideas for instance
religion or ecology, is used by NGO’s such as Tourism Concern. So-called Industrial
marketing is when business deals with other business. In Internet terms this is called B2B
(Business to Business) marketing and is important to marine ecotourism in terms of
destination clusters marketing to each other and to transport and international tour
operators. Consumer marketing is marketing for and to the actual tourist. In Internet terms
this is called B2C marketing. Each has its own techniques, though some are common to all.
3.2.1 Social Marketing for Marine Ecotourism
Because marine ecotourism has an environment enhancing purpose, it has the opportunity
to be promoted by the environmental and ecologically aware charities and NGO’s. Some
even operate or promote their own ecotourism. Examples include the RSPB, the Whale and
Dolphin trust etc. Such organisations market their ideals through the techniques of club
membership and public relations to the press and opinion formers. Increasingly they make
effective use of the Internet and database and relationship marketing. Mutual links to and
from their websites can be important to raising awareness of particular types and localities
for marine ecotourism. Access to their membership lists can be a useful way into market
segments for marine ecotourism. However McKercher14 has noted that many members may
only be interested in gaining inexpensive access to high quality experiences. Locally it is
essential that marine ecotourism markets itself within its own community so that the local
people are aware of the benefits to them and their locality of this activity.
3.2.2. Industrial (or Business to Business) Marketing for Marine Ecotourism
In Internet terms this is called B2B (business to business) marketing and is important to
marine ecotourism in terms of destination clusters marketing to each other and to transport
and international tour operators. Important aspects of ‘industrial’ marketing for marine
ecotourism will be the use of tourism trade-fairs, such as the World Travel Market. However,
the expense of making an impact at such fairs, dictates that much of the effort for marine
ecotourism should be in raising the awareness of the activity among larger players, such as
tourist boards. In this way promotion of more general tourism in appropriate areas may
refer to the marine ecotourism potential and marine ecotourism opportunities and thereby
reach the international and major national tour operators who market themselves to the
 Making Marketing Work for Marine Ecotourism

general public. These will include significant tourism players in the general business to
consumer (B2C) market such as late booking specialists and direct sell transport operators.
The risk in such indirect marketing may be the loss of control of the message and therefore
of the principles of responsible marketing for marine ecotourism. Such risk can be reduced
by targeting ‘responsible’ tour operators, who themselves seek to work with their suppliers
to achieve greater sustainability.

3.2.3 Consumer Marketing

For marine ecotourism, consumer marketing, which is directly aimed at attracting the actual
tourist has the advantage of keeping the activity under the control of the marine
ecotourism providers. In Internet terms, consumer marketing is called B2C (Business to
Consumer) marketing. In many cases, marine ecotourism is very small compared to other
types of tourism in the area, or the area itself is relatively unknown, it can therefore be
expensive to make an impact relative to competitors for the tourists expenditure. It is for
this reason that this blueprint is more appropriate to local associations of marine ecotourism
providers rather than to small individual businesses, such as a boat operator. Exclusive
marine ecotourism is always going to be a niche within the larger tourism market.

Where consumer marketing is going to be most important is in the local area itself. Local
publicity material from providers and from their associations can be highly effective in
encouraging marine ecotourism experiences as part of a holiday and can have an important
role in demonstrating the commitment to the principles of marine ecotourism, for example
by stressing adherence to codes of practice.

13
 4. A Step-by-Step Programme for Marketing
Marine Ecotourism
(Adapted from the West Clare META- Parallel Project)

Making Marketing Work for Marine Ecotourism

I. (Marketing) Planning The META- Transitional

Model of MArine Ecotourism
Planning Good Practice
(See Annex)

II. Developing a Marketing

Group

III. Doing Marketing Research defining product/service

defining the target market
Defing competitors
The marketing plan

IV. Implementation of a Promotion Advertising

Marketing Plan
Distribution Public Relations

V. Monitoring and Evaluation

The intention of this framework is to ensure the ongoing commitment to the principles of
responsible marketing for marine ecotourism, which were identified above. The crucial role
of Monitoring and Evaluation (V) is dealt with in Section 5 ‘Accreditation and Ecolabelling’
below. This emphasises audit, evaluation and review, allowing the META- planning model15
to influence continuing marketing.

The framework, which is elaborated below should be adapted to local conditions and
requirements.

