AP Calculus Notes Unit 1- Evaluating Limits Analytically (Section 1.

3)

In the previous section (1.2), we evaluated limits graphically and numerically. Now we will evaluate
limits analytically (Section 1.3). The three methods we will focus on are (1) Direct Substitution, (2)
Dividing Out/Factoring, and (3) Using Conjugates to Rationalize Functions.

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I. Direct Substitution

There are some cases when the limit of f(x) as x approaches c is equal to f(c). Mathematically
speaking this means that: lim  f (c) . In these cases we can use Direct Substitution. Direct
x c

Substitution can only be used to find the limit for functions that have non-zero denominators. If
the function has a non-zero denominator, substitute c in for x and evaluate the function.

Theorem: Basic Limits (used for direct substitution)

Let b and c be real numbers and let n be a positive integer

1. lim b  c 2. lim x  c 3. lim x n  c n

x c x c x c

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Directions: Find the Limit.

1) lim17  2) lim x  3) lim x3  4) lim x5 

x5 x 3 x 2 x 6

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Theorem: Properties of Limits

Let b and c be real numbers, let n be a positive integer, and let f and g be functions with the following
limits.
lim f ( x)  L and lim g ( x)  M
x c x c

1. Sum and Difference Rules: lim  f ( x)  g ( x)   L  M

x c
The limit of the sum or difference of two functions is the sum or difference of their limits.
2. Product Rule: lim  f ( x) g ( x)   LM
x c
The limit of a product of two functions is the product of their limits.
f ( x) L
3. Quotient Rule: lim  ,M  0
x c g ( x) M
The limit of a quotient of two functions is the quotient of their limits, provided the limit of the
denominator is not zero.
4. Scalar(Constant) Rule: lim  bf ( x)   bL
x c
The limit of a scalar times a function is the scalar times the limit.
lim  f ( x)  Ln
n
5. Power Rule:
x c
The limit of a function raised to a power is the limit raised to that power.
Directions: Find the Limit. Identify which property you used to find the limit.

x 2

1. lim 4 x 2  3  2. lim5 x3
x 1
3. lim  x  1 x  3 
x 2
4. lim
x 5
x
x2

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Let’s Examine Problems #2 and #4 more closely….

#2 -The function lim5 x3 is a polynomial function. Finding the limit of a function is the same as finding a
x 1

basic limit using direct substitution.

x
#4 -The function lim is a rational function. Finding the limit of a rational function is the same as
x 5 x  2

finding the limit of a function using the quotient rule….more specifically:

Theorem: Limits of Polynomial and Rational Functions

If p is a polynomial function and c is a real number, then
lim p( x)  p(c)
x c
If r is a rational function given by r(x)=p(x)/q(x) and c is a real number such that q( x)  0 , then
p (c )
lim r ( x)  r (c) 
x c q (c )
*Direct Substitution is valid for all polynomial and rational functions*

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Polynomial functions and Rational Functions are two of three basic types of algebraic functions. The
following theorem deals with the third type of algebraic function- one that involves a radical.

Theorem: The Limit of a Function Involving a Radical

Let n be a positive integer. The following limit is valid for c if n is odd, and is valid for c >0 if n is even.
lim n x  n c
x c

Directions: Find the Limit

3 5
1. lim x 2. lim x 3. lim x 4. lim x
x  27 x  25 x 64 x 36
Analyzing limits of Composite Functions

Theorem: The Limit of a Composite Function

If f and g are functions such that lim g ( x)  L and lim f ( x)  f ( L) , then
x c x c

 
lim f ( g ( x))  f lim g ( x)  f ( L)
x c x c

In other words find the limit of the “inside” function, and then plug that limit into the “outside”
function.

Directions: Find the Limit

1. f ( x)  x  1 ; g ( x)  x 4

(a) lim f ( g ( x)) (d) lim g ( g ( x))

x 2 x 2

(b) lim g ( f ( x))

x 2

(c) lim f ( f ( x))

x 2

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So far we have seen that the limits of many algebraic functions can be evaluated by direct substitution.
Each of the six basic trigonometric functions can also be evaluated by direct substitution.

