The Spread of Western Science

By George Basalla

THE MODEL
 Phase 1: The nonscientific society or nation provides a source for European science.
 Phase 2: A period of colonial science.
 Phase 3: Completes the process of transplantation with a struggle to achieve an
independent scientific tradition (or culture).

Figure 1: Sequence of phases in the diffusion of Western Science

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PHASE 1: GEOGRAPHICAL EXPLORATION

 European observers survey, classify, and appraise the organic and inorganic
environment.
 Phase 1 science is not limited to the uncivilized country where European settlement
is the object. It is also to be found in regions already occupied by ancient
civilizations, some with indigenous scientific traditions like India and China.

PHASE 2: COLONIAL SCIENCE

 The first colonial scientists join in the survey of the organic and inorganic
environment conducted by the European observers.
 This training will direct the colonial scientist’s interests to the scientific fields and
problems delineated by European scientists.
 Benjamin Franklin and Mikhail V. Lomonosov – Heroes of Colonial Science
 American scientists opt to pursue graduate studies or gain Ph.D.’s in Europe.
 Meiji Restoration – importation of American and European scientists, engineers, and
physicians to serve in native universities as teachers of aspiring scientists;
translation of Western scientific textbooks

PHASE 3: INDEPENDENT SCIENTIFIC TRADITION

 Completes the process of transplantation with the struggle to achieve an
independent scientific tradition.
 The US and Russia replaced Western Europe as leading scientific nations.
 Phase 3 science is marked by a conscious struggle to reach an independent status.
 Tasks to be completed to attain an independent scientific culture:
1. Resistance to science on the basis of philosophical and religious beliefs
must be overcome and replaced by positive encouragement of
scientific research.
2. The social role and place of the scientist need to be determined in
order to insure society’s approval of his labor.
 3. Clarify the relationship between science and government.
4. The teaching of science should be introduced into all levels of
educational system, provided that an adequate educational system
already exists.
5. Native scientific organizations should be founded which are specifically
dedicated to the promotion of science.
6. Channels must be opened to facilitate formal national and international
scientific communication. This can be accomplished by founding
appropriate scientific journals and then gaining their widespread
recognition.
7. A proper technological base should be made available for the growth of
science.

Science, Technology, and Imperialism I:

The Case of India
By Ian Inkster

IMPERIALISM
 Imperialism represented a vent for surplus, a source of strategic raw materials and
foodstuffs, a market for the cotton manufactures of Europe.
 “Informal Imperialism” (where an industrial nation brought its political power to
bear upon nominally independent states)
 Imperialism may include more than colonialism, with all the result of administration
to the home economy entailed in the latter term.
 An “imperialist” is any force acting upon a relatively underdeveloped nation of the
19th century which did not directly arise from the workings of the international
economy per se.

• After the Dutch supremacy in Southeast Asia, the British established

bases in India at Madras, Bombay, and Calcutta.
• The decline of the Mughals in India and the defeat of the French in 1763
provided opportunities for further British territorial expansion and direct
rule over Bengal. This gave Britain the ability to protect her commercial
and strategic interests elsewhere in Asia.
• Annexation of states in India such as Satara, Nagpur, Jaitpur, etc. and its
associated policy of land tenure form caused widespread unrest of which
the best known was the Indian Mutiny of 1857. This led to the exit of the
East Indian Company while British Crown assumed the government of
India.
• This, in turn, had removed the effective sovereignty of the Indian people.
Throughout the rest of the century, India became strategically important
to further expansionary activity in Asia.

THE CASE OF INDIA

E.N. Komarov published (in 1962) the negative effects of British colonialism
to the economy of India. The following are the Komarov’s claims:
1. Even before the British came to India, its economy had already started
to become industrialized. Towns were centers of the handicraft
 industry during India’s pre-colonial period.
2. The British East India Company monopolized the Indian economy. This
caused the decrease of native merchant capitalists in India.
3. Reforms on tenure brought about the exploitation of peasantry by
giving landlords more authority over the property of the peasant and
the peasant itself.
4. There was unequal trade relationship between Britain and India during
the industrial revolution of Britain, thus preventing the development of
the Indian economy and its transition from feudalism to capitalism.
5. The industrial workers were exploited as the production of raw
materials was forced to be increased, further preventing the rise of
capitalism in India.
6. Agricultural technology was not developed as the labor became
cheaper and as the employment became scarce. These were due to
additional tenure and revenue system reforms of Britain.
7. The industry in India was not modeled after the British industries. The
Indian industry was saddled by the excessive colonial imports coming
in and payments on taxes and other responsibilities which weren’t
translated to reproduction but administrative purposes.

In Irfan Habib’s work, he describes the economy of India during the Mughal
period. Habib stated that the adaptation of new technologies, especially in
agriculture, weren’t hindered by the existing differentiation of peasantry and other
value systems but by insufficient capital and skills needed from the people in such
technologies. He also said that prior to British colonialism, the caste system was
already disintegrating and capitalism and industrialism was rising.