14
 A Step-by Step Programme for Marketing Marine Ecotourism

4.1 (Marketing) Planning (I) Niche Tourism Attributes

4.1.1 Marine Ecotourism as a niche market
‘Intangibility’: tourism in Ireland has always
Marine ecotourism is a niche market and as such has different marketing requirements to been sold on the basis of being clean, green
mainstream tourism. It may be contrasted with main stream tourism in the Irish context. and cultural and although family holidays
such as archaeological summer schools and
Currently niche tourism would be seen as an add-on to mainstream tourism, but is nature-based packages may be familiar, the
visitor still has to trust the brochure and
increasing its specialist market as it develops. It finds its market among the FITs who are
usually has to commit money before being
staying 1-2 nights in various destinations while touring the country. These are likely to be able to experience the product.
European in origin and will have knowledge of the niche tourism activity prior to leaving
‘Heterogeneity’: a niche market for tourism
their home country and will have planned it into their itinerary.
maybe easier to manage than the
mainstream because the target audience will
When marketing to such a niche market tourism as marine ecotourism in Ireland, it is still
already have narrowed down the sort of
necessary to recognise the standard tourism attributes (see box): holiday that they are seeking and may
therefore be less expectant of
4.1.2 Planning standardisation. Specific locations and
For such a niche market, marketing planning for genuinely sustainable marine ecotourism specific attributes of that location are being
sold. Nevertheless the same individuals may
will begin with making contact with relevant agencies already with responsibility for the
be considering other holidays or activities
planning, management and marketing of such resources. They will help to assess where and be implicitly trading time (and
exactly the marine ecotourism product fits into the broader picture and what are the expenditure) between them.
limitations/possibilities to its development. Such agencies also have important wider roles.16
‘Perishability’:the product of niche tourism
may be even more perishable than
Most important for the development and marketing of a marine ecotourism product, the
mainstream. because it is more likely to be
relevant tourism development, planning and training agencies (on a local, regional and rurally located, if there are last minute
national level) that will impact on marine ecotourism development should be identified, cancellations, the prospect of filling the
vacancy is less likely than in an urban
through government and tourism agency directories. It is important to be aware of the
location where alternative customers may
agency’s responsibilities in relation to the planning and promotion of marine ecotourism. become more available. Marketing and
pricing may have to incorporate a non-
Different agencies may hold responsibility for different sectors, zones or activities. Such a returnable deposit fee on advance bookings.
compilation of relevant agencies and their associated responsibilities will be a valuable
‘Inseparability’: niche tourism must be
source of reference when accessing future technical advice and support in areas such as
packaged to include accommodation,
training, funding and promotion. transport and entertainment. If the visitor is
going to a rural location to experience
ecotourism they are more likely to take the
Mainstream and Niche Tourism in Ireland full package as access and nearby
accommodation may be hard to locate. The
Mainstream tourism in Ireland includes overseas tourists on short holiday breaks or touring quality of every component, even the
hoidays and domestic tourists on short holiday breaks or two-week family holidays. The overseas welcome by every individual met, will affect
tourist to Ireland generally tours the country visiting the main tourism destinations such as Kerry, the satisfaction afforded by the total
Galway, Connemara, the Burren and Dublin. These visits are not organised two-week package experience.
deals in one single destination. If the tourists are free independent travellers (FITs) they are likely
to remain in the same destination for one to two nights, staying in B&B or guesthouse
accomodation and travelling by hire car. Visitors who take package coach tours (which is a large
part of the American market to Ireland), will travel long distances each day, touring the country in
a whistle-stop fashion, stopping at major tourism attractions, such as heritage and historical sites,
over a period of a week to ten days and generally using hotel accommodation. The domestic
tourist is increasingly looking for short-break stays in hotels or B&Bs and this is a growing market
in the off-season. The domestic tourist family holiday will consist of a two-week stay in self-
catering or caravan/mobile home accommodation in a coastal resort and is likely to be repeated
annually but during a restricted season (July and August).

Niche tourism generally consists of visitors to adventure centres, walking holiday centres and
summer schools (environmental, cultural, archaeological). These are taken usually as three to five
day packages by FITs. Accomodation is usually arranged as part of the package in the centre’s
accommodation or in local hostels or B&Bs. These packages may form part of a longer holiday in
Ireland or may be taken as single day experiences as the visitor moves around the country.

15
 Genuinely Sustainable Marine Ecotourism in the EU Atlantic Area
Shannon Development
Shannon Development Ltd. is ireland’s only
dedicated regional development company.
The Company’s brief is to develop industry,
tourism and rural development in the wider
Shannon area, known as the Shannon
Region, which includes County Clare
META-project and their willingness to
provide practical advice and expertise has
been invaluable.
West Clare
The Mission atstement of the IRRUS
Marketing group:
‘IRRUS brand members are committed to the
sustainable development of West Clare tourism
through caring for their environment,
contributing to conservation and enhancing
visitor enjoyment through interpretation.’
16
The relevant agency personnel, at local and regional level, should be informed of the plans
for marine ecotourism development at an early stage. This helps to create a personal
connection with relevant people within the agencies. Such people should be consulted in
advance, brought through the planning, asked for advice and developed as a jury to assess
progress. This will save time and money in prevention of duplication of research and will
provide access to valuable technical expertise. By the time the marketing plan is complete
the marketing group and the product are well known and trusted.
Current developments and future plans for marine ecotourism at an international, national,
regional and local level should be taken into account, not least because of the significance
of migratory species among marine ecotourism resources. The position of the service being
promoted in terms of how it fits into these plans should be determined. This will indicate
the product position in the market and will also provide information on any grant aid or
funding. Limitations to development must be explored e.g. rules and regulations which
must be complied with. (For example West Clare: providing monitoring data on the
Shannon Dolphins, obeying codes of conduct; obtaining a licence for seaweed harvesting
for thallasotherapy17) If so, these should be allowed for in terms of time and cost. A
relationship with the planning authorities will be of great benefit in terms of advice on such
issues.
Once the feasibility of the marketing promotion for marine ecotourism has been established
and support pledged from the relevant authorities, all relevant product providers in the area
should be contacted to form a cluster marketing group.
4.2 Developing a Marketing Group (II)
A marketing group must be formed to promote the product/service i.e. the marine
ecotourism of the region. This group should consist of the local stakeholders who are
directly involved in the industry e.g. activity, accommodation and transport providers. People
support a plan that they have created, so it is essential that the people who are to
implement the plan, contribute to the vision that creates it and in this way the project is
given local ownership. Recognition of the importance of those indirectly involved may need
to be through broader community representation, for instance through the Local Authority.
This will also allow recognition of the interests and role of those local people not
automatically beneficiaries of marine ecotourism but affecting the marine environment-
such as fish farmers.
The stakeholders must first be identified. This type of information will be available through
the regional tourism authorities operating in the region and through local knowledge.
All the aforementioned stakeholders should then be invited to an information meeting held
in a central location in the region. This meeting should be used to detail the potential for
marine ecotourism in the region, the benefits of group marketing and networking of
tourism providers and the proposed development of a marine ecotourism marketing group
for the region. The stakeholders should then be invited to become part of this marketing
group and elect a chair person.
A mission statement for a marketing plan for the group should be developed, defining who
the plan is for, the area in question and what will be the desired outcomes. This mission
statement should then be officially adopted by the group. Developing such a mission
 A Step-by Step Programme for Marketing Marine Ecotourism

statement will establish the overall direction for the group and will serve as a ‘homing
beacon’ to prevent the process wandering in the future into issues which are not directly
relevant to the marketing of the region for marine ecotourism.

The skills and abilities of the marketing group should be strengthened through the provision
of workshops and seminars. The objectives of these workshops and seminars are two-fold:
firstly to enhance the awareness of ecotourism among the stakeholders and secondly to
enhance the capacity of the individual stakeholders to participate in market research and
collective marketing action.

The involvement of the local stakeholders throughout the process is vital to ensure local
ownership and enhance the sustainability of the project. Training needs should be identified
as the process develops and training programmes should be ongoing as required. Contact
with relevant training authorities will determine availability of training and funding.

