Seat Belt

Seat belt
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Buckling a three-point seat belt
A seat belt (also known as a seatbelt or safety belt) is a vehicle safety device designed to secure

the driver or a passenger of a vehicle[1] against harmful movement that may result during
a collision or a sudden stop. A seat belt reduces the likelihood of death or serious injury in a traffic
collision by reducing the force of secondary impacts with interior strike hazards, by keeping
occupants positioned correctly for maximum effectiveness of the airbag (if equipped) and by
preventing occupants being ejected from the vehicle in a crash or if the vehicle rolls over.
When in motion, the driver and passengers are travelling at the same speed as the car. If the driver
makes the car suddenly stop or crashes it, the driver and passengers continue at the same speed
the car was going before it stopped. A seatbelt applies an opposing force to the driver and
passengers to prevent them from falling out or making contact with the interior of the car (especially
preventing contact with, or going through, the windshield). Seatbelts are considered Primary
Restraint Systems (PRS), because of their vital role in occupant safety.
Contents
 1Effectiveness
 2History
 3Types
o 3.1Two-point
 3.1.1Lap
 3.1.2Sash
o 3.2Three-point
 3.2.1Belt-in-Seat
o 3.34-, 5-, and 6-point
o 3.4Seven-point
o 3.5Seatbelt airbag
 4Technology
o 4.1Locking retractors
o 4.2Pretensioners and webclamps
o 4.3Inflatable
o 4.4Automatic
 4.4.1Systems
 4.4.2Disadvantages
 5Homologation and testing
 6Experimental
 7In rear seats
 8Child occupants
 9Automated reminders and engine start interlocks
o 9.1U.S. regulation history
o 9.2Efficacy
o 9.3Delayed start
 10Legislation
o 10.1Risk compensation
o 10.2Increased traffic
 11Mass transit considerations
o 11.1Buses
 11.1.1School buses
 11.1.2Motor coaches
o 11.2Trains
o 11.3Airplanes
 12See also
 13References
 14External links
Effectiveness[edit]
Lives saved by seat belts and airbags in the United States, 1991–2001
An analysis conducted in the United States in 1984 compared a variety of seat belt types alone and
in combination with air bags.[2] The range of fatality reduction for front seat passengers was broad,
from 20% to 55%, as was the range of major injury, from 25% to 60%. [2] More recently, the Centers
for Disease Control and Prevention has summarized this data by stating "seat belts reduce serious
crash-related injuries and deaths by about half."[3] Most seatbelt malfunctions are a result of there
being too much slack in the seatbelt at the time of the accident. [4]
History[edit]
Seat belts were invented by English engineer George Cayley to use on his glider, in the mid-19th
century. [5]
In 1946, Dr. C. Hunter Shelden opened a neurological practice at Huntington Memorial
Hospital in Pasadena, California. In the early 1950s, Dr. Shelden made a major contribution to the
automotive industry with his idea of retractable seat belts. This came about from his care of the high
number of head injuries coming through the emergency room. [6] He investigated the early seat belts
whose primitive designs were implicated in these injuries and deaths. To reduce the high level of
injuries he was seeing, he proposed, in late 1955, retractable seat belts, recessed steering wheels,
reinforced roofs, roll bars, automatic door locks, and passive restraints such as the air bag.
[7]
Subsequently, in 1966, Congress passed the National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety
Act requiring all automobiles to comply with certain safety standards.
American car manufacturers Nash (in 1949) and Ford (in 1955) offered seat belts as options, while
Swedish Saab first introduced seat belts as standard in 1958.[8] After the Saab GT 750 was
introduced at the New York Motor Show in 1958 with safety belts fitted as standard, the practice
became commonplace.[9]
Glenn Sheren, of Mason, Michigan, submitted a patent application on March 31, 1955 for an
automotive seat belt and was awarded US Patent 2,855,215 in 1958. This was a continuation of an
earlier patent application that Mr. Sheren had filed on September 22, 1952. [10]
However, the first modern three point seat belt (the so-called CIR-Griswold restraint) used in most
consumer vehicles today was patented in 1955 U.S. Patent 2,710,649 by the Americans Roger W.
Griswold and Hugh DeHaven.
The Swedish national electric utility, did a study of all fatal, on-the-job accidents among their
employees. The study revealed that the majority of fatalities occurred while the employees were on
the road on company business. In response, two Vattenfall safety engineers, Bengt Odelgard and
Per-Olof Weman, started to develop a seat belt. Their work was presented to Swedish
manufacturer Volvo in the late 1950s, and set the standard for seat belts in Swedish cars. [11] The
three-point seatbelt was developed to its modern form by Swedish inventor Nils Bohlin for Volvo—
who introduced it in 1959 as standard equipment. In addition to designing an effective three-point
belt, Bohlin demonstrated its effectiveness in a study of 28,000 accidents in Sweden. Unbelted
occupants sustained fatal injuries throughout the whole speed scale, whereas none of the belted
occupants were fatally injured at accident speeds below 60 mph. No belted occupant was fatally
injured if the passenger compartment remained intact. [12] Bohlin was granted U.S. Patent
3,043,625 for the device.[8]
The world's first seat belt law was put in place in 1970, in the state of Victoria, Australia, making the
wearing of a seat belt compulsory for drivers and front-seat passengers. This legislation was
enacted after trialing Hemco seatbelts, designed by Desmond Hemphill (1926–2001), in the front
seats of police vehicles, lowering the incidence of officer injury and death. [13]
Types[edit]
Two-point[edit]
A 2-point belt attaches at its two endpoints. A simple strap was first used March 12, 1910 by
pilot Benjamin Foulois,[14][15][16] a pioneering aviator with the Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps,
so he might remain at the controls during turbulence.
Lap[edit]
A lap ("2-point") belt in an airplane
A lap belt is a strap that goes over the waist. This was the most commonly type of belt prior to
legislation requiring three-point belts, and is found in older cars. Coaches are equipped with lap belts
(although many newer coaches have three-point belts), as are passenger aircraft seats.
University of Minnesota Professor James J. (Crash) Ryan was the inventor of and held the patent on
the automatic retractable lap safety belt. Ralph Nader cited Ryan's work in Unsafe at Any Speed and
in 1966 President Lyndon Johnson signed two bills requiring safety belts in all passenger vehicles
starting in 1968.[17]
Until the 1980s, three-point belts were commonly available only in the front outboard seats of cars;
the back seats were only often fitted with lap belts. Evidence of the potential of lap belts to cause
separation of the lumbar vertebrae and the sometimes associated paralysis, or "seat belt syndrome,"
led to progressive revision of passenger safety regulations in nearly all developed countries to
require three-point belts first in all outboard seating positions and eventually in all seating positions
in passenger vehicles. Since September 1, 2007, all new cars sold in the U.S. require a lap and
shoulder belt in the center rear seat.[18] Besides regulatory changes, "seat belt syndrome" has led to
tremendous liability for vehicle manufacturers. One Los Angeles case resulted in a $45 million jury
verdict against Ford; the resulting $30 million judgment (after deductions for another defendant who
settled prior to trial) was affirmed on appeal in 2006. [19]
Sash[edit]
A seat belt and buckle