“Drain” and “de-industrialization” are the usual topics of debate in the analysis of
the Indian economy.
“Drain” pertains to the consumption and eventual drain of the resources of
economy from its revenue as they were used mainly for administrative purposes
instead of being used in the continuation of the production. The interests paid in
debts, military charges and civil charges were some of the administrative
responsibilities were the bulk of the gains were used.
“De-industrialization” in India was due to the clinging of the economy to
agriculture rather than manufacturing or other industries. Although their exports
increased, technological diffusion and industrial revolution was prevented in India
because of this.

As a conclusion, the presence of the British imperialist power in India had

deprived the effective diffusion of new technologies and industrialism in India by
aggression, inequality in trading, lack of economic sovereignty, and absence
policies to protect the peasantry and workers.

TRANSFER, DIFFUSION, AND THE BRITISH

I. The object of the East India Company was to transfer the European “natural history
enterprise” to India for purely commercial purposes.
A. The Royal Botanic Gardens (1787) researched in economic botany, mineralogy and
zoology and aimed to disseminate botanical articles for the extension of national
commerce and riches.
 B. Geological Survey of India (1851) attended to commercial potential of coal, iron,
etc, and employed only Europeans in the higher offices.
C. Discovery of resources in India; processing in Britain
II. The activity in Education was dictated by racist attitudes
A. Racism became prejudicial.
B. Focus was on medicine and administration rather than engineering or commerce.
C. Philosophy of “downward filtration” and creation of a class of intellectual
compradores which eventually may filter the masses, and there was neglect of
mass primary education.
III. There was considerable evidence of stirring of indigenous Indian activity despite
British claims that educated classes of India were not interested in scientific
instruction.
A. Hindu attempts to establish own institutions for European studies e.g
1. Delhi College
2. Anglo-Indian College and Hindu Sanskrit College
3. Aligarh scientific society
4. Bihar Scientific Society etc...
B. The purpose of Societies such as these was to translate European works on science
and technology to provide intellectual basis for Indian industrial and agricultural
improvement.
C. The British response to all this was minimal.
1. Minimal number of graduates from courses such as engineering
2. Higher colleges offered meager scientific and technical provisions and
demonstrated little sensitivity to the specific, highly localized needs of the Indian
economy.
IV. The British interest remained with commerce, acclimatization, and the natural
history enterprise.
A. Raj policy did not erect institutions which could provide a significant cadre of skilled
workers for Indian or western enterprise.
B. As far as technical instruction was concerned, the British believed only in the
“educational function” of successful industrial projects.
C. 1888 government Resolution reflected the failure of the Raj as a “transfer
mechanism”.
1. Extension of railways, mills and factories create demand for skilled labor and
educated foremen; technical schools would be established, and aggravate the
present difficulties by adding to the educated unemployed a new class of
professional men for whom there is no commercial demand.
V. The Raj industrial policy did not in fact lead to either an increased demand for
skilled Indian labor or the generation of educational servicing institutions.
VI. The fully modern sector projects became the last resort of those who sought a
transfer mechanism.
A. Steam powered machines’ economic importance were stressed.
B. But it was also argued that little of this required service of Indian engineers, and an
activity such as the railway might strengthen Indian production of raw material
rather than manufacturing because of low cost of import
C. In contrast, the introduction of the railway system has been seen as the high mark
of British technological achievement in India.
D. Karl Marx wrote: when you have once introduced machinery into locomotion of a
country which possesses iron and coals, you are unable to withhold it from its
fabrication (but reservations still abound, as is enumerated in Inkster’s article)
 Science, Technology, and Imperialism II:
The Case of China
By Ian Inkster

THE CASE OF CHINA

China, “the victim of imperialism without annexation”, became a prey of the
western predatory imperialist nations after the two opium wars.

The first opium war (1840-42) came about when the Chinese authorities
destroyed the opium which were illegally brought and sold in China by the British
traders. This war was won by Britain and China was forced to sign the Treaty of
Nanking (1842). The provisions of the treaty were:
1. Opening of five ports (Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo, and Shanghai) to British
trade.
2. Renouncing the island of Hong Kong to Great Britain,
3. Payment of war indemnity ($21,000,000), and
4. Enabling all British traders to do business directly with the people.

The second opium war (1856-60) came about when a French missionary was
killed by a Chinese. China lost to the alliance of France and Britain and the Treaties
of Tientsin (1858) and the Peking Convention (1860) were signed with the following
provisions:
1. Cession of the Kowloon peninsula to Great Britain,
2. Foreign diplomats were allowed to reside in Peking,
3. Ten more ports in China were opened to international trade,
4. Foreigners were allowed to wander to any part of China,
5. Christian missionaries were given protection, and
6. The Opium trade was legalized.

China became a vulnerable country and this weakness was taken advantage
by the imperialist powers—Britain, France, Prussia, Denmark, Holland, Spain,
Belgium, Italy and Austria-Hungary. They divided the vast land of China into pieces
of territories called the Spheres of Influence over which the imperialist power has
the exclusive right to exploit the natural resources found in its piece.