The development process should follow the example of leadership, through facilitation to
independence. This was exemplified in the West Clare project and is detailed in the
‘Planning for Marine Ecotourism in the EU Atlantic Area: Good Practice Guidance’18. In
accordance with the advice in that document, it will be essential that the type of
management employed and process used be adapted to local conditions. For instance the
level of participation by stakeholders, the nature of relationship between manager and
stakeholders and the nature of the tasks being undertaken will need to be carefully
considered and a critical aspect will be the reconciliation of the ‘external’ agenda of the
manager with the ‘internal’ local agenda of any stakeholders’ association. In the West Clare
case, this has been achieved by the withdrawal of the manager, once the process had
become established and the local Association (‘IRRUS’) had taken on board the principles of
marine ecotourism, as part of their brand image

4.3 Marketing Research (III)

Through initial and continuing marketing research, the marketing group will be able to find
out what the specific needs of the customer are and how they can aim to satisfy those
needs at a profit. Success will flow from finding and exploiting responsibly a particular need
that cannot be satisfied elsewhere.19 The service should be continually refined to meet the
actual needs of the customer as opposed to the perceived needs of the customer. This will
then be mediated through the necessary parallel analysis of the needs of the marine
ecosystem and the community, to develop responsible marketing solutions.

This type of analysis is vital to the development of the marketing plan. It will help in the
identification of the market segment and the target market, which the marketer should
exploit in the promotion of the given product/service. The information gleaned from the
analysis will also indicate the product positioning, the design of the marketing mix from
which a marketing strategy is formulated and finally the marketing plan.

The marketing group must direct and manage the market research process. It should be a
‘hands-on’ activity by the local stakeholders with external expert help employed only when
necessary at stages requiring specialist expertise. This will enable the local stakeholders to
understand and work through the process from the start. It will also help to ensure that a
unique product, built on the local knowledge, experience, traditions, culture, crafts and
artisanal skills is developed. This very local familiarity with the market research will also ‘fine

17
 Genuinely Sustainable Marine Ecotourism in the EU Atlantic Area
Resident School of Dolphins
In West Clare the unique resource for
marine ecotourism promotion, identified
through the ‘Special Interest Marine
Tourism Study’ (see below), was the resident
school of dolphins in Shannon Estuary and
the competitive edge was the emphasis on
their conservation with the local operators
and community working towards this
objective. The wish to maintain the resource
while developing a marine ecotourism
product in a sustainable manner became the
competitive edge or selling point of the
West Clare META-project as a whole. The
aims of the marketing group were built
around eveloping ecotourism with a strong
conservation ethos. This competitive edge
was then carried through all the
promotional materials.
18
tune’ the ability of the stakeholders to detect any changes or fluctuations in the market
which occur at local level and thus allow action to be carried out immediately.
The objectives of the marketing research should be written up on the basis of the agreed
group mission statement. Objectives should include:
• what information is required,
• how it will be collected,
• who will collect it and
• how much time and budget should be spent on the process.
A detailed work plan, assigning tasks and responsibilities, should then be compiled and
agreed by all members of the group.
4.3.1 Defining the Product/Service
The first task undertaken should be the compilation of an audit of the tourism resources of
the area with emphasis on those that relate to marine ecotourism. This should include a full
description of each potential resource, its location, its current status of development in
relation to tourism and any conflicts which may arise in terms of its development. It will
also relate to the local knowledge, experience, traditions, culture, crafts and artisanal skills.
When complete, this audit of resources should be assessed using a SWOT analysis by all
members of the group and relevant agency advisors. This will determine the unique
resources for marine ecotourism and the strengths of the area for such a development.
This definition process defines the competitive edge, which should then form the main
focus for future promotional purposes. It will reveal areas of weaknesses that may need
strengthening or removal; opportunities for future development that may give added value
to the product at some future stage and threats or conflicts that need to be dealt with. In
the case of West Clare, a preliminary study had been carried out.20
4.3.2. Defining the Target Market
Target markets are people who are willing to spend, possess purchasing power and have
identified needs. Analysis of the information gathered by the marketing group should
determine what the market buys, why it buys, who are the main buyers and in what way
do they buy. The target market may vary under different circumstances e.g. if the marine
ecotourism product is being marketed as part of a general regional tourism package, the
target market may be the general holidaymaker who may want to experience some
ecotourism as part of his overall holiday; while if the product is being marketed as part of a
joint marketing venture between different regions offering a total ecotourism experience
the target market will be a more defined ‘ecotourist’. It is important to analyse who the
target market will be so that promotional material is suitably adapted for each segment
and is advertised and available in the right place.
Each stakeholder within the marketing group should identify their individual target
markets: who has been using their product to date, visitor numbers, profiles and reasons
for using the product: what type of promotion they have been involved with, how and
with what level of success. This process will help determine the market segment that is
currently being targeted, how effective that targeting21 is and what segments are not being
exploited.
The above information gathering process carried out among the immediate marketing
 A Step-by Step Programme for Marketing Marine Ecotourism

group should be supplemented by further secondary and primary market research.

