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B ENITO M USSOLINI

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Born: July 29, 1883


Predappio, Italy
Died: April 28, 1945
Como, Italy
Italian dictator

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Benito Mussolini was head of the Italian government from 1922 to 1943. He was the
founder of fascism, and as a dictator he held absolute power and severely mistreated his
citizens and his country. He led Italy into three straight wars, the last of which led to his
overthrow by his own people.
Early life and career
Benito Mussolini was born at Dovia di Predappio, Italy, on July 29, 1883. The Mussolinis
were a poor family who lived in a crowded two-bedroom apartment. His father was a
blacksmith and a follower of socialism (a system providing for the sharing of land and
goods equally among all people); his mother taught elementary school. Benito, although
intelligent, was violent and had a large ego. He was a poor student at school and learned
very little. As a student at a boarding school in Faenza, Italy, Mussolini stabbed another
student, and as a result he was expelled. After receiving his diploma in 1901 he briefly
taught secondary school. He went to Switzerland in 1902 to avoid military service, where
he associated with other socialists. Mussolini returned to Italy in 1904, spent time in the
military, and engaged in politics full time thereafter.

Mussolini had become a member of the Socialist Party in 1900 and had begun to attract
wide admiration. In speeches and articles he was extreme and violent, urging revolution
at any cost, but he was also well spoken. Mussolini held several posts as editor and labor
leader until he emerged in the 1912 Socialist Party Congress. He became editor of the
party's daily paper, Avanti, at the age of twenty-nine. His powerful writing injected
excitement into the Socialist ranks. In a party that had accomplished little in recent years,
his youth and his intense nature was an advantage. He called for revolution at a time
when revolutionary feelings were sweeping the country.

From Socialist to Fascist


Mussolini deserted the Socialist Party in 1914 to cross over to the enemy camp, the
Italian middle class. He knew that World War I (1914–18) would bury the old Europe,
and he began to prepare for "the unknown." In late 1914 he founded an independent
newspaper, Popolo d'Italia, and backed it up with his own movement, the Autonomous
Fascists. He drew close to the new forces in Italian politics, the extreme middle-class
youth, and he made himself their spokesman. The Italian working class now called
Mussolini "Judas" and "traitor." Mussolini was wounded during army training in 1917,
but he managed to return to politics that same year. His newspaper, which he now backed
with a second political movement, Revolutionary Fascists, was his main strength. After
the war, Mussolini's career declined. He organized his third movement, Constituent
Fascists, in 1918, but it did not survive. Mussolini ran for office in the 1919
parliamentary elections but was defeated.
Benito Mussolini.
Reproduced by permission of
AP/Wide World Photos
.

In March 1919 Mussolini founded another movement, Fighting Fascists, won the favor of
the Italian youth, and waited for events to favor him. The elections in 1921 sent him to
Parliament at the head of thirty-five Fascist deputies; the third assembly of his movement
gave birth to a national party, the National Fascist Party, with more than 250 thousand
followers and Mussolini as its uncontested leader. In October 1922 Mussolini
successfully marched into Rome, Italy. He now enjoyed the support of key groups
(industry, farmers, military, and church), whose members accepted Mussolini's solution
to their problems: organize middle-class youth, control workers harshly, and set up a
tough central government to restore "law and order." Thereafter, Mussolini attacked the
workers and spilled their blood over Italy. It was the complete opposite of his early views
of socialism.

Fascist state
Once in power, Mussolini took steps to remain there. He set general elections, but they
were fixed to always provide him with an absolute majority in Parliament. The
assassination of the Socialist leader Giacomo Matteotti, a noted opponent, by Fascist
followers reversed his fortunes and nearly brought him down. Mussolini, however,
recovered. He suspended civil liberties, destroyed all opposition, and imposed open
dictatorship (absolute rule). In 1929 his Concordat with the Vatican settled the historic
differences between the Italian state and the Roman Catholic Church. Pope Pius XI
(1857–1939) said that Mussolini had been sent "by Divine Providence."

As the 1930s began, Mussolini was seated safely in power and enjoyed wide support. The
strongest groups who had put Mussolini into power now profited from it. However, the
living standard of the working majority fell; the average Italian worker's income
amounted to one-half of that of a worker in France, one-third of that of a worker in
England, and one-fourth of that of a worker in America. As national leader, Mussolini
offered no solutions for Italy's problems. He surrounded himself with ambitious and
greedy people and let them bleed Italy dry while his secret agents gathered information
on opponents.