A "sash" or shoulder harness is a strap that goes diagonally over the vehicle occupant's outboard
shoulder and is buckled inboard of his or her lap. The shoulder harness may attach to the lap belt
tongue, or it may have a tongue and buckle completely separate from those of the lap belt. Shoulder
harnesses of this separate or semi-separate type were installed in conjunction with lap belts in the
outboard front seating positions of many vehicles in the North American market starting at the
inception of the shoulder belt requirement of the U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration's (NHTSA) Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard 208 on 1 January 1968. However,
if the shoulder strap is used without the lap belt, the vehicle occupant is likely to "submarine", or
slide forward in the seat and out from under the belt, in a frontal collision. In the mid-1970s, three-
point belt systems such as Chrysler's "Uni-Belt" began to supplant the separate lap and shoulder
belts in American-made cars, though such three-point belts had already been supplied in European
vehicles such as Volvo, Mercedes-Benz, and Saab for some years.
Three-point[edit]
A three-point seat belt
A three-point belt is a Y-shaped arrangement, similar to the separate lap and sash belts, but
unitized. Like the separate lap-and-sash belt, in a collision the three-point belt spreads out the
energy of the moving body over the chest, pelvis, and shoulders. Volvo introduced the first
production three-point belt in 1959. [20] The first car with a three-point belt was a Volvo PV 544 that
was delivered to a dealer in Kristianstad on August 13, 1959. However, the first car model to have
the three-point seat belt as a standard item was the 1959 Volvo 122, first outfitted with a two-point
belt at initial delivery in 1958, replaced with the three-point seat belt the following year. [21] The three-
point belt was developed by Nils Bohlin who had earlier also worked on ejection seats at Saab.
[22]
Volvo then made the new seat belt design patent open in the interest of safety and made it
available to other car manufacturers for free.[23][24]
Belt-in-Seat[edit]
The Belt-in-Seat (BIS) is a three-point harness with the shoulder belt attached to the seat itself,
rather than to the vehicle structure. The first car using this system was the Range Rover Classic.
Fitment was standard on the front seats from 1970.[25] Some cars like the Renault Vel Satis use this
system for the front seats. A General Motors assessment concluded seat-mounted three-point belts
offer better protection especially to smaller vehicle occupants, [26] though GM did not find a safety
performance improvement in vehicles with seat-mounted belts versus belts mounted to the vehicle
body.[27]
BIS type belts have been used by automakers in convertibles and pillarless hardtops, where there is
no "B" pillar to affix the upper mount of the belt. Chrysler and Cadillac are well known for using this
design. Antique auto enthusiasts sometimes replace original seats in their cars with BIS-equipped
front seats, providing a measure of safety not available when these cars were new. However,
modern BIS systems typically use electronics that must be installed and connected with the seats
and the vehicle's electrical system in order to function properly. [citation needed]
4-, 5-, and 6-point[edit]
Bucket seat combined with a Schroth 6-point harness
Five-point harnesses are typically found in child safety seats and in racing cars. The lap portion is
connected to a belt between the legs and there are two shoulder belts, making a total of five points
of attachment to the seat. A 4-point harness is similar, but without the strap between the legs, while
a 6-point harness has two belts between the legs. In NASCAR, the 6-point harness became popular
after the death of Dale Earnhardt, who was wearing a five-point harness when he suffered his fatal
crash; as it was first thought that his belt had broken, and broke his neck at impact, some teams
ordered a six-point harness in response.[28]
Seven-point[edit]
Aerobatic aircraft frequently use a combination harness consisting of a five-point harness with a
redundant lap-belt attached to a different part of the aircraft. While providing redundancy for
negative-g manoeuvres (which lift the pilot out of the seat); they also require the pilot to un-latch two
harnesses if it is necessary to parachute from a failed aircraft.
Seatbelt airbag[edit]
Seatbelt airbags are available in some models of Ford and Mercedes. [29]
Technology[edit]
Seat belt with uncovered inertial reel
Locking retractors[edit]
The purpose of locking retractors is to provide the seated occupant the convenience of some free
movement of the upper torso within the compartment, while providing a method of limiting this
movement in the event of a crash. Most modern seat belts are stowed on spring-loaded reels called
"retractors" equipped with inertial locking mechanisms that stop the belt from extending off the reel
during severe deceleration. There are two main types of inertial seat belt lock. A webbing-sensitive
lock is based on a centrifugal clutch activated by rapid acceleration of the strap (webbing) from the
reel. The belt can be pulled from the reel only slowly and gradually, as when the occupant extends
the belt to fasten it. A sudden rapid pull of the belt—as in a sudden braking or collision event—
causes the reel to lock, restraining the occupant in position.
A vehicle-sensitive lock is based on a pendulum swung away from its plumb position by rapid
deceleration or rollover of the vehicle. In the absence of rapid deceleration or rollover, the reel is
unlocked and the belt strap may be pulled from the reel against the spring tension of the reel. The
vehicle occupant can move around with relative freedom while the spring tension of the reel keeps
the belt taut against the occupant. When the pendulum swings away from its normal plumb position
due to sudden deceleration or rollover, a pawl is engaged, the reel locks and the strap restrains the
belted occupant in position. Dual-sensing locking retractors use both vehicle G-loading and webbing
payout rate to initiate the locking mechanism.
Pretensioners and webclamps[edit]
Pyrotechnic pretensioner diagram
Seatbelts in many newer vehicles are also equipped with "pretensioners" or "web clamps", or both.
Pretensioners preemptively tighten the belt to prevent the occupant from jerking forward in a crash.
Mercedes-Benz first introduced pretensioners on the 1981 S-Class. In the event of a crash, a
pretensioner will tighten the belt almost instantaneously. This reduces the motion of the occupant in
a violent crash. Like airbags, pretensioners are triggered by sensors in the car's body, and many
pretensioners have used explosively expanding gas to drive a piston that retracts the belt.
Pretensioners also lower the risk of "submarining", which occurs when a passenger slides forward
under a loosely fitted seat belt.
Some systems also pre-emptively tighten the belt during fast accelerations and strong decelerations,
even if no crash has happened. This has the advantage that it may help prevent the driver from
sliding out of position during violent evasive maneuvers, which could cause loss of control of the
vehicle. These pre-emptive safety systems may prevent some collisions from happening, as well as
reducing injury in the event an actual collision occurs.[30] Pre-emptive systems generally use electric
pretensioners which can operate repeatedly and for a sustained period, rather than pyrotechnic
pretensioners, which can only operate a single time.
Webclamps clamp the webbing in the event of an accident, and limit the distance the webbing can
spool out (caused by the unused webbing tightening on the central drum of the mechanism). These
belts also often incorporate an energy management loop ("rip stitching") in which a section of the
webbing is looped and stitched with a special stitching. The function of this is to "rip" at a
predetermined load, which reduces the maximum force transmitted through the belt to the occupant
during a violent collision, reducing injuries to the occupant.
A study demonstrated that standard automotive three-point restraints fitted with pyrotechnic or
electric pretensioners were not able to eliminate all interior passenger compartment head strikes in
rollover test conditions.[31] Electric pretensioners are often incorporated on vehicles equipped
with precrash systems; they are designed to reduce seat belt slack in a potential collision and assist
in placing the occupants in a more optimal seating position. [32] The electric pretensioners also can
operate on a repeated or sustained basis, providing better protection in the event of an extended
rollover or a multiple collision accident.
Inflatable[edit]
The inflatable seatbelt was invented by Donald Lewis and tested at the Automotive Products Division
of Allied Chemical Corporation.[33] Inflatable seatbelts have tubular inflatable bladders contained
within an outer cover. When a crash occurs the bladder inflates with a gas to increase the area of
the restraint contacting the occupant and also shortening the length of the restraint to tighten the belt
around the occupant, improving the protection.[34] The inflatable sections may be shoulder-only or lap
and shoulder. The system supports the head during the crash better than a web only belt. It also
provides side impact protection. In 2013, Ford began offering rear seat inflatable seat belts on a
limited set of models, such as the Explorer and Flex.[35]
Automatic[edit]
Automatic seat belt in a Honda Civic
Seatbelts that automatically move into position around a vehicle occupant once the adjacent door is
closed and/or the engine is started were developed as a countermeasure against low usage rates of
manual seat belts, particularly in the United States.
The 1972 Volkswagen ESVW1 Experimental Safety Vehicle presented passive seat belts.
[36]
Volvo tried to develop a passive three point seatbelt. In 1973, Volkswagen announced they had a
functional passive seat belt.[37] The first commercial car to use automatic seat belts was the
1975 Volkswagen Golf.[38]
Automatic seat belts received a boost in the United States in 1977 when Brock Adams, United
States Secretary of Transportation in the Carter Administration, mandated that by 1983 every new
car should have either airbags or automatic seat belts. [39][40] There was strong lobbying against the
passive restraint requirement by the auto industry. [41] Adams was criticized by Ralph Nader, who said
that the 1983 deadline was too late. [42] The Volkswagen Rabbit also had automatic seat belts,[42] and
VW said that by early 1978, 90,000 cars had sold with them. [38]
General Motors introduced a three-point non-motorized passive belt system in 1980 to comply with
the passive restraint requirement. [43] However, it was used as an active lap-shoulder belt because of
unlatching the belt to exit the vehicle. [43] Despite this common practice, field studies of belt use still
showed an increase in wearing rates with this door-mounted system. [43] General Motors began
offering automatic seat belts on the Chevrolet Chevette.[44][45] However, the company reported
disappointing sales because of this feature. [46]
A study released in 1978 by the United States Department of Transportation said that cars with
automatic seat belts had a fatality rate of .78 per 100 million miles, compared with 2.34 for cars with
regular, manual belts.[47]
In 1981, Drew Lewis, the first Transportation Secretary of the Reagan Administration, influenced by
studies done by the auto industry,[48] dropped the mandate;[49] the decision was overruled in a federal
appeals court the following year,[50] and then by the Supreme Court.[51] In 1984, the Reagan
Administration reversed its course,[52] though in the meantime the original deadline had been
extended; Elizabeth Dole, then Transportation Secretary, proposed that the two passive safety
restraints be phased into vehicles gradually, from vehicle model year 1987 to vehicle model year
1990, when all vehicles would be required to have either automatic seat belts or driver side air bags.
[51]
Though more awkward for vehicle occupants, most manufacturers opted to use less expensive
automatic belts rather than airbags during this time period.
When driver side airbags became mandatory on all passenger vehicles in model year 1995, most
manufacturers stopped equipping cars with automatic seat belts. Exceptions include the 1995–
96 Ford Escort/Mercury Tracer and the Eagle Summit Wagon, which had automatic safety belts
along with dual airbags.[citation needed]
Systems[edit]
 Manual lap belt with automatic motorized shoulder belt—When the door is opened, the
shoulder belt moves from a fixed point near the seat back on a track mounted in the door frame
of the car to a point at the other end of the track near the windshield. Once the door is closed
and the car is started, the belt moves rearward along the track to its original position, thus
securing the passenger. The lap belt must be fastened manually.
 Manual lap belt with automatic non-motorized shoulder belt—This system was used in
American-market vehicles such as the Hyundai Excel and Volkswagen Jetta. The shoulder belt
is fixed to the aft upper corner of the vehicle door, and is not motorized. The lap belt must be
fastened manually.
 Automatic shoulder and lap belts—This system was mainly used in General Motors vehicles,
though it was also used on some Honda Civic hatchbacks and Nissan Sentra coupés. When the
door is opened, the belts go from a fixed point in the middle of the car by the floor to retractors
on the door. Passengers must slide into the car under the belts. When the door closes, the seat
belt retracts into the door. The belts have normal release buttons that are supposed to be used
only in an emergency, but in practice are routinely used in the same manner as manual seat belt
clasps.[citation needed] This system also found use by American Specialty Cars when they created the
1991-1994 convertible special edition of the Nissan 240SX, a car that traditionally had a
motorized shoulder belt.
Disadvantages[edit]
Automatic belt systems generally offer inferior occupant crash protection. [53][54] In systems with belts
attached to the door rather than a sturdier fixed portion of the vehicle body, a crash that causes the
vehicle door to open leaves the occupant without belt protection. In such a scenario, the occupant
may be thrown from the vehicle and suffer greater injury or death. [54]
Because many automatic belt system designs compliant with the US passive-restraint mandate did
not meet the safety performance requirements of Canada—which were not weakened to
accommodate automatic belts—vehicle models which had been eligible for easy importation in either
direction across the US-Canada border when equipped with manual belts became ineligible for
importation in either direction once the U.S. variants obtained automatic belts and the Canadian
versions retained manual belts. Two particular models included the Dodge Spirit and Plymouth
Acclaim.[55][56]
Automatic belt systems also present several operational disadvantages. Motorists who would
normally wear seat belts must still fasten the manual lap belt, thus rendering redundant the
automation of the shoulder belt. Those who do not fasten the lap belt wind up inadequately protected
only by the shoulder belt; in a crash without a lap belt such a vehicle occupant is likely to
"submarine" (be thrown forward under the shoulder belt) and be seriously injured. [citation needed] Motorized
or door-affixed shoulder belts hinder access to the vehicle, making it difficult to enter and exit—
particularly if the occupant is carrying items such as a box or a purse. Vehicle owners tend to
disconnect the motorized or door-affixed shoulder belt to relieve the nuisance of entering and exiting
the vehicle, leaving only a lap belt for crash protection. [citation needed] Also, many automatic seat belt
systems are incompatible with child safety seats, or only compatible with special modifications.
Homologation and testing[edit]

Starting in 1971 and ending in 1972, the United States conducted a research project on seat belt
effectiveness on a total of 40,000 vehicle occupants using car accident reports collected during that
time. Of these 40,000 occupants, 18% were reported wearing lap belts, or two-point safety belts, 2%
were reported wearing a three-point safety belt, and the remaining 80% were reported as wearing no
safety belt. The results concluded that users of the two-point lap belt had a 73% lower fatality rate, a
53% lower serious injury rate, and a 38% lower injury rate than the occupants that were reported
unrestrained. Similarly, users of the three-point safety belt had a 60% lower serious injury rate and a
41% lower rate of all other injuries. Out of the 2% described as wearing a three-point safety belt, no
fatalities were reported.[57]
This study and others led to the Restraint Systems Evaluation Program (RSEP), started by the
NHTSA in 1975 to increase the reliability and authenticity of past studies. A study as part of this
program used data taken from 15,000 tow-away accidents that involved only car models made
between 1973 and 1975. The study found that for injuries considered “moderate” or worse,
individuals wearing a three-point safety belt had a 56.5% lower injury rate than those wearing no
safety belt. The study also concluded that the effectiveness of the safety belt did not differ with size
of car.[57] It was determined that the variation among results of the many studies conducted in the
1960s and 70s was due to the use of different methodologies, and could not be attributed to any
significant variation in the effectiveness of safety belts. [58]
Wayne State University’s Automotive Safety Research Group, as well as other researchers, [59] are
testing ways to improve seat belt effectiveness and general vehicle safety apparatuses. Wayne
State’s Bioengineering Center uses human cadavers in their crash test research. The Center’s
director, Albert King, wrote in 1995 that the vehicle safety improvements made possible since 1987
by the use of cadavers in research had saved nearly 8,500 lives each year, and indicated that
improvements made to three-point safety belts save an average of 61 lives every year. [60]
The New Car Assessment Program (NCAP) was put in place by the United States National Highway
Traffic Safety Administration in 1979. The NCAP is a government program that evaluates vehicle
safety designs and sets standards for foreign and domestic automobile companies. The agency
developed a rating system and requires access to safety test results. As of September 2007,
manufacturers are required to place a NCAP star rating on the automobile price sticker. [61]
Experimental[edit]
Research and development efforts are ongoing to improve the safety performance of vehicle
seatbelts. Some experimental designs include:
 Criss-cross Experimental safety belt presented in the Volvo SCC. It forms a cross-brace