Secondary research should be carried out using the information available through the Special Interest Marine
contact agencies established and any known local surveys completed in the past. Tourism Study
Primary research should be carried out to fill information gaps left after the above two the West ClareMETA-project was preceded
by a study commissioned by the Marine
actions are completed e.g. what other visitors come to the region, from where, when and
Institute. Shannon Development Ltd and
why. This research may be developed through postal surveys, telephone surveys or Clare County Council in 1999 to examine
questionnaire surveys. Questionnaire surveys are likely to give the highest degree of success the potential for the further development of
special interest marine tourism in the West
as a snapshot of visitors to the area at a given time can be obtained and used for Clare peninsula. The recommendations of
comparative purposes in the future. Sampling methods and sampling points should be this report formed the basis for the
carefully selected. Expert advice from contact agencies on sample selection and objectives for the West Clare META-
project. The Special Interest Marine
questionnaire design should be sought. It is essential to pilot test the questionnaire. A pilot Tourism Study carried out a resource audit
survey should be carried out in the selected area for the selected sample. The results should and SWOT analysis of the potential marine
then be analysed and interpreted. This pilot survey will reveal whether the required tourism resources of West Clare.
The survey of resources included:
information is actually being collected. Problems in questionnaire design, sampling
• a population profile.
technique and analysis will be uncovered at this point and can be refined, thus preventing • infrastructure (sanitary services, roads,
wastage of resources in future sampling and analysis.22 marine infrastructure, tourist
accommodation, access, tourist
4.3.3 Defining Competitors information and environmental
improvement),
When the target market has been established, competitors must be identified at regional,
• natural resources (topography, soils and
national and international levels. These are businesses that are offering the same type of landscape, coastline, nature conservation
tourism service. Information can be located in public and business directories, through designations, river angling. lake angling,
sea angling, swimming and sub-aqua
tourism industry contacts and from local information. When identified, their marketing mix
diving, bird watching, dolphin watching)
and competitive edge should be examined i.e. what they are selling, how they are selling it, • other tourism resources, including cultural
who are they selling it to and at what price. When this information has been uncovered it resources and
• grant-aided projects
can be used to help the marketing group to design a marketing mix for their own service
Assessment of West Clare in the light of
that will distinguish it from the competition. Uniqueness in the product is likely to be domestic and international market trends
enhanced by building in such assets as the local cultural heritage. All information gathered played a central role in this audit.
on product, price, promotion, target markets and the actual needs and demands of the The SWOT analysis provided a summary of
the strengths and weaknesses internal to the
customer will form the basis of the marketing strategy; that is to say the approach the West Clare area and an evaluation of the
group will use to marketing their service. external apportunities and threats that the
development of marine tourism activities
4.3.4 The Marketing Plan and the potential markets for these activities
When analysed and interpreted, the data used to determine the marketing strategy will was then prepared.

form the basis for the marketing plan which will be put into operation by the group. Both
short term and long term marketing plans should be developed. Short-term plans (one year
to 18 months) should be detailed with activities and tasks assigned to various personnel
with attached timescale and budget. A less detailed long-term plan should outline the
objectives and direction for the marketing group over at least a five-year period

4.4 Implementing the Marketing Plan (IV)

The marketing plan should be detailed with month-by-month implementation plans for
different aspects.

4.4.1 Promotion
Through the market research process the competitive edge for the marine ecotourism
product of the region will have been identified. This should now form the basis from which
a brand image and promotional tools are developed.

19
20
Put country of locatin on front (for international market)

Make sure the What are the key

designer knows messages?…
what product
you are trying to
reflect… Assume reader knows
nothing…
Genuinely Sustainable Marine Ecotourism in the EU Atlantic Area

Who is the
Audience? …

Have a good map

showing the location
in the context of the
country and local
region…

Don’t have
Where is the
blocks of text,
audience?…
break up with
headings,
pictures etc…

Font size 9 point or more: greater if the

audience is older (this text is 9 point)
 A Step-by Step Programme for Marketing Marine Ecotourism

Promotional literature should be designed with future costs in mind e.g. a logo using
variations on two colours is much cheaper to print than one having a greater number of Design Checklist
colours. Logos should be designed so that they are equally effective in black and white as in • Who is the audience?
• Where is the audience?
colour. While unit costs of printing decrease with volume, print run numbers should be
• What are the keymessages?
selected to suit both budget and distribution methods. Overproduction can lead to stocks • Make sure the designer knows product
of out dated material in future seasons. and what you are trying to reflect
• Don’t have blocks of text, break up with
When designing brochures, leaflets or flyers, their purpose should be clearly determined. headings, pictures etc.
• Typsize point 9 or more; greater if the
Are they being designed to motivate, inform, remind or build up a relationship with the
audience is older
customer? The design should reflect the identified marketing mix aimed at the target • Assume reader knows nothing
market. • Put country of location on front (for
international market)
In terms of size will they need to be a standard size for envelope, postage or literature • have a good map showing the location in
the context of the country and local region
holders. Decisions on distribution methods must be made.
• Quantities required
The Design features checklist is illustrated overleaf with reference to West Clare leaflet and
Webpage(s)

The internet is a very powerful, cost effective tool for promotion. The key is to build traffic
flows to the site and then to convert this to business. Inclusion of a guest page will help to
monitor reactions to the site and act as a tool for the promotion of the areas attractions.
Monitoring of the web site is important to determine how many hits it is receiving, from
where, by whom and how many bookings result. The website http://www.irrus.com has
been designed to promote West Clare’s marine ecotourism product.

It is vitally important to test market promotional materials before final production. A focus
group of relevant participants is a good method of assessing promotional materials before
the final print run. The final drafts can than be amended before printing.

4.4.2. Advertising
Market research should determine what type of advertising reaches the target audience,
what is cost effective and how likely advertising in a certain place will be to convert into
business. This information will help in the selection of the most cost-effective style of

21
 Genuinely Sustainable Marine Ecotourism in the EU Atlantic Area

advertisement for the service. Advertisements should be placed in publications aimed at the
identified target audience. There is however a risk that specialist magazines will be read
only by a narrow group of specialists and conservation society members23. One off adverts
seldom work. A series of small adverts is better. Costs should be budgeted carefully. Sources
of free advertisement are useful e.g. press releases on the progress of the marketing group
in local and regional newspapers. Adverts should be aimed to run when the service is open
to business. Methods of monitoring where business came from should be built in. This will
help in measuring the impact of the advertisement budget and to ensure it is cost effective.

4.4.3. Distribution
The distribution channels on offer should be assessed carefully – are they aimed at the
identified target audience – do they promote the message, which suits the service - will it
be money well spent? The most expensive promotion is not always the best if it does not
hit the target customer. The target audience must be kept in mind when deciding on
distribution channels. Existing distribution channels can be used where appropriate to the
service and new ones can be explored as the service builds up strength. Effective
distribution can be achieved through integrating with existing promotional groups/agencies
selling a similar product e.g. other marine ecotourism destinations in the same country.

4.4.5. Public Relations

It is essential that locals/influencers are aware of the service being offered. Familiarisation
trips should be organised to allow such contacts to experience the service. Invitations
should be extended to accommodation providers, hotel receptionists, tourist office
personnel and others who interact with your customers while they are in the locality. Word
of mouth is an extremely important form of promotion. Happy customers are the best
ambassadors.

The media should be kept informed about the service on a regular basis especially when
launching the service, adding new products, initiatives or features. Media personnel should
be invite to experience the service for free.

The final stage of implementing a marketing plan comes after the launch and is considered
below in Section 5.