Mussolini's three wars


In 1930 economic depression (a decline in the production of goods because of a decline
in demand, accompanied by rising unemployment) arrived in Italy. Mussolini reacted at
first with a public works program but soon shifted to foreign adventure. The 1935
Ethiopian War was planned to direct attention away from internal problems. The "Italian
Empire," Mussolini's creation, was announced in 1936. The 1936 Spanish intervention, in
which Mussolini aided Francisco Franco (1892–1975) in Spain's civil war, followed but
had no benefit for Italy. Mussolini then joined forces with German dictator Adolf Hitler
(1889–1945) and in 1938 began to attack Jewish people within the country just as
Germany was doing. As the 1930s ended, Mussolini was losing all his support within
Italy.

The outbreak of World War II (1939–45) left Mussolini an unimportant figure in world
politics, and he worried that Hitler would redraw the map of Europe without him. He
decided "to make war at any cost." The cost was clear: modern industry, modern armies,
and popular support. Mussolini lacked all of these. Nonetheless, in 1940 he pushed Italy
into war against the will of the people, ignoring the only meaningful lesson of World War
I: the United States alone had decided that conflict, and therefore America, not Germany,
was the most important power.

Disaster and death


In 1940–41 Mussolini's armies, badly supplied and poorly led, suffered defeats from
Europe across the Mediterranean to the African continent. Italy lost its war in 1942;
Mussolini's power collapsed six months later. Restored as Hitler's puppet in northern Italy
in 1943, he drove Italy deeper into invasion, occupation, and civil war during 1944 and
1945. The end approached, but Mussolini struggled to survive. He was finally executed
by a firing squad on April 28, 1945, at Dongo in Como province.

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J OSEPH S TALIN
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Born: December 21, 1879


Gori, Georgia
Died: March 5, 1953
Moscow, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
Russian ruler

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The Soviet statesman Joseph Stalin was the supreme ruler of the Soviet Union. He led his
country alongside America and England through World War II (1939–45) in their fight
against Germany, Italy and Japan. As ruler of Russia, Stalin was the leader of world
communism for almost thirty years.
Early years
Joseph Stalin was born Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili on December 21, 1879, in
Gori, Georgia. He was the only surviving son of Vissarion Dzhugashvili, a cobbler who
first practiced his craft in a village shop but later in a shoe factory in the city. Stalin's
father died in 1891. Stalin's mother, Ekaterina, a religious and illiterate (unable to read or
write) peasant woman, sent her teenage son to the theological seminary in Tpilisi (Tiflis),
Georgia, where Stalin prepared for the ministry. Shortly before his graduation, however,
he was expelled in 1899 for spreading subversive views (ideas that went against those of
the government).

Stalin then joined the underground revolutionary Marxist movement in Tpilisi, a


movement devoted to the views of Karl Marx (1818–1883) and Frederich Engels (1821–
1896), who believed in the political system of socialism that gave power to the working
class and would ultimately lead to communism, where goods and services would be
distributed by the government. In 1901 he was elected a member of the Tpilisi committee
of the Russian Social Democratic Workers Party. The following year he was arrested,
imprisoned, and later exiled (forced to move) to Siberia, a cold and remote region of
Russia. Stalin escaped from Siberia in 1904 and rejoined the Marxist underground in
Tpilisi. When the Russian Marxist movement split into two factions (rival groups), Stalin
identified himself with the Bolsheviks.

During the time of the 1904–1905 revolution, Stalin made a name for himself as the
organizer of daring bank robberies and raids on money transports, an activity that Marxist
leader V. I. Lenin (1870–1924) considered important due to the party's need for funds.
Many other Marxists considered this type of highway robbery unworthy of a
revolutionary socialist.

Stalin participated in congresses (governing parties) of the Russian Social Democratic


Workers Party at Tampere, London, and Stockholm, Sweden, in 1905 and 1906, meeting
Lenin for the first time at these congresses. In 1912 Lenin recruited Stalin into the Central
Committee of the Bolshevik party. Stalin spent the major portion of the years from 1905
to 1912 in organizational work for the movement, mainly in the city of Baku, Russia. The
secret police arrested him several times, and several times he escaped. Eventually, after
his return from Vienna, Austria, the police caught him again, and he was exiled to the
faraway village of Turukhansk beyond the Arctic Circle. He remained there until the fall
of czarism, the Russian rule of a sole leader or king. He adopted the name Stalin ("man of
steel") around 1913.