across the chest.[27]
 3+2 Point Seatbelt: Experimental safety belt from Autoliv similar to the criss-cross. The 3+2
improves protection against rollovers and side impacts. [62]
 Four point "belt and suspenders": An experimental design from Ford where the "suspenders"
are attached to the backrest, not to the frame of the car.[63]
 3 point Adjustable Seatbelt: Experimental safety belt from GWR Safety Systems that allowed
the car Hiriko, designed by MIT, to fold without compromising the safety and comfort of the
occupants.[64]
In rear seats[edit]
This section needs expansion. You
can help by adding to it. (June 2014)
In 1955 (as a 1956 package), Ford offered lap only seat belts in the rear seats as an option within
the Lifeguard safety package. In 1967, Volvo started to install lap belts in the rear seats. In 1972,
Volvo upgraded the rear seat belts to a three-point belt. [65]
In crashes, unbelted rear passengers increase the risk of belted front seat occupants' death by
nearly five times.[66][67]
Child occupants[edit]
Main article: Infant car seat
As with adult drivers and passengers, the advent of seat belts was accompanied by calls for their
use by child occupants, including legislation requiring such use. Generally children using adult seat
belts suffer significantly lower injury risk when compared to non-buckled children.
The UK extended compulsory seatbelt wearing to child passengers under the age of 14 in 1989. It
was observed that this measure was accompanied by a 10% increase in fatalities and a
12% increase in injuries among the target population.[68] In crashes, small children who wear adult
seatbelts can suffer "seat-belt syndrome" injuries including severed intestines, ruptured diaphragms
and spinal damage. There is also research suggesting that children in inappropriate restraints are at
significantly increased risk of head injury,[69] one of the authors of this research said, "The early
graduation of kids into adult lap and shoulder belts is a leading cause of child-occupant injuries and
deaths."[70]
As a result of such findings, many jurisdictions now advocate or require child passengers to use
specially designed child restraints. Such systems include separate child-sized seats with their own
restraints and booster cushions for children using adult restraints. In some jurisdictions children
below a certain size are forbidden to travel in front car seats."[71]
Automated reminders and engine start interlocks[edit]
Warning lights on a car dashboard
In Europe, the US, and some other parts of the world, most modern cars include a seat-belt
reminder light for the driver and some also include a reminder for the passenger, when present,
activated by a pressure sensor under the passenger seat. Some cars will intermittently flash the
reminder light and sound the chime until the driver (and sometimes the front passenger, if present)
fasten their seatbelts.[72]
In 2005, in Sweden, 70% of all cars that were newly registered were equipped with seat belt
reminders for the driver.[73] Since November 2014, seat belt reminders are mandatory for the driver's
seat on new cars sold in Europe. [74]
Two specifications define the standard of seat belt reminder: UN Regulation 16, Section 8.4 and the
Euro NCAP assessment protocol (Euro NCAP, 2013). [74]
U.S. regulation history[edit]
The Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard № 208 (FMVSS 208) was amended by the NHTSA to
require a seat belt/starter interlock system to prevent passenger cars from being started with an
unbelted front-seat occupant. This mandate applied to passenger cars built after August 1973, i.e.,
starting with the 1974 model year. The specifications required the system to permit the car to be
started only if the belt of an occupied seat were fastened after the occupant sat down, so pre-
buckling the belts would not defeat the system.[75][76] The interlock systems used logic modules
complex enough to require special diagnostic computers, and were not entirely dependable—an
override button was provided under the hood of equipped cars, permitting one (but only one) "free"
starting attempt each time it was pressed.[77] However, the interlock system spurred severe backlash
from an American public who largely rejected seat belts. In 1974, Congress acted to prohibit NHTSA
from requiring or permitting a system that prevents a vehicle from starting or operating with an
unbelted occupant, or that gives an audible warning of an unfastened belt for more than 8 seconds
after the ignition is turned on.[76] This prohibition took effect on 27 October 1974, shortly after the
1975 model year began.[78]
In response to the Congressional action, NHTSA once again amended FMVSS 208, requiring
vehicles to come with a seat belt reminder system that gives an audible signal for 4 to 8 seconds
and a warning light for at least 60 seconds after the ignition is turned on if the driver's seat belt is not
fastened.[76] This is called a seat belt reminder (SBR) system. In the mid-1990s, an insurance
company from Sweden called Folksam worked with Saab and Ford to determine the requirements
for the most efficient seat belt reminder. One characteristic of the optimal SBR, according to the
research, is that the audible warning becomes increasingly penetrating the longer the seat belt
remains unfastened.[79]
Efficacy[edit]
In 2001, Congress directed NHSTA to study the benefits of technology meant to increase the use of
seat belts. NHSTA found that seat belt usage had increased to 73% since the initial introduction of
the SBR system.[76] In 2002, Ford demonstrated that seat belts were used more in Fords with seat
belt reminders than in those without: 76% and 71% respectively. In 2007, Honda conducted a similar
study and found that 90% of people who drove Hondas with seat belt reminders used a seat belt,
while 84% of people who drove Hondas without seat belt reminders used a seat belt. [79]
In 2003, the Transportation Research Board Committee, chaired by two psychologists, reported that
ESBRs could save an additional 1,000 lives a year.[80] Research by the Insurance Institute for
Highway Safety found that Ford's ESBR, which provides an intermittent chime for up to five minutes
if the driver is unbelted, sounding for 6 seconds then pausing for 30, increased seat belt use by 5
percentage points.[80] Farmer and Wells found that driver fatality rates were 6% lower for vehicles
with ESBR compared with otherwise-identical vehicles without. [81]
Delayed start[edit]
Starting with the 2020 model year, some Chevrolet cars will refuse to start for 20 seconds if the
driver is unbuckled and the car is in "teen driver" mode. A similar feature was previously available on
some General Motors fleet cars.[82]
Legislation[edit]
Main article: Seat belt legislation
Observational studies of car crash morbidity and mortality,[83][84][85] experiments using both crash test
dummies and human cadavers indicate that wearing seat belts greatly reduces the risk of death and
injury in the majority of car crashes.
This has led many countries to adopt mandatory seat belt wearing laws. It is generally accepted that,
in comparing like-for-like accidents, a vehicle occupant not wearing a properly fitted seat belt has a
significantly and substantially higher chance of death and serious injury. One large observation
studying using US data showed that the odds ratio of crash death is 0.46 with a three-point belt,
when compared with no belt.[86] In another study that examined injuries presenting to the ER pre- and
post-seat belt law introduction, it was found that 40% more escaped injury and 35% more escaped
mild and moderate injuries.[87]
The effects of seat belt laws are disputed by those who observe that their passage did not reduce
road fatalities. There was also concern that instead of legislating for a general protection standard
for vehicle occupants, laws that required a particular technical approach would rapidly become dated
as motor manufacturers would tool up for a particular standard which could not easily be changed.
For example, in 1969 there were competing designs for lap and three-point seat belts, rapidly tilting
seats, and airbags being developed. But as countries started to mandate seat belt restraints the
global auto industry invested in the tooling and standardized exclusively on seat belts, and ignored
other restraint designs such as air bags for several decades [88]
As of 2016, seat belt laws can be divided into two categories: primary and secondary. A primary seat
belt law allows an officer to issue a citation for lack of seatbelt use without any other citation,
whereas a secondary seat belt law allows an officer to issue a seat belt citation only in the presence
of a different violation. In the United States, fifteen states enforce secondary laws, while 34 states,
as well as the District of Columbia, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto
Rico and the Virgin Islands, enforce primary seat belt laws. New Hampshire lacks both a primary
and secondary seat belt law.[89]
Risk compensation[edit]
Some have proposed that the number of deaths was influenced by the development of risk
compensation, which says that drivers adjust their behavior in response to the increased sense of
personal safety wearing a seat belt provides.
In one trial subjects were asked to drive go-karts around a track under various conditions. It was
found that subjects who started driving unbelted drove consistently faster when subsequently belted.
[90]
Similarly, a study of habitual non-seatbelt wearers driving in freeway conditions found evidence
that they had adapted to seatbelt use by adopting higher driving speeds and closer following
distances.[91] A 2001 analysis of US crash data aimed to establish the effects of seatbelt legislation
on driving fatalities[92] and found that previous estimates of seatbelts effectiveness had been
significantly overstated. According to the analysis, seatbelts decreased fatalities by 1.35% for each
10% increase in seatbelt use. The study controlled for endogenous motivations of seat belt use,
because that creates an artificial correlation between seat belt use and fatalities, leading to the
conclusion that seatbelts cause fatalities. For example, drivers in high risk areas are more likely to
use seat belts, and are more likely to be in accidents, creating a non-causal correlation between
seatbelt use and mortality. After accounting for the endogeneity of seatbelt usage, Cohen and Einav
found no evidence that the risk compensation effect makes seatbelt wearing drivers more
dangerous, a finding at variance with other research.
Increased traffic[edit]
Other statistical analyses have included adjustments for factors such as increased traffic and age,
and based on these adjustments, which results in a reduction of morbidity and mortality due to seat
belt use.[83] However,[relevant? – discuss] Smeed's law predicts a fall in accident rate with increasing car
ownership and has been demonstrated independently of seat belt legislation. [citation needed]
Mass transit considerations[edit]

Buses[edit]
School buses[edit]
Further information: Seat belts in school buses
In the US, six states—California, Florida, Louisiana, New Jersey, New York, and Texas—require
seat belts on school buses.[93]
Pros[94][95][96] and cons[97][98][99] had been alleged about the use of seatbelts in school buses. School buses
which are much bigger in size than the average vehicle allow for the mass transportation of students
from place to place. The American School Bus Council states in a brief article saying that, “The
children are protected like eggs in an egg carton – compartmentalized, and surrounded with padding
and structural integrity to secure the entire container.” (ASBC). Although school buses are
considered safe for mass transit of students this will not guarantee that the students will be injury
free if an impact were to occur. Seatbelts in buses are sometimes believed to make recovering from
a roll or tip harder for students and staff as they could be easily trapped in their own safety belt. [100]
In 2015, for the first time, NHTSA endorsed seat belts on school buses.[101]
Motor coaches[edit]
In the European Union, all new long distance buses and coaches must be fitted with seat belts. [102]
Australia has required lap/sash seat belts in new coaches since 1994. These must comply with
Australian Design Rule 68, which requires the seat belt, seat and seat anchorage to withstand
20g deceleration and an impact by an unrestrained occupant to the rear. [103]
In the United States, NHTSA has now required lap-shoulder seat belts in new "over-the-road" buses
(includes most coaches) starting in 2016.[104]
Trains[edit]
The use of seatbelts in trains has been investigated. Concerns about survival space intrusion in train
crashes and increased injuries to unrestrained or incorrectly restrained passengers led the
researchers to discourage the use of seat belts in trains.
"It has been shown that there is no net safety benefit for passengers who choose to wear 3-
point restraints on passenger carrying rail vehicles. Generally passengers who choose not to
wear restraints in a vehicle modified to accept 3-point restraints receive marginally more
severe injuries."[105]
Airplanes[edit]
Lap belts are found on all passenger aircraft. Many civil aviation authorities require a "fasten
seat belt" sign in passenger aircraft that can be activated by a pilot during takeoff, turbulence,
and landing.[106][107] The International Civil Aviation Organization recommends the use of child
restraints.[108]
What is the purpose of a
seatbelt pretensioner?
BY AKWELI PARKER
NEXT
Consider yourself fortunate if your vehicle's seatbelt pretensioners never have to see action.
See more car safety pictures.
© GENERAL MOTORS
Here's a cheerful stat to make you want to take the 'ol grocery getter out for a
spin: If you live in the United States, you stand a 1-in-84 lifetime risk of dying in a
car accident. While expiration by auto doesn't hold a candle to the number 1
killer, heart disease (1-in-5 chance), it holds its own as one of the more likely
ways any of us will kick the bucket [source: Parker-Pope].
The good news is that if you are in a car accident, you can cut your chances of
dying in half just by the simple act of wearing a seatbelt [source: Centers for
Disease Control]. In addition, faster than a person can even react, a modern
seatbelt retracts forcefully to adjust occupants into a safer seating position when
the airbags deploy.
How does it do that? With a seatbelt pretensioner, of course. Like a valiant but
tragic hero, the seatbelt pretensioner sacrifices its life in an accident, in order to
save yours.
Consider yourself fortunate if your vehicle's seatbelt pretensioners never have to

see action in their intended purpose. If they do, that means the front of your car
or truck has smacked into something else head-on, and pretty hard. It's highly
likely the front airbags inflated, too.
The pretensioner mechanism uses an explosive charge to drive a concealed

piston when sensors detect the signature abrupt deceleration of an accident. The
piston, in turn, rapidly drives the spool around which the fabric strap of a seatbelt
is wrapped. That incredibly fast retraction of the belt fabric removes the slack
from the belt instantly. This extra seatbelt "pre-" tension, moments prior to the full
force of impact, pulls the bodies of the driver and front-seat passenger firmly into
their seats. This positions them so as to receive the maximum protection benefit
of the front airbags. It also helps prevent the unfortunate phenomenon car crash-
ologists call "submarining." That's when the momentum caused by the crash
jerks a victim's body under his or her lap belt and sends it careening forward
below the dash.
Cars and light trucks aren't the only place in which the use of seatbelt
pretensioners has clicked. One of the earliest ancestors of modern, automotive
pretensioner systems was one proposed for military aircraft pilots in the 1950s. In
1958, inventor Royce Strickland, Jr., submitted a patent application for a
contraption he called a "harness inertia reel." It was an explosive gas-driven
device that cinched pilots into their ejection seats before they were blown out of
an airplane [source: Strickland].
While few of us will ever have to bail out of a stricken fighter jet mid-flight, it
should be somewhat re-assuring to know that similar, seatbelt pretensioner
technology will help keep us anchored if we ever get into a head-on car collision.
Author's Note
PREV UP NEXT
Between saves by motorcycle helmets and seat belts in assorted vehicle

mishaps, I'm probably on my fifth or sixth life in cat terms. So learning for this
article about the various ways one can "buy the farm" (or just lease it, if you get
off with mere paralysis) by forgetting to wear a seatbelt held, well, a certain
macabre fascination for me. It also prompted a less creepy thought: How cool is
it that the same pretensioner concept used in combat plane ejection seats
protects civvies in their cars, as well? Countless auto accident survivors literally
owe their lives to a handful of inventors who enhanced the seatbelt into an active
restraining device, by developing the seatbelt pretensioner. I confess to having
some mixed feelings about the ongoing nannyfication of car technology; but on
balance, the seatbelt pretensioner seems like a benign and relatively non-
intrusive safety feature. And hey, if it lets you cheat the grim reaper, even if just
for now, what's not to like?
Seat Belt Reminder - SBR