22
5. Monitoring, Evaluation and Ecolabelling
IRRUS has been launched as a ‘brand’, which signifies firstly Irish marine ecotourism in
West Clare and secondly that as a brand, it is based on the responsible marketing of the
natural marine ecosytem.

5.1 Service Quality – matching performance to

expectation
In conventional marketing, the launch of a brand for a product or service will be followed by
a process of continual monitoring and review of customer satisfaction. Market research by
the group should be ongoing to keep track of changing customer needs and attitudes,
product satisfaction and effectiveness of the marketing mix. Techniques such as SERVQUAL24
seek to establish an iterative process of improvement. SERVQUAL sets out 23 elements
where customer expectation may exceed performance and works on the basis of such ‘gap’
analysis. The assumption of SERVQUAL, however, is that the only stakeholder needing to
be satisfied is the client or tourist.

This approach can only be reconciled with the principles of responsible marketing for
genuinely sustainable marine ecotourism by managing the tourist’s expectations to the
point where only a high quality marine environment will satisfy the discriminating tourist in
the chosen niche market.

If that can be achieved then conventional marketing is self-sustaining and sustainable.

However, given the commercial pressures on local ecotourism providers and especially on
international tour operators, it is normally necessary to have an external regulatory
framework at least to re-enforce voluntary good practice. Such external input, with due
accreditation, may lead to an Ecolabel.

5.2 Accreditation
Applying the principles set out in Section 3 above (and detailed in the META- Planning
Good Practice document25), baseline data, monitoring and evaluation programmes need to
be established to assess the effectiveness of the marketing process, what return it has given
for investment, what is working/not working and what needs to be refined.

Criteria to which brand members must adhere for inclusion under group marketing need to
be developed. The voluntary codes of practice also discussed in the planning good practice
guidance are an important element. These are what will distinguish the product on offer
from others and what will begin to identify it as a genuinely sustainable ecotourism service.
There will need to be some form of independent body to monitor and assess brand
members.

A series of indicators to measure the environmental, social and economic impacts of the
marine ecotourism project should be developed to monitor and evaluate the project to
ensure that it’s development is sustainable. The marketing group should liase with ‘expert’
agencies in this field. These are the accreditation agencies which seek to ensure that
brands, claiming to be ‘green’ meet their own standards. While not being part of one of
the currently known schemes does not necessarily imply that an ecotourism provider is
operating UN-sustainably, an ecotourism brand for a group of providers, which carries no
specific criteria for inclusion, is what has been described as a pseudo-ecolabel.

23
 Genuinely Sustainable Marine Ecotourism in the EU Atlantic Area

Lardarel’s Credibility Factors 5.3 An Ecolabel for Marine Ecotourism: Assuring

• All stakeholders participate in their Continued Compliance with Responsible Marketing
development;
• their criteria are based on sustainable
Principles
development, including environmental Moving from ‘brand’ to ecolabel is the final stage in stabilising the long term ecological
protection and social factors, and take into quality of the products that are to be sold as marine ecotourism to an increasingly
account best available technology;
discerning market. The purpose of an ecolabel is to give assurance, by independent
• they provide business with a significant
but achievable challenge that leads to real monitoring, that products, such as ecotourism, advertised as ‘green’ will live up to their
and continuous performance actual or implied promises to enhance and protect the environment and will comply with
improvements;
responsible marketing principles.
• technical support is available to businesses
that wish to implement the criteria;
Ecolabels in general are subject to European Union rules, which are associated with the
• information about the actual performance
of participating enterprises is publicly International Standards Organization requirements for the ISO14000 series. There has been
reported; considerable debate about their applicability to tourism26. Lardarel of the United Nations
• they are supervised by independent, not-
Environment Programme (2000) 27 identifies six key factors in the credibility of the voluntary
for-profit organizations.
initiatives including ecolabels:

In the Planning Guidance, a tool kit for monitoring and evaluation is put forward as a basis
for keeping track of progress on the road towards sustainability. It uses the PREPARe
model28, which has previously been used in connection with destination-based ecolabels.
That model is linked to ISO 14001 practices, simplified for tourism but still including both
global and local environmental protection criteria. Progress will be required within each and
eventually all of the six areas headlined: Policy, Responsibility, Eco-awareness,
Programmes, Audit and Re-view (“PREPARe”). The toolkit is designed to furnish the
responsible authorities with information on the degree to which their destination is
compliant with the process needed to achieve an ‘ecolabel’. Standards for such
Environmental Management and Audit Schemes (EMAS) are voluntary in inception but as
the basis for an ecolabel they become entrenched by the requirement to honour the
marketing promise. Once, therefore, the six elements have, on average, achieved a
‘significant’ (about 60% or above) degree of compliance on a self-assessment basis, the
final stage will be to introduce, the often costly and time-consuming, external accreditation
to establish a destination ecolabel. At this point PREPARe is made into PREPARE the last ‘E’
now standing for “externally accredited Ecolabel”.

Existing authenticating bodies are listed and reviewed in the book29 that reports a recent EC
funded project on ecolabelling for tourism generally. Many established labels focus on land-
based ecotourism and almost all ignore the journey to and from the destination. Ecotrans
keeps an updated list at http://www.eco-tip.org/Eco-labels/ecolabels.htm . Each is described
and the requirements to be met are specified. Regional and national Tourist Boards also
sponsor ecolabels. There is current work in progress perhaps in time for the United Nations
World Year of Ecotourism (2002), to harmonise the criteria so that the consumer is
presented with less confusion30.

At present none are automatically and wholly appropriate for marine ecotourism but the
following are good examples and may be the most appropriate:

PAN Parks (http://www.panparks.org),30 which is aimed at National Parks in Europe but

whose criteria, while are not yet fully developed, are adaptable to the Marine
environment

24
 Monitoring, Evaluation and Ecolabelling

Green Globe (http://www.greenglobe21.com)32, an international commercially funded

authentication body.

Green Tourism Business Scheme, UK (http://www.green-business.com)33 based on work

originating in South Hams, Devon and the South West Tourist Board (now South West
Tourism) and applied in Scotland since 1998.

Ecotourism Symbol Alcúdia (Distinctive Ecotuistico Alcúdia, Spain)34 is an example of a

local destination generated scheme in operation since 1994 and which has
demonstrably raised standards in that resort.35

The criteria for these four ecolabelling accreditation schemes are shown in the Annex 2.