First Years of Soviet rule


After the fall of czarism, Stalin made his way at once to Petrograd, Russia, where until
the arrival of Lenin from Switzerland he was the senior Bolshevik and the editor of
Pravda, the party newspaper. After Lenin's return, Stalin remained in the high councils of
the party, but had only a small role in the preparations for the October Revolution, which
placed the Bolsheviks in power. In the first position of the communist Soviet
government, he held the post of people's commissar for nationalities (in charge of party
loyalty).

Within the party, he rose to the highest ranks, becoming a member of both the Political
Bureau and the Organizational Bureau. When the party Secretariat was organized, he
became one of its leading members and was appointed its secretary general in 1922,
where Lenin appreciated Stalin's ability as a politician and as a troubleshooter. The
strength of Stalin's position in the government and in the party was probably anchored by
his secretary generalship, which gave him control over party personnel administration—
over admissions, training, assignments, promotions, and disciplinary matters. This
position also ranked him as the most powerful man in Soviet Russia after Lenin.

Rise to power
During Lenin's last illness and after his death in 1924, Stalin served as a member of the
three-man committee that ran the affairs of the party and the country. Stalin represented,
for the time, the right wing (conservative) of the party that wanted to stay true to the ideas
of the revolution. He and his spokesman, Nikolai Bukharin (1888–1938), warned against
revolutionaries and argued in favor of continuing the more cautious and patient policies
that Lenin had installed with the New Economic Policy (NEP).

In 1927 Stalin succeeded in defeating the entire opposition and in eliminating its leaders
from the party. He then adopted much of its domestic program by starting a five-year
plan of industrial development and by executing it with a degree of recklessness that
angered many of his former supporters, who then formed an opposition to him. This
opposition, too, was defeated quickly, and by the early 1930s Stalin had gained dictatorial
(total) control over the party, the state, and the entire Communist International.

Joseph Stalin.
Reproduced by permission of
AP/Wide World Photos
.

Stalin's personality
Although always depicted as a towering figure, Stalin, in fact, was fairly short. His
personality was highly controversial, and it remains a mystery. Stalin was crude and cruel
and, in some important ways, a primitive man. In political life he tended to be cautious
and slow-moving, and his writing style was much the same. Stalin was at times, however,
a clever speaker and a fierce debater. He seems to have possessed boundless energy and
an amazing ability to absorb detailed knowledge.

About Stalin's private life, little is known beyond the fact that he seems always to have
been a lonely man. His first wife, a Georgian girl named Ekaterina Svanidze, died of
tuberculosis, a terrible disease that attacks the lungs and bones. His second wife,
Nadezhda Alleluyeva, killed herself in 1932, apparently over Stalin's dictatorial rule of
the party. The only child from his first marriage, Jacob, fell into German hands during
World War II (1939–45; a war fought between the Axis—Germany, Italy, and Japan—
and the Allies—led by Britain, France, the Soviet Union, and, later, the United States)
and was killed. The two children from his second marriage outlived their father, but they
were not always on good terms with him. The son, Vasili, an officer in the Soviet air
force, drank himself to death in 1962. The daughter, Svetlana, fled to the United States in
the 1960s.

Stalin's achievements
In back-to-back five-year plans, the Soviet Union under Stalin began to modernize (to
accept modern ideas and styles) with great speed. Although the military needs of the
country drained away precious resources, and World War II brought total destruction to
several cities and death to many millions of citizens, the nation by the end of Stalin's life
had become an important industrial country in the world, second only to the United
States.

The price the Soviet Union paid for this great achievement remains staggering. It
included the destruction of all free enterprise (business organizations) in both town and
country. The transformation of Soviet agriculture in the early 1930s into collectives
(groups of managed farms) tremendously damaged the country's food production. Living
standards were drastically lowered at first, and more than a million people died of
starvation. Meanwhile, Stalin jailed and executed vast numbers of party members,
especially the old revolutionaries and the leading figures in many other areas. Stalin
created a new kind of political system characterized by severe police control,
strengthening of the government, and personal dictatorship. Historians consider his
government one of history's worst examples of totalitarianism, or having complete
political control with no opposition. In world affairs the Stalinist system became
isolationist, meaning the country moved away from building relations with foreign
nations.