An effective way to increase seat belt usage
Our Seat Belt Reminder (SBR) sensor mat detects occupants in passenger and rear seats. This
information is then used by a seat belt reminder system in the vehicle to trigger a warning light
and/or an audible chime reminding unbuckled seat occupants to fasten their seat belts.
 1
 2
 3
Installing Seat Belt Reminders can also have a positive effect on the vehicle’s NCAP star rating, with
incentives currently awarded by the European, Japanese, Australian, Chinese, Latin American,
ASEAN and South Korean NCAPs. The upcoming Bharat NCAP (India) is also expected to offer
SBR incentives.
IEE offers:
 A-surface SBR sensors mounted on top of the seat cushion foam; below the seat heater and
the seat trim
 B-surface SBR sensors mounted below the seat cushion foam on top of the seat structure
 For rear seats, an optional interface box to communicate the SBR and buckle-switch status
via single Local Interconnect Network (LIN) interface to the Airbag Control Unit (ACU)
In the event of a crash, safety belts reduce the risk of fatal injury to front seat occupants by 45% in
cars and by 60% in light trucks. Considering 80% of unbuckled occupants fasten their seat belts
thanks to an SBR, it is one of the most effective ways of preventing death or injury in a car crash.
Seat belt reminders

What are they?
Seat belt reminders are intelligent, visual and audible devices that detect whether seat belts are in use
in various seating positions and give out increasingly urgent warning signals until the belts are used.
Based on the Swedish experience, the European Enhanced Vehicle-Safety Committee (EEVC) Working
Group recommended in 2002 that [30]:
 Seat belt reminders should target part-time users, i.e. people who understand the value of a
seat belt but sometimes do not use it.
 They should not affect the driveability of the vehicle.
 A combination of visual and sound signals should be used.
 The reminder signal should use multiple steps, i.e. build up progressively.
 Seat belt reminders should also be expanded to the rear seats
EuroNCAP has developed a seat belt reminder protocol along these lines (though requiring only a
visual signal for the rear seat in the absence of seat occupancy information) and encourages their
installation. Cars meeting the specification receive points which contribute to the star rating.
What road safety problem do they address?

Research studies indicate that the risk of dying in a crash could be reduced by about 60% by using the
seat belt and by more, when belts and air bags are combined (WHO 2004). While most drivers in EU
countries wear seat belts in the fronts of cars, a significant proportion involved in crashes are
unrestrained, even in countries with highest seat belt use. Seat belt wearing levels in the rear seat are
not high in most EU countries [21].
How effective?
User trials and research in Sweden and the United States have shown that seat belt reminders with
advanced reminder systems with visual and audible warnings were the most effective systems for
increasing seat belt use [21].
A Swedish study examined differences in driver's seat belt use in cars with or without different
reminder systems and found that 99% of drivers used their seat belt in cars with the most advanced
reminders (in compliance with EuroNCAP criteria), 93% of drivers used their seat belt in cars equipped
with "mild" reminders producing a visual and soft sound signal, 82% of drivers used their seat belt in
cars without seat belt reminders.
Earlier US studies found a 7% increase in seat belt use among drivers of cars with seat belt reminders,
compared with drivers of unequipped vehicles (Williams et al, 2002). A driver survey found that of the
two thirds who activated the system, three quarters reported using their seat belt and nearly half of
all respondents said their belt use had increased [57].
Seat belt reminders can help part-time users to develop habits of belt use. But they are likely to have
little effect on hard-core non users who actively choose not to buckle up. More aggressive solutions,
such as interlock systems, may be needed to encourage this small but important non user group to
belt up [21].
Benefit to cost?
A cost-benefit analysis for the mandatory introduction of audible seat belt reminders for front seats in
2004 was undertaken by ETSC in 2004. It was based on the assumption that roughly 50% of fatally
injured front seat car occupants killed in the EU did not wear seat belts and that audible seat belt
reminders for the front seat could increase seat belt wearing among front seat occupants to 97%.
After twelve years of introduction, the costs would amount to about 11 million Euro while the benefit
would be 66 million Euro. The benefit to cost ratio of seat belt reminders was estimated at 6:1 [18]. A
Belgian study by the Belgian Policy Research Centre for Traffic Safety has found that a seat belt
reminder system would be beneficial to society even if it prompted only 5-15% of non users to fasten
up over a period of ten years [7].
Who uses them?

Of all new cars tested by EuroNCAP since 2003, over 70% are fitted with seat belt reminders. Around
80% of new cars sold in Sweden in 2006 were fitted with seat belt reminders. Sweden has created a
demand for this safety equipment nationally through its own in-house safety policy for staff travel and
as one of the safety requirements of its road transport contracts. By 2010, the Swedish policy is that
all new cars sold in Sweden should have seat belt reminders
Next steps for implementation?

There have been calls for the mandatory fitment of seat belt reminders in all seats in Europe, given
the great potential of this technology. In 2005, the CARS 21 High Level Group included EU regulation
on seat belt reminders in its 10 year road map for the automotive industry in Europe.
Recommendations of the European Transport Safety Council (ETSC, 2006)

European Commission
 The European Commission should include seat belt reminders to type approval in its CARS
21 Communication outlining the regulatory framework for the next 10 years.
 The European Commission should then adopt legislation according to this timetable to ensure
that every new car has as standard equipment an enhanced seat belt reminder system for front
and rear seat occupants with audible and visual warnings.
Member States
 Until all cars are equipped, Member States should provide, in co-operation within the EU, tax
breaks for cars with seat belt reminders.
 They should encourage motor insurers to lower insurance premiums for drivers of vehicles
with seat belt reminders.
 They should run campaigns informing drivers of the benefits of this technology.
Vehicle Manufacturers
 Vehicle manufacturers should continue to introduce seat belt reminders to new models.
The European Transport Safety Council has called for their installation to be extended to all front
seats, then to back seats. In parallel, retro-fitting of vehicles with seat belt reminders to all seats
should be introduced [21].
The SUPREME project reports that ACEA, the European Automobile Manufacturers Association, has
expressed its commitment to continue to equip progressively passenger cars of categories M1 and
commercial vehicles with seatbelt reminders for the driver's seat believing that the majority of new
models will be equipped accordingly by 01.01.09 at the latest and of new vehicles by 01.01.10 at the
latest. ACEA will also provide on a regular basis statistics regarding the availability of seatbelt warning
on vehicles registered in the EU.
Crash test
NHTSA testing of the Honda
Ridgeline
2006 Honda Ridgeline RT full

front and side-impact crash tests
Frontal small-overlap crash test of a 2012 Honda Odyssey.
2018 Dodge Grand Caravan being struck by a mobile deformable barrier at 62 km/h.

2016 Honda Fit striking a wall head-on at 56 km/h.
Driver-side oblique crash test of a 2017 Honda Ridgeline.
Jeep Liberty undergoing routine impact testing at Chrysler's Proving Grounds
NHTSA research crash test involving two Ford Five Hundreds.

Full-scale crash test of various airbag technologies on an AH-1G (Mod) helicopter.
A crash test is a form of destructive testing usually performed in order to ensure safe design
standards in crashworthiness and crash compatibility for various modes of transportation
(see automobile safety) or related systems and components.
Contents
 1Types
 2Major providers
 3Data collection
 4Consumer response
 5Crash testing programs
 6See also
 7References
 8External links
Types[edit]
 Frontal-impact tests: which is what most people initially think of when asked about a crash
test. Vehicles usually impact a solid concrete wall at a specified speed, but these can also be
vehicle impacting vehicle tests. SUVs have been singled out in these tests for a while, due to the
high ride-height that they often have.
 Moderate Overlap tests: in which only part of the front of the car impacts with a barrier
(vehicle). These are important, as impact forces (approximately) remain the same as with a
frontal impact test, but a smaller fraction of the car is required to absorb all of the force. These
tests are often realized by cars turning into oncoming traffic. This type of testing is done by the
U.S.A. Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS), EuroNCAP, Australasian New Car
Assessment Program (ANCAP) and ASEAN NCAP.
 Small Overlap tests: this is where only a small portion of the car's structure strikes an object
such as a pole or a tree, or if a car were to clip another car. This is the most demanding test
because it loads the most force onto the structure of the car at any given speed. These are
usually conducted at 15-20% of the front vehicle structure.
 Side-impact tests: these forms of accidents have a very significant likelihood of fatality, as
cars do not have a significant crumple zone to absorb the impact forces before an occupant is
injured.
 Poll-impact tests: A difficult test which places a large amount of force on a small proportion
on the side of the vehicle.
 Roll-over tests: which tests a car's ability (specifically the pillars holding the roof) to support
itself in a dynamic impact. More recently, dynamic rollover tests have been proposed in lieu of
static crush testing (video).[1]
 Roadside hardware crash tests: are used to ensure crash barriers and crash cushions will
protect vehicle occupants from roadside hazards, and also to ensure that guard rails, sign posts,
light poles and similar appurtenances do not pose an undue hazard to vehicle occupants.
 Old versus new: Often an old and big car against a small and new car,[2][3] or two different
generations of the same car model. These tests are performed to show the advancements in
crash-worthiness.[citation needed]
 Computer model: Because of the cost of full-scale crash tests, engineers often run
many simulated crash tests using computer models to refine their vehicle or barrier designs
before conducting live tests.
 Sled testing: A cost-effective way of testing components such as airbags and seat belts is
conducting sled crash testing. The two most common types of sled systems are reverse-firing
sleds which are fired from a standstill, and decelerating sleds which are accelerated from a
starting point and stopped in the crash area with a hydraulic ram. It can also be used to evaluate
the whiplash protection of a vehicle's seat.
How Crash Testing Works

BY KARIM NICE
Browse the article How Crash Testing Works
Car Safety Image Gallery
INSURANCE INSTITUTE OF HIGHWAY SAFETY/AP

Crash testing programs save lives. See more car safety pictures.
Crash test dummies have been the subject of public service announcements,
cartoons, parodies, even the name of a band. Real crash test dummies,
however, are true life-savers as an integral part of automotive crash tests. Even
though cars get a little safer each year, and fatality rates are declining, car
crashes are still one of the leading causes of death and injury in the United
States.
One of the reasons cars have been getting safer is because of a well-established
testing program. In this article, you'll learn all about automotive crash testing,
including crash test programs, ratings, dummies and future improvements. You'll
be amazed at how much thought and preparation goes into making sure that safe
cars are on the roads!
Crash Test Dummies

The dummy's job is to simulate a human being during a crash, while collecting
data that would not be possible to collect from a human occupant.
All frontal crash tests in the United States are conducted using the same type of
dummy, the Hybrid III dummy. This guarantees consistent results. A dummy is
built from materials that mimic the physiology of the human body. For example, it
has a spine made from alternating layers of metal discs and rubber pads.
The dummies come in different sizes (click here to see some of the dummies),
and they are referred to by percentile and gender. For example, the fiftieth-
percentile male dummy represents the median sized male -- it is bigger than half
the male population and smaller than the other half. This is the dummy most
commonly used in crash testing. It weighs 170 lbs (77 kg) and is 70 inches (5 ft
10 inches or 1.78 m) tall.
The dummies contain three types of instrumentation:
 Accelerometers
 Load sensors
 Motion sensors
Accelerometers
These devices measure the acceleration in a particular direction. This data
can be used to determine the probability of injury. Acceleration is the rate at
which speed changes. For example, if you bang your head into a brick wall, the
speed of your head changes very quickly (which can hurt!). But, if you bang your
head into a pillow, the speed of your head changes more slowly as the pillow
crushes (and it doesn't hurt!).
The crash-test dummy has accelerometers all over it. Inside the dummy's head,
there is an accelerometer that measures the acceleration in all three directions
(fore-aft, up-down, left-right). There are also accelerometers in the chest, pelvis,
legs, feet and other parts of the body.
A graph of the head acceleration during a crash test