They each share a commitment to continued monitoring, which contrasts with the ‘award’
based schemes, such as the British Airways Tourism for Tomorrow. That award, although
recently awarded to a marine ecotourism destination (Chumbe Island Coral Park off
Zanzibar, Tanzania) is limited by being ‘one off’ and therefore potentially encouraging short-
term exploitation. Sponsored by an airline, its criteria do not include and are unlikely ever to
include minimisation of long-distance travel. Many other ecolabel schemes in tourism are
geared mainly to particular sectors, usually hotels.

This Blueprint recommends that all marine ecotourism should seek to be authenticated and
accredited through an Ecolabel, which though initially voluntary carries ongoing obligations
to measure performance against compliance criteria for genuine sustainability.

Finally to quote from the META- Planning Good Practice Guidance:

“Marketing is the means of implementing marine ecotourism but marketing that does not
prioritise environmental protection can serve to compromise even the most well planned
and managed marine ecotourism experience. This is because the marketing of marine
ecotourism may be in contradiction with the planning and management objectives,
particularly in that it is likely to result in excessive visitor number or inappropriate behaviour
on the part of the tourist. The same is also true of community participation in the marketing
process, for unless the community is fully in control of the marketing of the activity,
marketing efforts are likely to run counter to the planning and management of the activities
being promoted. Responsible marketing in this context should embrace a notion of
environmental and socio-cultural stewardship. In all respects, the marketing of marine
ecotourism should therefore be consistent with the principles of sustainability”35.

25
 Annex 1: The META- Transnational Model for Marine
Ecotourism Planning in the EU Atlantic Area.
(page 18 of META- Project, 2001, Planning for Marine Ecotourism in the Atlantic Area:
Good Practice Guidance, UWE, Bristol).

“A model of marine ecotourism planning has been developed for the EU Atlantic Area, in
accordance with good practice evidence from both the research findings of the META-
project and from international experience of planning for genuinely sustainable marine
ecotourism. Planning and management policies, structures and processes need to be
developed so that marine tourism can be moved towards ecotourism and more sustainable
practice.

The META-Transnational Model for Marine Ecotourism

Planning in the EU Atlantic Area

Sustainability
Local Participation
Principles of
Environmental Protection as a Priority
Genuinely
Sustainable Balance of Statutory and Voluntary Approaches
Marine
Education and Interpretation
Ecotourism
Collaborative Approach

Responsible Marketing
Education and Interpretation Toolkit

Economic Impact Assessment Toolkit

Transport Impact Awareness Toolkit
Community-Based Planning Toolkit

Audit and Review Toolkit

Voluntary Codes Toolkit

‘Tool book’

Toolkits: actions
for implementing
the principles

Continual monitoring of actions against the

principles of genuinely sustainable marine
ecotourism

26
Annex 2: Criteria for four examples of
accreditation bodies for Ecolabels
1) PAN Parks (http://www.panparks.org)
Development/Partners
• Project organiser: the PAN Parks Organisation

• Supervisory Board: WWF International, Molecaten groep

• Background: the PAN Parks concept was initiated under the umbrella of WWF’s
European Forest Programme by the World Wide Fund for Nature in 1997, as a label for
excellent protected area management.

• Partners: various protected area authorities, national and regional WWF Offices, local
business partners

• Objective: by creating a certification label for well-managed protected areas PAN Parks
wishes to raise public awareness and appreciation for European natural heritage and
thus foster acceptance and financial support for conservation issues.

Principles and Criteria

Protected areas and their partners wishing to receive the PAN Parks label have to follow
guiding Principles split up into further Criteria and Indicators:

• Target groups: Principle 1-3 - protected area authority, Principle 4 - sustainable tourism
development strategy in and around protected area, Principle 5 - local business partners

• Principle 1. Natural Values: PAN Parks are large protected areas, representative of
Europe’s natural heritage and of international importance for wildlife, ecosystems and
natural or semi-natural landscapes.

• Principle 2. Habitat Management: Management of the PAN Park maintains and, if

necessary, restores the area’s ecological processes and its biodiversity.

• Principle 3. Visitor Management: Visitor management safeguards the natural values of

the PAN Park and aims to provide visitors with a high-quality experience based on the
appreciation of nature.

• Principle 4. Sustainable Tourism Development Strategy (under development in

cooperation with Europarc Federation)

• Principle 5. Local Business Partners (under development)

2) Green Globe (http://www.greenglobe21.com)

Development/Partners/Costs
• Development: unique global environmental management and certification scheme
dedicated to the world’s Travel & Tourism industry, working with communities,
companies and consumers to promote sustainability in tourism through sound
environmental management practices.

• Preferred Partners: Hagler Bailly (provider of consulting, research and professional

services), Montgomery Watson (private employee-owned environmental services), Scott
Wilson

• Advisory Council: An international Advisory Council is being formed to steer the activities
of Green Globe. The Council is chaired by CRC Tourism and Green Globe Asia Pacific Pgy
Ltd and includes representatives from a number of industry bodies, including: IATA, UNEP,
WWF, PATA, Open Africa, Montgomery Watson, IUCN, Forum for the Future.

27
 Genuinely Sustainable Marine Ecotourism in the EU Atlantic Area

• Members could be: hotels, airlines, tour operators, car hire companies, travel agents,
tourist boards

• Development and introduction of Green Globe for accommodations and tour operators
(not for travel offers!); Development for destinations under construction

Criteria
• Target group: tour operators, hotels, resorts, other accommodation providers.

• Criteria: Waste minimisation, re-use and recycling, Energy efficiency, conservation and
management, Management of fresh water resources, waste-water management,
Hazardous substances, transport, Land-use planning and management, involving staff,
customers and communities in environmental issues, design of environmentally sensitive
products, partnerships for sustainable development, protection of air quality, noise
control, environmentally sensitive purchasing policy

3) Green Tourism Businesses:

http://www.green-business.com
Development / Partners / Costs

• main auditors for the scheme: Scottish Tourist Board, Highlands and Islands Enterprise

• Financing: Scottish Enterprise

• Development of criteria and application form: Shetland Environmental Agency Ltd. (SEA
ltd); SEA Ltd. are responsible for the main administration of the scheme and for
distributing the awards

• costs members 75 Euros to join at Bronze, 150 Euros for Silver and 220 Euros for Gold.
These fees are payable every two years.