From the middle of the 1930s onward, Stalin personally managed the vast political and
economic system he had established. Formally, he took charge of it in May 1941, when
he assumed the office of chairman of the Council of Ministers. After Germany invaded
the Soviet Union, Stalin also assumed formal command of the entire military
establishment.

Stalin's conduct of Russian military strategy in the war remains as controversial as most
of his activities. Some evidence indicates that he committed serious mistakes, but other
evidence gives him credit for brilliant achievements. The fact remains that under Stalin
the Soviet Union won the war, emerged as one of the major powers in the world, and
managed to bargain for a distribution of the spoils of war (seized land resulting from
Soviet victory) that enlarged its area of domination significantly.

Stalin died of a brain hemorrhage (an abnormal bleeding of the brain) on March 5, 1953.
His body was placed in a tomb next to Lenin's in Red Square in Moscow. After his death
Stalin became a controversial figure in the communist world, where appreciation for his
great achievements was offset by harsh criticism of his methods.

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Born: May 5, 1818


Trier, Germany (formerly in Rhenish Prussia)
Died: March 14, 1883
London, England
German philosopher and political leader

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The German philosopher, revolutionary economist (one who studies the use of money
and other material funds), and leader Karl Marx founded modern "scientific" socialism (a
system of society in which no property is held as private). His basic ideas—known as
Marxism—form the foundation of Socialist and Communist (an economic and
government system characterized by citizens holding all property and goods in common)
movements throughout the world.
Early life
Karl Heinreich Marx was born in Trier, Rhenish Prussia (present-day Germany), on May
5, 1818, the son of Heinrich Marx, a lawyer, and Henriette Presburg Marx, a
Dutchwoman. Both Heinrich and Henriette were descendants of a long line of rabbis
(masters or teachers of Jewish religion). Barred from the practice of law because he was
Jewish, Heinrich Marx converted to Lutheranism about 1817. Karl was baptized in the
same church in 1824 at the age of six. Karl attended a Lutheran elementary school but
later became an atheist (one who does not believe in the existence of God) and a
materialist (one who believes that physical matter is all that is real), rejecting both the
Christian and Jewish religions. It was he who coined the saying "Religion is the opium
[drug that deadens pain, is today illegal, and comes from the poppy flower] of the
people," a basic principle in modern communism.

Karl attended the Friedrich Wilhelm Gymnasium in Trier for five years, graduating in
1835 at the age of seventeen. The gymnasium's program was the usual classical one—
history, mathematics, literature, and languages, particularly Greek and Latin. Karl
became very skillful in French and Latin, both of which he learned to read and write
fluently. In later years he taught himself other languages, so that as a mature scholar he
could also read Spanish, Italian, Dutch, Scandinavian, Russian, and English. As his
articles in the New York Daily Tribune show, he came to handle the English language
masterfully (he loved Shakespeare [1564–1616], whose works he knew by heart),
although he never lost his heavy German accent when speaking.

Young adult years


In October 1835 Marx enrolled in Bonn University in Bonn, Germany, where he attended
courses primarily in law, as it was his father's desire that he become a lawyer. Marx,
however, was more interested in philosophy (the study of knowledge) and literature than
in law. He wanted to be a poet and dramatist (one who writes plays). In his student days
he wrote a great deal of poetry—most of it preserved—that in his mature years he rightly
recognized as imitative and
Karl Marx.
Courtesy of the
Library of Congress
.
unremarkable. He spent a year at Bonn, studying little but partying and drinking a lot. He
also piled up heavy debts.

Marx's dismayed father took him out of Bonn and had him enter the University of Berlin,
then a center of intellectual discussion. In Berlin a circle of brilliant thinkers was
challenging existing institutions and ideas, including religion, philosophy, ethics (the
study of good and bad involving morals), and politics. Marx joined this group of radical
(extreme in opinion) thinkers wholeheartedly. He spent more than four years in Berlin,
completing his studies with a doctoral degree in March 1841.