The imperialist powers in China until 1895 were Europeans and Americans.
After the loss of China in the Sino-Japanese war (1894-95), the Treaty of
Shimonoseki was signed with the provisions that China would give up its claim in
Korea, paid a war indemnity ($158,000,000), and cession of Formosa, Arthur Port,
and Liaotung Peninsula to Japan. The war also opened China to new imperialist
powers such as Russia. Under the Russian imperialism, the Trans-Siberian railway
was constructed for the following purposes:
1. To promote the economic development of China and other colonies of Russia,
2. To provide easier transportation of Russian troops to its colonies, and
3. To connect Moscow and Vladivostok (“Dominion of the East”).

As a conclusion, the Chinese economy died during the first part of

imperialism (under Americans and Europeans) for only the foreigners controlled and
gained in the trades. Technological transfer and industrialization could have been
effective if China controlled its economy. Under the Russian imperialism, aside from
Suez Canal, the Trans-Siberian railroad aided to the diffusion of technology in China.

 19th century
- China’s economic retardation
- S. Thomas’ pertinent historiography
- Internal barriers: Confucianism, Emperor system, demographic
trends, officialdom in class structure, firm government
- Foreign intervention: trade patterns, investment, technology
 Western Impact
- Positive
- Neutral
- Insignificant
 Confucianism
- Political principles taught by Confucius
- A belief, but is not considered a religion since it does not include
devotion to any gods
- China’s social structure
- Educated Chinese comprised the Public Administration
 Compradores
- Group of middlemen
- Chinese merchants
 Manchu/Ching Dynasty (1644-1911)
- Halted developments were because of increase of land, product
taxes. Famine wreckage, declination of shipping
 Economic Backwardness
- Government intervention
 Economic Forwardness
- Wealthy merchants
 Late 18 century and early 19th century
th

- China was self-sufficient in economical aspects

- Foreign trade was dominated by Canton system
 Foreign economic relations
- Treaty ports
- Small relative to size of Chinese economy
 Japan was more effective than China
- High investment
- Various aid to industry and commerce
 Negativity of Chinese government
- Foreign relationships
- Transport improvements

TRANSFER MECHANISMS
The treaty ports, the same as foreign settlements, were said to have played
an important role in the transfer of technology and industrial knowledge from the
foreigners to the Chinese people by providing employment and training grounds. In
fact Shanghai, which is the largest treaty port, was able to establish its Gas
 Company, improved waterworks and electric power plant in the late 1800s.

But as a whole, the changes brought about by the ports are small. Aside from
local resistance, the commerce between ports included only raw materials, so there
was little technology transfer. Another was the development of the comprador
system, dominated by the compradores (Chinese merchant and manager of foreign
firms). This slowed down the introduction of Western ideas into the industry. Instead
of being helpful, the treaty ports were looked upon as enemies of the government,
accusing the settlements as refuge for criminals and republicans.

The Chinese officialdom’s reaction to innovations brought about by the ports

is not based purely on their idealistic nature though, but also from the realities of
the treaty ports culture. In their refusal to sanction the dredging of Woosung Bar,
Shanghai, they saw Chinkiang and Hankow growing, but at the expense of
Shanghai.

When the designing of the railway linking Shanghai and Soochow was
started, the officials’ delayed aid for the foreigners was due to conflicts in policies.
Fortunately, in 1882, supports for the construction of the railway were improved
after satisfying criteria like employing Chinese labor. Still, the project’s progress
turned out very slow. The effect of the railway in the Chinese economy was little on
the positive side since the foreign capital exerted control over the system.

In conclusion, the small size of the systems established in China was not only
due to the traditional ways of the Chinese, but also the negative effects of the
Western attempt for industrialization.

ENLARGED INTERCOURSE – INDIA, CHINA, AND JAPAN

I. India and China had much in common
A. Both large in population
B. Suffered threat and invasion
C. Developed military despotisms
D. Numerous languages, dialects, ignorance etc. hindered the emergence of either
nationalism or entrepreneurship
II. Under the right conditions, regions industrialized in a manner analogous to
advancing areas of Europe and Russia in the late nineteenth century
A. “China was too large as to absorb into itself without trace the modernization which
stemmed from the treaty ports.”
B. The history of Manchuria in the early 20th century suggests that there was little in
Chinese culture which prohibited economic modernization.
III. Traumatic shocks to existing economic and political systems merely reduced the
efficiency of social control mechanisms and in the case of India and China loss of
sovereignty over decision making in the economic sphere.
a. There was disestablishment of rural by-employments in China and India.
IV. The Japanese government concentrated its efforts upon the wholesale use of
western techniques and personnel as a prelude to the indigenisation of knowledge
and decision making.
A. 1880- the local mines of Takashima were taken over by Mitsubishi; water wheels for
drainage and techniques for excavation were introduced
B. The introduction of western technologies into the 43 government metal mines
 (1868-75) redefined the effective resource base. < for more examples refer to the
article by Inkster>
V. Of the three nations (China, India, Japan), China seems to stand as an intellectual
contender to the West, and Japanese science was basically Chinese science for most
of the nation’s history, yet Japan used the artifacts of Western Science to escape
from remaining a second-class citizen of the world.