Criteria
• nearly 100 measures are divided into 10 sections

• 10 sections: compulsory (have a number of staff with environmental responsibilities),

waste (reduction, recycling), energy (lighting, hot water and draught-proofing), water,
transport/cycling/walking, green products, monitoring, communication of environmental
practices to guests (joint ventures, Community, World Wide Web), wildlife and
landscape, bonus

• Bonus includes examples of innovation or particularly good practice not covered by other
sections (examples: use of electric vehicle to transport laundry, plastic curtain in doorway
of walk-in fridge, establishment of nature reserve in grounds)

Applications / Assessment procedure / Control

• Members apply for one of three levels (Bronze, Silver, Gold)

• The application form is a self-nomination form: a multiple choice for tourism business,
takes account of regional environmental differences, encompasses the diversity of tourist
business, business chooses how to achieve environmental targets

• All applicants are visited every two years by qualified environmental auditor
(Environmental Auditor’s Registration Association) from SEA Ltd. to assess the business
against the nominated criteria; to identify additional appropriate measures and offer
advice and information

28
 Annex 2

• businesses have to sell in one, two or three items from each section depending on the
level they are applying for. Additional measures which the business has to be taken
into consideration can be included under the Bonus section.

• Quality assurance scheme: Flexibility and choice, Accounts for different, geography,
age, style and local energy and waste options, involving stakeholders, Customers, staff,
local community, insurers, shareholders and regulators, Opportunity for businesses,
Potential to reach EMAS/ISO 14001 standard

• telephone support line to help business undertaking measures, achieving the different
levels, basic costs, etc.

• three levels: Bronze (basic environmental good practice); Silver (Examples of significant
good practice and performance improvements); Gold (significant good practice,
monitoring and supplier screening (ISO 14001)

4) Eco Tourism Symbol, Alcúdia

Alcúdia - Municipio Ecoturístico: Label for the hotel trade/tourist accommodation
and restaurant industry

This project to establish the first Environmental Quality Label in Spain was initiated in 1994
by the Alcúdia Municipality with the support of the Alcúdia Hotel Trade Association. Its
introduction resulted in the following actions:

• Consumption of drinking water was reduced through the installation of flow limiters,
in municipal buildings and hotels carrying the Environmental Quality Mark. Lower
energy consumption was achieved through introducing energy saving street lighting
and timers in all the municipality’s buildings. Traffic was reduced through promotion
and improvement of public transport, extension of cycle paths and the introduction of
traffic-calming areas in the town. Ecological improvements to the historic town centre
were made by offering subsidies for the restoration of façades, setting up new green
areas with indigenous plants and drawing up a plan for the restoration of Alcúdia ‘s
old town wall.

• Improved coordination and information has been achieved through the establishment
of a municipal environmental department (Servicio de Medio Ambiente). This
department coordinates a campaign to control illegal waste dumps, carries out water
quality tests (blue flag) and is responsible for refuse collection and recycling. Since
1997 the “policía verde” (green police) check offences against the environment and
monitor the observance of environmental regulations.

Source: ECOTRANS at http://www.eco-tip.org/Eco-labels/ecolabels.htm

Further information on Alcúdia is from a study in 1999 in connection with the

PREPARe approach37

1994 hotel eco-label criteria38

1 Training Courses on ‘Tourism and Environmental Protection’ to be taken by the hotel

staff (Eco-awareness enhancement).

2 Programmes to reduce waste and selective rubbish collection, with adequate

containers for every kind of waste.

29
 Genuinely Sustainable Marine Ecotourism in the EU Atlantic Area

3 Programmes to use recycled materials and ecological products (whenever possible,

that is, if they are obtainable in the market).

4 Programmes to reduce electrical consumption and to increase efficiency in the use of

energy.

5 Programmes to save water: there is a chronic scarcity of water in Mallorca.

6 Programmes for improved waste-water collection systems.

7 Programmesof noise reduction and elimination.

8 Programmes for gardens areas: 40% of the site to be gardens planted with
indigenous Mediterranean plants with low water consumption.

9 Behaviour that respects the environment and the avoidance of any action that can act
against the environment (Eco-awareness).

10 The establishment should enhance Eco-awareness by giving information to its

customers about environmentally conscious behaviour, promote the use of public
transport or other environmentally friendly/ pollution free transport modes. The
establishment should try to convince customers to make savings in water and energy
consumption during their holidays through displays or informative talks. The
establishment should have a environmental suggestions/ claims/complaints mail-box
available to hotel customers.

11 Respect for the cultural heritage of Alcúdia. The establishment’s advertising should
demonstrate respect for the culture, traditions, language, history and monuments of
Alcúdia (enhancing Eco-awareness).

12 A Programme for building design to be adapted to the architectural characteristics of

the region with use of local materials.

13 Programmes for regional menus promoting the use of fresh food or food from the
area. (The idea is that a potato, for example, from New Zealand in less environment
friendly than a potato from Sa Pobla, which is at 9 km from Alcúdia: CO2 emission is
less because the lack of transport component).

The Alcúdia Council includes the list of eco-tourism establishments in its Internet promotion
and brochures on eco-tourism. Tour operators, who play an extremely important role in
Alcúdia, have welcomed the programme. They have nearly complete control over the
25,000 beds in the dominant hotel and apartment sectors (Alcudia Council 1999).
Germany, is the major originating tourism market for Mallorca and Alcúdia and is the most
environmentally aware. German Tour Operators promoted the initiative at the Berlin ITB,
one of the world’s largest tourism fairs.

In 1998, the Alcúdia Council extended the Policy to the food and beverage sector
(restaurants, bars, cafeterias, etc). The rules are more or less the same, with small
adaptations for the special characteristics of these establishments.