Forced to move on
Marx then turned to writing and journalism to support himself. In 1842 he became editor
of the liberal (open to new ideas) Cologne newspaper Rheinische Zeitung, but the Berlin
government prohibited it from being published the following year. In January 1845 Marx
was expelled from France "at the instigation [order] of the Prussian government," as he
said. He moved to Brussels, Belgium, where he founded the German Workers' Party and
was active in the Communist League. Here he wrote the famous Manifesto of the
Communist Party (known as the Communist Manifesto ). Expelled (forced out) by the
Belgian government, Marx moved back to Cologne, where he became editor of the Neue
Rheinische Zeitung in June 1848. Less than a year later, the Prussian government stopped
the paper, and Marx himself was exiled (forced to leave). He went to Paris, but in
September the French government expelled him again. Marx finally settled in London,
England, where he lived as a stateless exile (Britain denied him citizenship and Prussia
refused to take him back as a citizen) for the rest of his life.
In London Marx's sole means of support was journalism. He wrote for both German-and
English-language publications. From August 1852 to March 1862 he was correspondent
for the New York Daily Tribune, contributing a total of about 355 articles. Journalism,
however, paid very poorly; Marx was literally saved from starvation by the financial
support of friend and fellow writer, Friedrich Engels (1820–1895). In London in 1864
Marx helped to found the International Workingmen's Association (known as the First
International), for which he wrote the inaugural (opening) address. Thereafter Marx's
political activities were limited mainly to exchanging letters with radicals in Europe and
America, offering advice, and helping to shape the socialist and labor movements.

Personal life
Marx was married to his childhood sweetheart, Jenny von Westphalen, who was known
as the "most beautiful girl in Trier," on June 19, 1843. She was totally devoted to him.
She died of cancer on December 2, 1881, at the age of sixty-seven. For Marx it was a
blow from which he never recovered.

The Marxes had seven children, four of whom died in infancy or childhood. He deeply
loved his daughters, who, in turn, adored him. Of the three surviving daughters—Jenny,
Laura, and Eleanor—two married Frenchmen. Both of Marx's sons-in-law became
prominent French socialists and members of Parliament. Eleanor was active as a British
labor organizer.

Marx spent most of his working time in the British Museum, doing research both for his
newspaper articles and his books. In preparation for Das Kapital, he read every available
work in economic and financial theory and practice.

Marx's excessive smoking, wine drinking, and love of heavily spiced foods may have
been contributing causes to his illnesses. In the final dozen years of his life, he could no
longer do any continuous intellectual work. He died in his armchair in London on March
14, 1883, about two months before his sixty-fifth birthday. He lies buried in London's
Highgate Cemetery, where his grave is marked by a bust (sculpture of a person's head
and shoulders) of him.

His works
Marxism achieved its first great triumph in the Russian Revolution (1917–21; when the
lower class overthrew three hundred years of czar rule), when its successful leader,
Vladimir Ilich Lenin (1870–1924), a lifelong follower of Marx, organized the Soviet
Union as a proletarian dictatorship (country ruled by the lower class). Lenin based the
new government on Marx's philosophy as Lenin interpreted it. Thus, Marx became a
world figure and his theories became a subject of universal attention and controversy
(open to dispute). Marx wrote hundreds of articles, brochures, and reports, but only five
books.
His ideas
Marx's universal appeal lies in his moral approach to socio-economic problems, in his
insights into the relationships between institutions and values, and in his ideas about the
salvation (to save from destruction) of mankind. Hence Marx is best understood if one
studies not only his economics, but also his theory of history and politics. The central
idea in Marx's thought involves two basic notions: that the economic system at any given
time determines the current ideas; and that history is an ongoing process keeping up with
the economic institutions that change in regular stages.

To Marx, capitalism (an economic system characterized by private or corporate


ownership of goods) was the last stage of historical development before communism. The
lowest social or economic class of a community, when produced by capitalism, is the last
historical class. The two are fated to be in conflict—the class struggle, which Marx wrote
of in the Communist Manifesto —until the lower class inevitably wins. The proletarian
dictatorship, in turn, develops into communism, in which there are no classes and no
inequalities. The logical suggestion is that with the final establishment of communism,
history comes to a sudden end. This Marxist interpretation has been criticized in the
noncommunist world as historically inaccurate, scientifically weak, and logically
ridiculous. Nevertheless, Marx's message of an earthly paradise (a classless society) has
provided millions with hope and a new meaning of life. From this point of view, one may
agree with the Austrian economist Joseph A. Schumpeter that "Marxism is a religion"
and Marx is its "prophet."

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