Theorem: Limits of Trigonometric Functions

Let c be a real number in the domain of the given trigonometric function.

1. limsin x  sin c 2. lim cos x  cos c

x c x c

3. lim tan x  tan c 4. lim cot x  cot c

x c x c

5. limsec x  sec c 6. lim csc x  csc c

x c x c

Directions. Find the Limit.

2) lim  x cos x  3) lim  sin x 

2
1) lim tan x
x 0 x  x 0
 Evaluating Limits Analytically (1.3 Cont’d)
A Strategy for Finding Limits

Previously, we evaluated the limits of different functions by direct substitution. There are two
additional methods, (1) Factoring/Dividing Out and (2) Rationalizing using the Conjugate, that when
used with the theorem below and our knowledge about direct substitution, allow us to develop a
strategy for evaluating limits.

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Theorem 1.7 : Functions that Agree at All but One Point

Let c be a real number and let f ( x)  g ( x) for all x  c in an open interval containing c. If the limit
of g(x) as x approaches c exists, then the limit of f(x) also exists and

lim f ( x)  lim g ( x)
x c x c

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This theorem will introduce us to our next technique……Finding the Limit by Factoring or the
Dividing Out Technique.

Let’s evaluate the following limit using direct substitution:

x3  1    1 =_____
3
Ex. 1 So we can see that using direct substitution will give us a
lim =
x 1 x  1
  1 denominator of zero which is a indeterminate form. We
cannot evaluate a limit when it is in the indeterminate
form, so we must manipulate the function using the
above theorem and Factoring/Dividing out.

So in order to evaluate this limit we will factor the function and see if we can cancel any factors.

x3  1  x  1  x  x  1
2

f ( x)    x 2  x  1  g ( x) x≠0
x 1  x  1
So for all values other than x-1, f and g agree. Because lim g ( x) exists, we can apply Theorem 1.7
x 1

to conclude that f and g have the same limit at x=1.

x3  1  x  1  x  x  1 x3  1
2

 = lim  x  x  1 = 1  1  1  3 Therefore: =3
2
lim 2
lim
x1 x  1  x  1 x 1 x 1 x  1
 Ex. 2 x2  x  6
Find the limit: lim
x 3 x3

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Finding the Limit by Rationalizing

x 1 1 x  1 1 0
Find the limit: lim ……By direct substitution lim  the indeterminate form…
x 0 x x  0 x 0

In this case we will rewrite the fraction by rationalizing the NUMERATOR.

x 1 1
f(x)=
x

 x  1  1  x  1  1 
  
 x  1  1 
 x  

=
 x  1  1
x  x 1 1 
x
=
x  x 1 1 
1
= ,x  0
x 1 1

Now using Theorem 1.7, you can evaluate the limit as follows

x 1 1 1
lim = lim =
x 0 x x 0 x 1 1

Let’s use a table to confirm the limit is ½.

x approaches 0 from the left. x approaches 0 from the right.

x -0.25 -0.1 -0.01 -0.001 0 0.001 0.01 0.1 0.25

f(x)

f(x) approaches 0.5 from the left. f(x) approaches 0.5 from the right

x 5 3
Ex. 3 Find the limit: lim
x 0 x4
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Two Special Trigonometric Limits

sin x 1  cos x
1. lim 1 2. lim 0
x 0 x x 0 x

Finding Limits Involving Trigonometric Functions

tan x
Ex. 4 Find the limit: lim
x 0 x

sin 4 x
Ex. 5 Find the limit: lim
x 0 x

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A Strategy for Finding Limits

1. Learn to recognize limits which can be evaluated by direct substitution. (This includes the
Theorems we learned in this Section.
2. If the limit as f(x) as x approaches c cannot be evaluated by direct substitution, try to find
a function g that agrees with f for all other x other than x=c. (Choose g such that the limit
of g(x) can be evaluated by direct substitution.)
3. Apply Theorem 1.7 to conclude that analytically: lim f ( x)  lim g ( x)  g (c)
x c x c

4. Use a graph or a table to reinforce your conclusion.