The graph above shows the acceleration of the driver's head during a 35 mph
(56.3 kph) frontal crash. Notice that it is not a steady value, but fluctuates up and
down during the crash. This reflects the way the head slows down during a
crash, with the highest values coming when the head strikes hard objects or the
airbag.
Load Sensors
Inside the dummy are load sensors that measure the amount of force on different
body parts during a crash.
Photo courtesy NHTSA
A graph of the force in the driver's femur during a crash
The graph above shows the force in Newtons in the driver's femur (the thigh
bone), during a 35-mph frontal crash. The maximum load in the bone can be
used to determine the probability of it breaking.
Movement Sensors
These sensors are used in the dummy's chest. They measure how much the
chest deflects during a crash.
The chest deflection during a 35-mph frontal impact
The scan above shows the driver's chest deflection during a crash. In this
particular crash, the driver's chest is compressed about 2 inches (46 mm). This
injury would be painful, but probably not fatal.
Now let's take a look at a real crash test.
An Actual Crash Test

The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) conducts two types of
crash tests as part of the New Car Assessment Program.
 35-mph frontal impact - At 35 mph (56 kph), the car runs straight into a
solid concrete barrier. This is equivalent to a car moving at 35 mph hitting
another car of comparable weight moving at 35 mph.
 35-mph side impact - A 3,015-pound (1,368-kg) sled with a deformable
"bumper" runs into the side of the test vehicle. The sled's tires are angled. The
test simulates a car that is crossing an intersection being sideswiped by a car
running a red light. The sled actually moves at 38.5 mph, but when you do the
math, it is equivalent to a 35-mph side impact because of the way the wheels
on the sled are angled.
Click on this image for a video of an actual crash test.
(Video time: 2 min, 33 sec)
Crash Test Paint
Before the crash-test dummies are placed in the vehicle, researchers apply paint
to them. Different colors of paint are applied to the parts of the dummies' bodies
most likely to hit during a crash. The dummy's knees, face and areas of the skull
are each painted with a different color. In the following photo, you can see that
the blue paint from the dummy's face is smeared on the airbag and that his left
knee (painted red) hit the steering column.
The multicolored paint on the dummy shows where the different body parts hit the car.
If researchers note a particularly large acceleration in the data from the
accelerometers in the dummy driver's head, the paint marks in the car will
indicate what part of the body hit what part of the vehicle inside the cabin. This
information helps researchers develop improvements to prevent that type of
injury in future crashes.
-side dummy's knees hit the dashboard during the crash. Also, note that nothing from the engine compartment penetrated the cabin. The
is mounted so that in a crash, it is forced backwards and downward so that it won't come into the cabin.
Now, let's take a look at a 35-mph frontal-impact test.
Vehicle Setup
The photo below shows a van that is ready to crash. The dummies have been
placed in the car and are in position. All of the instrumentation on the car and
dummies has been hooked up and checked. Ballast is added to the car so that
the crash-test vehicle's weight -- and the distribution of that weight -- is equal to
that of a fully loaded vehicle. A speed sensor has been mounted to the car and
positioned so that it will pass through a pickup just as the car hits the barrier.
A minivan in front of a barrier (note the camera's speed sensor)
There are 15 high-speed cameras, including several under the car pointed
upward. They shoot around 1,000 frames per second. Next, the car is backed
away from the barrier and prepared to crash. A pulley, mounted in a track, pulls
the car down the runway. The car hits the barrier at 35 mph. It only takes about
0.1 seconds from the time the car hits the barrier until it stops.
After the Crash

Let's take a look at some pictures. This car got four stars for both occupants in
this frontal-crash test.
The front of the same car, before and after the test
As you can see, the front of the car is completely crushed after the test. This is
good, as the car has to get crushed and collapse in order to absorb the
kinetic energy and stop the car.
A better view of the front crushing
The front of the van is crushed up to the front wheels, which are pushed back. In
this crash, the van actually got 23 inches (58 cm) shorter!
The "Perfect" Crash

Obviously, the ideal crash would be no crash at all. But, let's assume you are
going to crash, and that you want the best possible chances of survival. How can
all of the safety systems come together to give you the smoothest crash
possible?
Surviving a crash is all about kinetic energy. When your body is moving at 35

mph (56 kph), it has a certain amount of kinetic energy. After the crash, when
you come to a complete stop, you will have zero kinetic energy. To minimize risk
of injury, you would like to remove the kinetic energy as slowly and evenly as
possible. Some of the safety systems in your car help do this.
Ideally, your car has seatbelt pretensioners and force limiters; they both tighten
up the seatbelts very soon after your car hits the barrier, but before the airbag
deploys. The seatbelt can then absorb some of your energy as you move forward
towards the airbag. Milliseconds later, the force in the seatbelt holding you back
would start to hurt you, so the force limiters kick in now, making sure the force in
the seatbelts doesn't get too high.
Next, the airbag deploys and absorbs some more of your forward motion while
protecting you from hitting anything hard.
In this hypothetical crash, the safety systems in the car all worked together to
slow you down. If you didn't wear your seatbelt then the first stage of your
protection is lost and it is going to hurt a lot more when you slam into the airbag.
Many cars have seatbelt pretensioners and force limiters, but there are some
even more exciting safety improvements coming.
Future Safety Improvements

It seems like air bags are sprouting from just about everywhere inside cars. And
if they help keep your body from hitting hard objects during a collision, they're
doing their job. But, there's always room for improvement. Right now (and in the
foreseeable future) the emphasis on safety equipment is to make it "smarter."
The most recent advancement in safety equipment is known as a smart air bag.
These air bags can deploy with different speeds and pressures, depending on
the weight and seating position of the occupant, and also on the intensity of the
crash.
Unfortunately, sometimes the deployment of an air bag can cause serious injury
and even death to the driver or passenger. The new technology in advanced
frontal air bag systems is designed to reduce this possible risk and to enhance
the performance of the air bag itself. The implementation of this new technology
is being taken seriously -- so much so that an amendment has been made to the
Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard No. 208. This amendment requires that,
over the next few years, manufacturers install this new air bag system in all their
new model vehicles intended for sale, so that by September 1, 2005 all 2006
Model vehicles will be equipped with the system.
In the future, we'll see seatbelts that will also sense the weight and position of
occupants and adjust the tension and maximum force accordingly.
Technology is enabling carmakers to design and manufacture safer, smarter

vehicles, and consumers clearly endorse this trend as reflected in buying
patterns. It may take wrecking lots of cars and crash test dummies, but the
information gained from automotive crash tests means you and your loved ones
may survive an automobile accident with little or no injury.
Background and Ratings

Advanced Frontal Airbags
According to NHTSA, these vehicles are either currently certified to the advanced frontal air bag requirements or, at some point
advanced frontal air bag requirements.
 BMW 525i, 530i, 545i

 BMW 645Ci & 645Ci convertible
 BMW X3 (2.5i & 3.0i)
 BMW Z4 roadster (2.5i & 3.0i)
 Dodge Durango
 Jeep Liberty
 Ford Escape
 Ford F-150
 Ford Taurus/Sable
 Mazda 3
 Mazda Tribute
 Mazda MPV
 Jaguar S-TYPE
 Jaguar XJ
 Jaguar X-TYPE
 Cadillac Escalade
 Cadillac Escalade EXT
 Cadillac Escalade ESV
 Chevrolet Avalanche
 Chevrolet Silverado
 Chevrolet Suburban
 Chevrolet Tahoe
 GMC Yukon, Yukon XL, Yukon Denali, Yukon XL Denali
 GMC Sierra
 Honda Accord
 Honda Odyssey
 Acura MDX
 Hyundai Elantra
 Kia LD
 Mitsubishi Galant
 Nissan Pathfinder Armada
 Nissan Quest
 Nissan Titan (King Cab & Crew Cab)
 Subaru Legacy
 Subaru Outback
 Suzuki Grand Vitara XL-7
 Lexus RX330
 Lexus ES330
 Toyota Camry
 Toyota Highlander
 Volkswagen New Beetle
 Volkswagen New Beetle Convertible
Source: National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
In recent years, cars have gotten much safer. One reason is that safety is now a
selling point in new cars -- people actually seek out and buy safer cars. In the
United States, the NHTSA crashes cars and analyzes data with a goal of
improving car safety.
Carmakers themselves crash many vehicles each year. Car manufacturers are
required to certify that their cars meet the Federal Motor Vehicle Safety
Standards (FMVSS). These rules cover everything from how bright the turn
signal bulbs must be to the crash-testing requirements. Carmakers have to be
certain that if the NHTSA goes to any dealer in the United States, buys any car
and crashes it at 30 mph, the car will pass all of the FMVSS requirements. To
ensure that all of the different combinations of engines, transmissions and
accessories will pass, carmakers might crash 60 to 100 vehicles themselves.
It is rare that a car fails the FMVSS requirements, so to challenge the carmakers
even more -- and to provide valuable information to consumers buying cars -- the
NHTSA started their New Car Assessment Program (NCAP). NCAP crashes
cars at 35 mph (56 kph) in both frontal and side impact, and rates the cars based
on how likely the occupants are to be injured during a crash. You can find the
ratings online, a good first stop when looking for a new car.
What are my chances of being seriously injured?

This is a pretty tough question. In order to answer it, we have to define a serious
injury. A lot of research has been done (and is still being done) to classify
injuries. Crash-test researchers came up with a standard called the Abbreviated
Injury Scale (AIS) for classifying different injuries. These same researchers
published a manual that contains detailed descriptions of all the injuries normally
found in car crashes. Each injury is assigned a rank based on how severe it was:
1 is just minor cuts and bruises; 3 indicates a serious injury that requires
immediate medical treatment and may be life threatening; 6 is fatal.
Rating systems
Researchers have used crash test data to determine the likelihood of injuries that
may be sustained in a crash. In addition, that data was used to create the
NHTSA's star system. This system makes automobile safety ratings easier for
consumers to understand when buying a car.
In frontal crashes, the star rating is determined by the worst score on these
three criteria:
 Head Injury Criteria (HIC)

 Chest deceleration
 Femur load
In order to receive a five-star rating, all three of these criteria must be below the
level that indicates a 10-percent chance of severe injury. There is a star rating for
each of the front seat passengers, for each type of test that was run (frontal or
side impact).
Ratings for Frontal-Impact Tests
ars Result
10% or lower chance of serious injury
11% to 20% chance of serious injury
46% or greater chance of serious injury
In side-impact crashes, there are two criteria:
 Thoracic Trauma Index (TTI)

 Lateral Pelvic Acceleration (LPA)
To achieve a five-star rating in side-impact crashes, both criteria must be in the range
that indicates less than a 5-percent chance of serious injury.
Ratings for Side-Impact Tests
ars Result
5% or lower chance of serious injury
26% or greater chance of serious injury
Airbag
This article is about a car safety device. For other uses, see Airbag (disambiguation).
The driver and passenger front airbag modules, after having been deployed, in a Peugeot 306
An airbag is a vehicle occupant-restraint system using a bag designed to inflate extremely quickly,
then quickly deflate during a collision. It consists of the airbag cushion, a flexible fabric bag, an
inflation module, and an impact sensor. The purpose of the airbag is to provide a vehicle occupant a
soft cushioning and restraint during a crash event. It can reduce injuries between the flailing
occupant and the interior of the vehicle.
The airbag provides an energy-absorbing surface between the vehicle's occupants and a steering
wheel, instrument panel, body pillar, headliner, and windshield. Modern vehicles may contain up to
10 airbag modules in various configurations, including: driver, passenger, side-curtain, seat-
mounted, door-mounted, B and C-pillar mounted side-impact, knee bolster, inflatable seat belt, and
pedestrian airbag modules.
During a crash, the vehicle's crash sensors provide crucial information to the airbag electronic
controller unit (ECU), including collision type, angle, and severity of impact. Using this information,
the airbag ECU's crash algorithm determines if the crash event meets the criteria for deployment and
triggers various firing circuits to deploy one or more airbag modules within the vehicle. Working as a
supplemental restraint system to the vehicle's seat-belt systems, airbag module deployments are
triggered through a pyrotechnic process that is designed to be used once. Newer side-impact airbag
modules consist of compressed-air cylinders that are triggered in the event of a side-on vehicle
impact.[1]
The first commercial designs were introduced in passenger automobiles during the 1970s, with
limited success, and actually caused some fatalities. [2] Broad commercial adoption of airbags
occurred in many markets during the late 1980s and early 1990s with a driver airbag, and a front-
passenger airbag, as well, on some cars, and many modern vehicles now include six or more units. [3]
Contents
 1Active vs. passive safety