30
Notes
1
Poon, A. (1993) Tourism, Technology and New York, have sadly reinforced on 29
Font X., and Buckley R.C. (Editors) (2001)
Competitive Strategies, CAB International additional safety grounds, the disadvantages op.cit
Wallingford of promoting long-distance air travel over 30
Xavier Font – personal communication
more locally or regionally based tourism.
2
The West Clare parallel study of the META- 2001
project is reported in Hoctor Z. (2001) 13
META- Project (2001) Planning for Marine 31
Font X., and Buckley R.C. (Editors) (2001)
Marine Ecotourism: A marketing Initiative in Ecotourism in the EU Atlantic Area: Good
op.cit p336
West Clare, Marine Resource Series No 21, Practice Guidance op.cit.
Marine Institute, Dublin.
32
ibid p.306
14
McKercher B. (2001) op.cit
3
Hoyt, E. (2000) Whale Watching 2000:
33
ibid p.314
15
META-Project (2001) op.cit.
Worldwide Tourism Number, Expenditures, 34
ibid p.293
and Expanding Socioeconomic Benefits.
16
META-Project (2001) op.cit.
International Fund for Animal Welfare,
35
as reported in Bruce et al.(2001) op.cit.
17
a health treatment based on sea water.
Crowborough UK 36
META-Project (2001) op.cit. p30
18
META- Project (2001) op.cit.
4
Berrow S. (2001) A study of Deep Sea 37
Bruce et al.. (2001) op.cit
Marine Ecotourism META-Project
19
McKercher B. (2001) op.cit
38
in compiling this table each criterion has
http://www.tourism-research.org 20
Marine Institute (1999) Special Interest
been allocated to an appropriate segment
5
Lindberg, K. (1991), Policies for Marine Tourism Study for Marine Institute,
of PREPARe (qv) in META- Project (2001)
Maximising Ecotourism’s Ecological and Shannon Development Corporation and
op.cit.
Economic Benefits, World Resources West Clare Council

Institute. 21
For instance a stakeholder’s experience in
6
Weaver, D.B. (2002), “The Evolving Kyle of Lochalsh (Scotland) has suggested

Concept of Ecotourism and its Potential that significant repeat business can be

Impacts”, International Journal of generated

Sustainable Development (special edition on 22

Paul Brunt (1997) Market Research in
ecotourism), Vol.5, No.3, forthcoming. Travel and Tourism , Butterworth
7
McKercher, B. (2001), “The Business of Heinemann, Oxford details the issues

Ecotourism”, in Weaver, D. (ed.), The involved.

Encyclopedia of Ecotourism, CABI 23

McKercher B. (2001) op. cit.
Wallingford
24
Palmer A (2001) ‘Principles of Services
8
META-Project (2001), “Planning for Marine Marketing’ 3rd Edition McGraw Hill.
Ecotourism in the EU Atlantic Area: Good
25
META- Project (2001) op.cit.
Practice Guidance”, UWE, Bristol,
http://www.tourism-research/meta (p29-30) 26
Font, X and Buckley R.(Editors) 2001
Tourism Ecolabelling: certification and
9
Holloway J.C. and Robinson C., (1995)
promotion of sustainable tourism CABI
Marketing for Tourism Longman Harlow, UK
Publishing, Wallingford
10
Fuller D. 1999 Sustainable Marketing:
27
ibid Forward by de Lardarel J.
Managerial-Ecological issues, Sage,
Thousand Oaks CA 28
Bruce D., Jackson M. and Serra Cantallops
A. (2001) PREPARe: A model to aid the
11
World Commission on Environment and
development of policies for less
Development (WCED) (1987) Our Common
unsustainable tourism in historic towns,
Future, OUP, Oxford p168.
Tourism and Hospitality Research 3:1,21-36
12
The events of 11th September 2001 in

31
 Acknowledgements
The authors of this document are David Bruce, Zena Hoctor, Brian Garrod and Julie Wilson

The META- UWE team - David Bruce, Brian Garrod and Julie Wilson - would like to extend
their thanks and appreciation to the following people for their invaluable contribution to
the META- Project: Erlet Cater (University of Reading), Simon Berrow (Shannon Whale and
Dolphin Foundation), Maria Casado-Diaz, Vincent Nadin, Marion Jackson, Rosemary Burton,
Isobel Daniels, Delphine Guillemoteau, Christina Smith, Phil Taylor, Michelle Elliot (UWE,
Bristol), José Cardénes, Mario Benitez and Cristina Morales (META- MBA Escuela de
Negocios MBA, Gran Canaria partner team), Paul Lucas, Alison McNamara, Emily Hugues-
Dit-Ciles, Dominic Acland and Nigel Smallbones (META- Torbay Council partner team), Anne
Wilkinson, Zena Hoctor and Nessa O’Connor (META- Marine Institute Dublin, Ireland
partner team), Lisa Henry, Delwyn Matthews and Dominic Houston (UK South West
Tourism), Carlos Fernandes (Politecnica de Viana do Castelo, Portugal), Greg Richards
(European Association of Leisure and Tourism Education ATLAS) and Alastair Birtles (James
Cook University of Northern Queensland).

Additionally, we would like to thank all co-financiers of the META- Project: the EU Interreg
IIc (Atlantic Area) Programme, The UK Department for Transport, Local Government and the
Regions (DTLR), South West Tourism, the Consejería de Turismo del Gobierno de Canarias,
the Patronato de Turismo del Cabildo de Gran Canaria and the Federación de Empresarios
de Hosteleria y Turismo de Gran Canaria.

Also thanks to Catherine Brown (Atlantic Area Secretariat) , Elizabeth Halpenny, Vanessa
Williams (WDCS), Celine Liret, Chris Parsons (HWDT), Caroline Warburton, Tim Whitehead,
Les Crump, Kevin Mowatt, Jo Trethewey, Robin Teverson, the Delphi Study Panellists, Project
Supporters (Marine Conservation Society, Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society,
Ecoscope Conservation UK, Hebridean Whale and Dolphin Trust, Plymouth City Council,
Shannon Development and the Biscay Dolphin Research Programme) and all those
individuals who took part in the consultation process in August 2001.

32
 for further information on the META- Project,
please visit
http://www.tourism-research.org

META- Project,
c/o Centre for Research, Innovation and Industry (CRII)
University of the West of England, Bristol
Frenchay Campus
Coldharbour Lane
Bristol BS16 1QY
United Kingdom

meta@uwe.ac.uk

Co-financed by the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF) via the EU UWE, BRISTOL F.11.01
Interreg IIc (Atlantic Area) programme and the UK DTLR Printing & Stationery Services