 2History
o 2.1Origins
o 2.2As a substitute to seat belts
o 2.3As a supplemental restraint system
o 2.4On motorcycles
 3Operation
o 3.1Triggering conditions
 4Regulatory specifications
o 4.1United States
o 4.2Outside the United States
 5Maintenance
 6Limitations
 7Injuries and fatalities
o 7.1Airbag fatality statistics
 8Aerospace and military applications
o 8.1Spacecraft airbag landing systems
o 8.2Aircraft airbag landing systems
o 8.3Occupant protection
 9See also
 10References
Active vs. passive safety[edit]

Airbags are considered as "passive" restraints and act as a supplement to "active" restraints.
Because no action by a vehicle occupant is required to activate or use the airbag, it is considered a
"passive" device. This is in contrast to seat belts, which are considered "active" devices because the
vehicle occupant must act to enable them. [4][5][6][7][8]
This terminology is not related to active and passive safety, which are, respectively, systems
designed to prevent accidents in the first place, and systems designed to minimize the effects of
accidents once they occur. In this use, a car antilock braking system qualifies as an active-safety
device, while both its seatbelts and airbags qualify as passive-safety devices. Further terminological
confusion can arise from the fact that passive devices and systems—those requiring no input or
action by the vehicle occupant—can operate independently in an active manner; an airbag is one
such device. Vehicle safety professionals are generally careful in their use of language to avoid this
sort of confusion, though advertising principles sometimes prevent such semantic caution in the
consumer marketing of safety features. Further confusing the terminology, the aviation
safety community uses the terms "active" and "passive" in the opposite sense from the automotive
industry.[9]
History[edit]
1975 Buick Electra with ACRS
Origins[edit]
Blue plaque commemorating Round and Parrott's patent, at Birmingham Dental Hospital
The airbag "for the covering of aeroplane and other vehicle parts" traces its origins to a United
States patent submitted in 1919 by two dentists, Harold Round & Arthur Parrott of Birmingham,
England[10] and approved in 1920.[11] Air-filled bladders were in use as early as 1951. [12][13] The airbag
specifically for automobile use is credited independently to the American John W. Hetrick, who filed
for an airbag patent on 5 August 1952, that was granted #2,649,311 by the United States Patent
Office on 18 August 1953.[14][15] German engineer Walter Linderer, who filed German patent #896,312
on 6 October 1951, was issued on 12 November 1953, approximately three months after American
John Hetrick. Hetrick and Linderer's airbags were both based on a compressed air system, either
released by spring, bumper contact, or by the driver. Later research during the 1960s showed that
compressed air could not inflate the mechanical airbags fast enough to ensure maximum safety,
leading to the current chemical and electrical airbags. [16][17] In patent applications, manufacturers
sometimes use the term "inflatable occupant restraint systems".
Hetrick was an industrial engineer and member of the United States Navy. His airbag design,
however, only came about when he combined his experiences working with navy torpedoes with his
desire to protect his family on the road. Sadly, despite working with the major automobile
manufacturers of his time, no company invested in Hetrick's idea. [18][19] Although airbags are now
required in every automobile sold in the United States, Hetrick's 1951 patent filing serves as an
example of a "valuable" invention with little economic value to its inventor. Its first commercial use
was not implemented until after the patent expired in 1971, at which point the airbag was installed in
a few experimental Ford cars.[20]
In 1964, a Japanese automobile engineer, Yasuzaburou Kobori (小堀保三郎), started developing an
airbag "safety net" system. His design harnessed an explosive to inflate an airbag, for which he was
later awarded patents in 14 countries. He died in 1975, before seeing widespread adoption of airbag
systems.[21][22][23]
In 1967, a breakthrough in the development of airbag crash sensors came when Allen K. Breed
invented a ball-in-tube mechanism for crash detection. Under his system,
a electromechanical sensor with a steel ball attached to a tube by a magnet would inflate an airbag
in under 30 milliseconds.[24] A small explosion of sodium azide was used instead of compressed air
during inflation for the first time.[17] Breed Corporation then marketed this innovation to Chrysler. A
similar "Auto-Ceptor" crash-restraint, developed by the Eaton, Yale & Towne company for Ford, was
soon also offered as an automatic safety system in the United States, [25][26] while the Italian Eaton-
Livia company offered a variant with localized [further explanation needed] air cushions.[27]
In the early 1970s, General Motors began offering cars equipped with airbags, initially in
government fleet-purchased, metallic green 1973 Chevrolet Impala sedans. These Chevys all had a
1974-style Oldsmobile instrument panel, and a special steering wheel that contained the driver-side
air bag. Only one car from this original batch survives. GM's Oldsmobile Toronado was the first
domestic U.S. vehicle to include a passenger airbag. [28][when?][citation needed] General Motors marketed its first
airbag modules under the "Air Cushion Restraint System" name, or ACRS. The automaker
discontinued the option for its 1977 model year, citing lack of consumer interest. Ford and GM then
spent years lobbying against air-bag requirements, claiming that the devices were unfeasible and
inappropriate. Chrysler made driver-side airbags standard on 1988–1989 models, but airbags did not
become widespread in American cars until the early 1990s. [29]
As a substitute to seat belts[edit]
Airbags for passenger cars were introduced in the United States in the mid-1970s, when seat-belt
usage rates in the country were quite low compared to modern day. Ford built an experimental fleet
of cars with airbags in 1971, followed by General Motors in 1973 (using Chevrolet vehicles). The
early fleet of experimental GM vehicles equipped with airbags experienced seven fatalities, one of
which was later suspected to have been caused by the airbag. [30]
In 1974, GM made its ACRS system (which consisted of a padded lower dashboard and a
passenger-side air bag) available as a regular production option (RPO code AR3) in full-sized
Cadillacs.[31] Buick and Oldsmobile models. The GM cars from the 1970s equipped with ACRS had a
driver-side airbag, a driver-side knee restraint, [32]. The passenger-side airbag protected both front
passengers,[32] and unlike most modern systems, integrated a knee and torso cushion while also
having a dual-stage deployment dictated by force of the impact. The cars equipped with ACRS had
lap belts for all seating positions, but lacked shoulder belts. Shoulder belts were already mandatory
in the United States on closed cars without airbags for the driver and outer front passenger, but GM
chose to market its airbags as a substitute for shoulder belts. Prices for this option on Cadillac
models were US$225 in 1974, $300 in 1975, and $340 in 1976 ($1125, $1360, and $1465,
respectively, in 2017 dollars).
The early development of airbags coincided with an international interest in automobile
safety legislation. Some safety experts advocated a performance-based occupant-protection
standard rather than one mandating a particular technical solution (which could rapidly become
outdated and prove to not be a cost-effective approach). Less emphasis was placed on other
designs as countries successfully mandated seatbelt restrictions, however. [27]
As a supplemental restraint system[edit]
Frontal airbag[edit]
Three photos of a crash test dummy whose head lands right into the airbag
The auto industry and research and regulatory communities have moved away from their initial view
of the airbag as a seat-belt replacement, and the bags are now nominally designated as
supplemental restraint systems (SRS) or supplemental inflatable restraints.
In 1981, Mercedes-Benz introduced the airbag in West Germany as an option on its flagship saloon
model, S-Class (W126). In the Mercedes system, the sensors automatically tensioned the seat belts
to reduce occupants' motion on impact (now a common feature), and then deployed the airbag on
impact. This integrated the seat belts and airbag into a restraint system, rather than the airbag being
considered an alternative to the seat belt.
In 1987, the Porsche 944 Turbo became the first car to have driver and passenger airbags as
standard equipment. The less powerful Porsche 944 and 944S had this as an available option. The
same year also had the first airbag in a Japanese car, the Honda Legend.[33]
In 1988, Chrysler became the first United States automaker to fit a driver-side airbag as standard
equipment, which was offered in six different models. [34][35] The following year, Chrysler became the
first US auto manufacturer to offer driver-side airbags in all its new models. [clarification needed][36] All versions
of the Chrysler minivans came with airbags starting for the 1991 model year.[34] The 1993 Jeep Grand
Cherokee became the first SUV to offer a driver-side airbag when it was launched in 1992. [37] Driver
and passenger airbags became standard equipment in all Dodge Intrepid, Eagle Vision,
and Chrysler Concorde sedans ahead of any regulations. [38][failed verification] Early 1993 saw the 4-millionth
airbag-equipped Chrysler vehicle roll off the assembly line. [39] In October 1993, the Dodge
Ram became the first pickup truck with a standard driver-side airbag. [40]
The first known accident between two airbag-equipped automobiles took place on 12 March 1990
in Virginia, USA. A 1989 Chrysler LeBaron crossed the center line and hit another 1989 Chrysler
LeBaron in a head-on collision, causing both driver airbags to deploy. The drivers suffered only
minor injuries despite extensive damage to the vehicles. [41][42][43]
The United States Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 required passenger cars
and light trucks built after 1 September 1998 to have airbags for the driver and the right front
passenger.[44][45] In the United States, NHTSA estimated that airbags had saved over 4,600 lives by 1
September 1999; however, the crash deployment experience of the early 1990s installations
indicated that some fatalities and serious injuries were in fact caused by airbags. [44] In 1998, NHTSA
initiated new rules for advanced airbags that gave automakers more flexibility in devising effective
technological solutions. The revised rules also required improved protection for occupants of
different sizes regardless of whether they use seat belts, while minimizing the risk to infants,
children, and other occupants caused by airbags. [44]
In Europe, airbags were almost unheard of until the early 1990s. By 1991, four manufacturers
– BMW, Honda, Mercedes-Benz, and Volvo – offered the airbag on some of their higher-end
models, but shortly afterwards, airbags became a common feature on more mainstream cars,
with Ford and Vauxhall/Opel being among the manufacturers to introduce the airbag to its model
ranges in 1992. Citroen, Fiat, Nissan, Peugeot, Renault, and Volkswagen followed shortly
afterwards.
By 1999, finding a new mass market car without an airbag at least as optional equipment was
difficult, and some late 1990s products, such as the Volkswagen Golf Mk4, also featured side
airbags. The Peugeot 306 is one example of the European automotive mass-market evolution:
starting in early 1993, most of these models did not even offer a driver's airbag as an option, but by
1999, even side airbags were available on several variants. Audi was late to offer airbag systems on
a broader scale, since even in the 1994 model year, its popular models did not offer airbags.
Instead, the German automaker until then relied solely on its proprietary cable-based procon-
ten restraint system.
From around 2000, side-impact airbags became commonplace on even low- to mid-range vehicles,
such as the smaller-engined versions of the Ford Fiesta and Peugeot 206, and curtain airbags were
also becoming regular features on mass-market cars. The Toyota Avensis, launched in 2003, was
the first mass-market car to be sold in Europe with nine airbags.
Variable force-deployment front airbags were developed to help minimize injury from the airbag
itself.
The emergence of the airbag has contributed to a sharp decline in the number of deaths and serious
injuries on the roads of Europe since 1990, and by 2010, the number of cars on European roads
lacking an airbag represented a very small percentage of cars, mostly the remaining cars dating
from the mid-1990s or earlier.
Many new cars in Latin America, including the Kia Picanto, Kia Rio, Hyundai Accent and Suzuki Alto,
are still regularly sold without Airbags, as neither Airbags nor Automatic braking systems in new cars
are compulsory in Latin America.
Shape of airbags[edit]
The Citroën C4 provided the first "shaped" driver airbag, made possible by this car's unusual fixed-
hub steering wheel.[46]
Side airbag[edit]
Side airbag inflated permanently for display purposes
Deployed curtain airbag and side torso airbag in a Citroën C4

Deployed curtain airbag in an Opel Vectra
Essentially, two types of side airbags are commonly used today - the side-torso airbag and the side-
curtain airbag.
Most vehicles equipped with side-curtain airbags also include side-torso airbags. However, some,
such as the Chevrolet Cobalt,[47] 2007–09 model Chevrolet Silverado/GMC Sierra, and 2009–
12 Dodge Ram[48] do not feature the side-torso airbag.
Side torso airbag[edit]
Side-impact airbags or side-torso airbags are a category of airbags usually located in the seat [49] or
door panel,[50] and inflate between the seat occupant and the door. These airbags are designed to
reduce the risk of injury to the pelvic and lower abdomen regions. [51] Most vehicles are now being
equipped with different types of designs, to help reduce injury and ejection from the vehicle in
rollover crashes. More recent side-airbag designs [52] include a two chamber system;[53] a firmer lower
chamber for the pelvic region and softer upper chamber for the ribcage. [54][55]
Swedish company Autoliv AB was granted a patent on side-impact airbags, and they were first
offered as an option in 1994[56] on the 1995 Volvo 850, and as standard equipment on all Volvo cars
made after 1995.[56]
Some cars, such as the 2010 Volkswagen Polo Mk.5 have combined head- and torso-side airbags.
These are fitted in the backrest of the front seats, and protect the head and the torso.
Side tubular or curtain airbag[edit]
In 1997, the BMW 7 Series and smaller 5 Series were fitted with tubular-shaped head side airbags
(inflatable tubular structure),[57] the "Head Protection System (HPS)" as standard equipment. [58] This
airbag was designed to offer head protection in side impact collisions and also maintained inflation
for up to seven seconds for rollover protection. However, this tubular-shaped airbag design has been
quickly replaced by an inflatable 'curtain' airbag.
In May 1998, Toyota began offering a side-curtain airbag deploying from the roof on the Progrés.
[59]
In 1998, the Volvo S80 was given roof-mounted curtain airbags to protect both front and rear
passengers.[60] Curtain airbags were then made standard equipment on all new Volvo cars from 2000
except for the first-generation C70, which received an enlarged side-torso airbag that also protects
the head of front-seat occupants.[56] The second-generation C70 convertible received the world's first
door-mounted, side-curtain airbags that deployed upwards.
Roll-sensing side-curtain airbags found on vehicles more prone to rollovers such as SUVs and
pickups deploy when a rollover is detected instead of just when an actual collision takes place.
Often, a switch can disable the feature in case the driver wants to take the vehicle off road.
Curtain airbags have been said to reduce brain injury or fatalities by up to 45% in a side impact with
an SUV. These airbags come in various forms (e.g., tubular, curtain, door-mounted) depending on
the needs of the application.[61] Many recent SUVs and MPVs have a long inflatable curtain airbag
that protects all three rows of seats.
Knee airbag[edit]
The second driver-side and separate knee airbag was used in the Kia Sportage (a Korean SUV
launched in 1995) and has been standard equipment since then. The airbag is located beneath the
steering wheel.[62][63]
Deployed passenger knee airbag in a Toyota Tundra after a frontal collision test, the driver-side knee airbag
also deployed. Blue and yellow markings indicate the dummy's knees.
The Toyota Caldina introduced the first driver-side SRS knee airbag on the Japanese market in
2002.[64] Toyota Avensis became the first vehicle sold in Europe equipped with a driver's knee airbag.
[65][66]
The EuroNCAP reported on the 2003 Avensis, "There has been much effort to protect the
driver's knees and legs and a knee airbag worked well." [67] Since then certain models have also
included front-passenger knee airbags, which deploy near or over the glove compartment in a crash.
Knee airbags are designed to reduce leg injury. The knee airbag has become increasingly common
from 2000.
Rear curtain airbag[edit]
In 2008, the new Toyota iQ microcar featured the first production rear-curtain shield airbag to protect
the rear occupants' heads in the event of a rear-end impact. [68]
Seat cushion airbag[edit]
Another feature of the Toyota iQ was a seat-cushion airbag in the passenger seat to prevent the
pelvis from diving below the lap belt during a frontal impact or submarining. [69] Later Toyota models
such as the Yaris added the feature to the driver's seat, as well.
Center airbag[edit]
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent
events or newly available information. (February 2019)
Front-center airbag of a Chevrolet Traverse deployed in a static out-of-position test: The purpose of the test
was to find out how this airbag affects a 3-year-old child who is out of his seat and in the direct reach of the
airbag.
Seat-belt airbag
In 2009, Toyota developed the first production rear-seat center airbag designed to reduce the
severity of secondary injuries to rear passengers in a side collision. This system deploys from the
rear center seat first appearing in on the redesigned Crown Majesta.[70] In late 2012, General Motors
with supplier Takata introduced a front center airbag; it deploys from the driver's seat. [71]
Seat-belt airbag[edit]
The seat-belt airbag is designed to better distribute the forces experienced by a buckled person in a
crash by means of increased seat belt area. This is done to reduce possible injuries to the rib cage
or chest of the belt wearer.
 2010: Ford Explorer[72] and 2013 Ford Flex: optional rear seat belt airbags; standard on the
2013 Lincoln MKT
 2010: Lexus LFA[73] had seat belt airbags for driver and passenger [74]
 2013: Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222) has rear seat beltbags[75]
 2014: Ford Mondeo Mk IV[76] has optional rear seat belt airbags for the two outer seats [77]
Cessna Aircraft[78] also introduced seat belt airbags.[79] They are as of 2003[79] standard on the 172,
182, and 206.
Pedestrian airbag[edit]
Airbag(s) mounted to the exterior of vehicles, so called pedestrian airbags, are designed to reduce
injuries in the event of a vehicle to pedestrian collision. [80] When a collision is detected the airbag will
deploy and cover hard areas, such as a-pillars [81] and bonnet edges, before they can be struck by the
pedestrian.[82] When introduced in 2012 the Volvo V40 included the world's first pedestrian airbag as
standard.[83] As a result, the V40 ranked highest (88%) in the EuroNCAP's pedestrian tests. [84] The
2014 Land Rover Discovery was fitted with a pedestrian airbag as well. [81][85]
Manufactures[edit]
SRS airbag suppliers include Autoliv, Daicel, Takata , TRW and KSS, formerly Breed, one of the
pioneers in the field.
On motorcycles[edit]
Airbag on a motorcycle
Various types of airbags were tested on motorcycles by the UK Transport Research Laboratory in
the mid-1970s. In 2006 Honda introduced the first production motorcycle airbag safety system on
its Gold Wing motorcycle. Honda claims that sensors in the front forks can detect a severe frontal
collision and decide when to deploy the airbag, absorbing some of the forward energy of the rider
and reducing the velocity at which the rider may be thrown from the motorcycle. [86]
Airbag suits have also been developed for use by Motorcycle Grand Prix riders. In their earlier form,
they were connected to the motorcycle by a cable and deployed when the cable became detached
from its mounting clip, inflating to protect the back of the rider. The French manufacturer Helite
specializes exclusively in developing airbag jackets for motorcyclists, snowmobile riders and
horseback riders.[87] Further developments were conducted by Dainese and led to an autonomous
system on board the leathers, without a cable connected to the bike. Instead, an electronic system
detects a fall and triggers the inflation of the nitrogen airbags to protect the rider's upper body. [88][89]
Operation[edit]
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An ACU from a Geo Storm
The airbags in the vehicle are controlled by a central airbag control unit [90] (ACU), a specific type
of ECU. The ACU monitors a number of related sensors within the vehicle, including accelerometers,
impact sensors, side (door) pressure sensors,[91][92] wheel speed sensors, gyroscopes, brake pressure
sensors, and seat occupancy sensors. The bag itself and its inflation mechanism is concealed within
the steering wheel boss (for the driver), or the dashboard (for the front passenger), behind plastic
flaps or doors which are designed to tear open under the force of the bag inflating. Once the
requisite threshold has been reached or exceeded, the airbag control unit will trigger the ignition of
a gas generator propellant to rapidly inflate a fabric bag. As the vehicle occupant collides with and
squeezes the bag, the gas escapes in a controlled manner through small vent holes. The airbag's
volume and the size of the vents in the bag are tailored to each vehicle type, to spread out the
deceleration of (and thus force experienced by) the occupant over time and over the occupant's
body, compared to a seat belt alone.
The signals from the various sensors are fed into the airbag control unit, which determines from
them the angle of impact, the severity, or force of the crash, along with other variables. Depending
on the result of these calculations, the ACU may also deploy various additional restraint devices,
such as seat belt pre-tensioners, and/or airbags (including frontal bags for driver and front
passenger, along with seat-mounted side bags, and "curtain" airbags which cover the side glass).
Each restraint device is typically activated with one or more pyrotechnic devices, commonly called
an initiator or electric match. The electric match, which consists of an electrical conductor wrapped in
a combustible material, activates with a current pulse between 1 and 3 amperes in less than 2
milliseconds. When the conductor becomes hot enough, it ignites the combustible material, which
initiates the gas generator. In a seat belt pre-tensioner, this hot gas is used to drive a piston that
pulls the slack out of the seat belt. In an airbag, the initiator is used to ignite solid propellant inside
the airbag inflator. The burning propellant generates inert gas which rapidly inflates the airbag in
approximately 20 to 30 milliseconds. An airbag must inflate quickly in order to be fully inflated by the
time the forward-traveling occupant reaches its outer surface. Typically, the decision to deploy an
airbag in a frontal crash is made within 15 to 30 milliseconds after the onset of the crash, and both
the driver and passenger airbags are fully inflated within approximately 60–80 milliseconds after the
first moment of vehicle contact. If an airbag deploys too late or too slowly, the risk of occupant injury
from contact with the inflating airbag may increase. Since more distance typically exists between the
passenger and the instrument panel, the passenger airbag is larger and requires more gas to fill it.
Older airbag systems contained a mixture of sodium azide (NaN3), KNO3, and SiO2. A typical driver-
side airbag contains approximately 50–80 g of NaN3, with the larger passenger-side airbag
containing about 250 g. Within about 40 milliseconds of impact, all these components react in three
separate reactions that produce nitrogen gas. The reactions, in order, are as follows.
1. 2 NaN3 → 2 Na + 3 N2 (g)
2. 10 Na + 2 KNO3 → K2O + 5 Na2O + N2 (g)
3. K2O + Na2O + 2 SiO2 → K2SiO3 + Na2SiO3
The first two reactions create 4 molar equivalents of nitrogen gas, and the third converts the
remaining reactants to relatively inert potassium silicate and sodium silicate. The reason that KNO3 is
used rather than something like NaNO3 is because it is less hygroscopic. It is very important that the
materials used in this reaction are not hygroscopic because absorbed moisture can de-sensitize the
system and cause the reaction to fail.
The particle size of the initial reactants is important to reliable operation. [93] The NaN3 and KNO3 must
be between 10 and 20 µm, while the SiO2 must be between 5 and 10 µm.
There are ongoing efforts to find alternative compounds that can be used in airbags which have less
toxic reactants.[94] In a journal article by Akiyoshi et al., it was found that for the reaction of the Sr
complex nitrate, (Sr(NH2NHCONHNH2)∙(NO3)2) of carbohydrazide (SrCDH) with various oxidizing
agents resulted in the evolution of N2 and CO2 gases. Using KBrO3 as the oxidizing agent resulted in
the most vigorous reaction as well as the lowest initial temperature of reaction. The N 2 and
CO2 gases evolved made up 99% of all gases evolved. [95] Nearly all the starting materials won’t
decompose until reaching temperatures of 500 °C or higher so this could be a viable option as an air
bag gas generator. In a patent containing another plausible alternative to NaN 3 driven airbags, the
gas generating materials involved the use of guanidine nitrate, 5-aminotetrazole, bitetrazole
dihydrate, nitroimidazole, and basic copper nitrate. It was found that these non-azide reagents
allowed for a less toxic, lower combustion temperature reaction and more easily disposable air bag
inflation system.[96]
Front airbags normally do not protect the occupants during side, rear, or rollover accidents. [97] Since
airbags deploy only once and deflate quickly after the initial impact, they will not be beneficial during
a subsequent collision. Safety belts help reduce the risk of injury in many types of crashes. They
help to properly position occupants to maximize the airbag's benefits and they help restrain
occupants during the initial and any following collisions.
In vehicles equipped with a rollover sensing system, accelerometers and gyroscopes are used to
sense the onset of a rollover event. If a rollover event is determined to be imminent, side-
curtain airbags are deployed to help protect the occupant from contact with the side of the vehicle
interior, and also to help prevent occupant ejection as the vehicle rolls over.
Triggering conditions[edit]
Some cars provide the option to turn off airbags
Airbags are designed to deploy in frontal and near-frontal collisions more severe than a threshold
defined by the regulations governing vehicle construction in whatever particular market the vehicle is
intended for: United States regulations require deployment in crashes at least equivalent in
deceleration to a 23 km/h (14 mph) barrier collision, or similarly, striking a parked car of similar size
across the full front of each vehicle at about twice the speed. [98] International regulations are
performance based, rather than technology-based, so airbag deployment threshold is a function of
overall vehicle design.
Unlike crash tests into barriers, real-world crashes typically occur at angles other than directly into
the front of the vehicle, and the crash forces usually are not evenly distributed across the front of the
vehicle. Consequently, the relative speed between a striking and struck vehicle required to deploy
the airbag in a real-world crash can be much higher than an equivalent barrier crash. Because
airbag sensors measure deceleration, vehicle speed is not a good indicator of whether an airbag
should have deployed. Airbags can deploy due to the vehicle's undercarriage striking a low object
protruding above the roadway due to the resulting deceleration.
The airbag sensor is a MEMS accelerometer, which is a small integrated circuit with integrated micro
mechanical elements. The microscopic mechanical element moves in response to rapid
deceleration, and this motion causes a change in capacitance, which is detected by the electronics
on the chip that then sends a signal to fire the airbag. The most common MEMS accelerometer in
use is the ADXL-50 by Analog Devices, but there are other MEMS manufacturers as well.
Initial attempts using mercury switches did not work well. Before MEMS, the primary system used to
deploy airbags was called a "rolamite". A rolamite is a mechanical device, consisting of a roller
suspended within a tensioned band. As a result of the particular geometry and material properties
used, the roller is free to translate with little friction or hysteresis. This device was developed
at Sandia National Laboratories. The rolamite, and similar macro-mechanical devices were used in
airbags until the mid-1990s when they were universally replaced with MEMS.
Nearly all airbags are designed to automatically deploy in the event of a vehicle fire when
temperatures reach 150–200 °C (300–400 °F).[99] This safety feature, often termed auto-ignition,
helps to ensure that such temperatures do not cause an explosion of the entire airbag module.
Today, airbag triggering algorithms are becoming much more complex. They try to reduce
unnecessary deployments and to adapt the deployment speed to the crash conditions. The
algorithms are considered valuable intellectual property. Experimental algorithms may take into
account such factors as the weight of the occupant, the seat location, seatbelt use, and even attempt
to determine if a baby seat is present.
Inflation[edit]
This section relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion
may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by
introducing citations to additional sources. (May 2016)
When the frontal airbags are to deploy, a signal is sent to the inflator unit within the airbag control
unit. An igniter starts a rapid chemical reaction generating primarily nitrogen gas (N2) to fill the airbag
making it deploy through the module cover. Some airbag technologies use
compressed nitrogen or argon gas with a pyrotechnic operated valve ("hybrid gas generator"), while
other technologies use various energetic propellants. Although propellants containing the highly
toxic sodium azide (NaN3) were common in early inflator designs, little to no toxic sodium azide has
been found on used airbags.
The azide-containing pyrotechnic gas generators contain a substantial amount of the propellant. The
driver-side airbag would contain a canister containing about 50 grams of sodium azide. The
passenger side container holds about 200 grams of sodium azide.[100][better source needed]
The alternative propellants may incorporate, for example, a combination of nitroguanidine, phase-
stabilized ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) or other nonmetallic oxidizer, and a nitrogen-rich fuel different
from azide (e.g. tetrazoles, triazoles, and their salts). The burn rate modifiers in the mixture may be
an alkaline metal nitrate (NO3-) or nitrite (NO2-), dicyanamide or its salts, sodium
borohydride (NaBH4), etc. The coolants and slag formers may be e.g. clay, silica, alumina, glass, etc.
[101][non-primary source needed][original research?]
Other alternatives are e.g. nitrocellulose based propellants (which have
high gas yield but bad storage stability, and their oxygen balance requires secondary oxidation of the
reaction products to avoid buildup of carbon monoxide), or high-oxygen nitrogen-free organic
compounds with inorganic oxidizers (e.g., di or tricarboxylic acids with chlorates (ClO3-)
or perchlorates (ClO4-) and eventually metallic oxides; the nitrogen-free formulation avoids formation
of toxic nitrogen oxides).
From the onset of the crash, the entire deployment and inflation process is about 0.04 seconds.
Because vehicles change speed so quickly in a crash, airbags must inflate rapidly to reduce the risk
of the occupant hitting the vehicle's interior.
Variable-force deployment[edit]
Advanced airbag technologies are being developed to tailor airbag deployment to the severity of the
crash, the size and posture of the vehicle occupant, belt usage, and how close that person is to the
actual airbag. Many of these systems use multi-stage inflators that deploy less forcefully in stages in
moderate crashes than in very severe crashes. Occupant sensing devices let the airbag control unit
know if someone is occupying a seat adjacent to an airbag, the mass/weight of the person, whether
a seat belt or child restraint is being used, and whether the person is forward in the seat and close to
the airbag. Based on this information and crash severity information, the airbag is deployed at either
at a high force level, a less forceful level, or not at all.
Adaptive airbag systems may utilize multi-stage airbags to adjust the pressure within the airbag. The
greater the pressure within the airbag, the more force the airbag will exert on the occupants as they
come in contact with it. These adjustments allow the system to deploy the airbag with a moderate
force for most collisions; reserving the maximum force airbag only for the severest of collisions.
Additional sensors to determine the location, weight or relative size of the occupants may also be
used. Information regarding the occupants and the severity of the crash are used by the airbag
control unit, to determine whether airbags should be suppressed or deployed, and if so, at various
output levels.
Post-deployment view of a SEAT Ibiza airbag
Post-deployment[edit]
A chemical reaction produces a burst of nitrogen to inflate the bag. Once an airbag deploys,
deflation begins immediately as the gas escapes through vent(s) in the fabric (or, as it's sometimes
called, the cushion) and cools. Deployment is frequently accompanied by the release of dust-like
particles, and gases in the vehicle's interior (called effluent). Most of this dust consists
of cornstarch, french chalk, or talcum powder, which are used to lubricate the airbag during
deployment.
Newer designs produce effluent primarily consisting of harmless talcum powder/cornstarch and
nitrogen gas. In older designs using an azide-based propellant (usually NaN 3), varying amounts
of sodium hydroxide nearly always are initially present. In small amounts this chemical can cause
minor irritation to the eyes and/or open wounds; however, with exposure to air, it quickly turns
into sodium bicarbonate (baking soda). However, this transformation is not 100% complete, and
invariably leaves residual amounts of hydroxide ion from NaOH. Depending on the type of airbag
system, potassium chloride may also be present.
For most people, the only effect the dust may produce is some minor irritation of the throat and eyes.
Generally, minor irritations only occur when the occupant remains in the vehicle for many minutes
with the windows closed and no ventilation. However, some people with asthma may develop a
potentially lethal asthmatic attack from inhaling the dust.
Because of the airbag exit flap design of the steering wheel boss and dashboard panel, these items
are not designed to be recoverable if an airbag deploys, meaning that they have to be replaced if the
vehicle has not been written off in an accident. Moreover, the dust-like particles and gases can
cause irreparable cosmetic damage to the dashboard and upholstery, meaning that minor collisions
which result in the deployment of airbags can be costly accidents, even if there are no injuries and
there is only minor damage to the vehicle structure.
Regulatory specifications[edit]
United States[edit]
On 11 July 1984, the United States government amended Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard
208 (FMVSS 208) to require cars produced after 1 April 1989 to be equipped with a passive restraint
for the driver. An airbag or a seat belt would meet the requirements of the standard. Airbag
introduction was stimulated by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.[102] However,
airbags were not mandatory on light trucks until 1997. [103]
In 1998, FMVSS 208 was amended to require dual front airbags, and reduced-power, second-
generation airbags were also mandated. This was due to the injuries caused by first-generation
airbags, though FMVSS 208 continues to require that bags be engineered and calibrated to be able
to "save" the life of an unbelted 50th-percentile size and weight "male" crash test dummy. Technical
performance and validation requirements for the inflator assembly used in airbag modules are
specified in SAE USCAR 24-2.[104]
Outside the United States[edit]
Some countries outside North America adhere to internationalized European ECE vehicle and
equipment regulations rather than the United States Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards. ECE
airbags are generally smaller and inflate less forcefully than United States airbags, because the ECE
specifications are based on belted crash test dummies. In the United Kingdom, and most other
developed countries there is no direct legal requirement for new cars to feature airbags. Instead,
the Euro NCAP vehicle safety rating encourages manufacturers to take a comprehensive approach
to occupant safety; a good rating can only be achieved by combining airbags with other safety
features.[105] Thus almost all new cars now come with at least two airbags as standard.
Maintenance[edit]
The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide
view of the subject. You may improve this section, discuss the issue on
the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (September 2008) (Learn how
and when to remove this template message)
Inadvertent airbag deployment while the vehicle is being serviced can result in severe injury, and an
improperly installed or defective airbag unit may not operate or perform as intended. Some countries
impose restrictions on the sale, transport, handling, and service of airbags and system components.
In Germany, airbags are regulated as harmful explosives; only mechanics with special training are
allowed to service airbag systems.
Some automakers (such as Mercedes-Benz) call for the replacement of undeployed airbags after a
certain period of time to ensure their reliability in an accident. One example is the 1992 S500, which
has an expiry date sticker attached to the door pillar. Some Škoda vehicles indicate an expiry date of
14 years from the date of manufacture. In this case, replacement would be uneconomic as the car
would have negligible value at 14 years old, far less than the cost of fitting new airbags. Volvo has
stated that "airbags do not require replacement during the lifetime of the vehicle," though this cannot
be taken as a guarantee on the device.[106]
Limitations[edit]
Crash test of an underride guard at 30–40 km/h (19–25 mph) - the truck platform at head height has been
prevented from impacting the windshield.
Although the millions of installed airbags in use have an excellent safety record, some limitations on
their ability to protect car occupants exist. The original implementation of front airbags did little to
protect against side collisions, which can be more dangerous than frontal collisions because the
protective crumple zone in front of the passenger compartment is completely bypassed. Side airbags
and protective airbag curtains are increasingly being required in modern vehicles to protect against
this very common category of collisions.
Airbags are designed to deploy once only, so are ineffective if any further collisions occur after an
initial impact. Multiple impacts may occur during certain rollover accidents or other incidents
involving multiple collisions, such as many multivehicle collisions.[107]
An extremely dangerous situation occurs during "underride collisions", in which a passenger vehicle
collides with the rear of a tractor-trailer lacking a rear underride guard, or hits the side of such a
trailer not equipped with a side underride guard. [108] The platform bed of a typical trailer is roughly at
the head height of a seated adult occupant of a typical passenger car. This means not much of a
barrier exists between a head and the edge of the trailer platform, except a glass windshield.[109] In an
underride collision, the car's crush zones designed to absorb collision energy are completely
bypassed, and the airbags may not deploy in time because the car does not decelerate appreciably
until the windshield and roof pillars have already impacted the trailer bed. [107] Even delayed inflation of
airbags may be useless because of major intrusion into the passenger space, leaving occupants at
high risk of major head trauma or decapitation in even low-speed collisions. Western European
standards for underride guards have been stricter than North American standards, which typically
have allowed grandfathering of older equipment that may still be on the road for decades. [108][110]
Typical airbag systems are completely disabled by turning off the ignition key. Unexpected turnoffs
usually also disable the engine, power steering, and power brakes, and may be the direct cause of
an accident. If a violent collision occurs, the disabled airbags will not deploy to protect vehicle
occupants. In 2014, General Motors admitted to concealing information about fatal accidents caused
by defective ignition switches that would abruptly shut down a car (including its airbags). Between 13
and 74 deaths have been directly attributed to this defect, depending on how the fatalities are
classified.[111]
Injuries and fatalities[edit]
Lives saved by seat belts and airbags in the United States of America over 10-years
Under some rare conditions, airbags can injure and in some very rare instances kill vehicle
occupants. To provide crash protection for occupants not wearing seat belts, United States airbag
designs trigger much more forcefully than airbags designed to the international ECE standards used
in most other countries. Recent "smart" airbag controllers can recognize if a seatbelt is used, and
alter the airbag cushion deployment parameters accordingly. [112]
In 1990, the first automotive fatality attributed to an airbag was reported. [113] TRW produced the first
gas-inflated airbag in 1994, with sensors and low inflation-force bags becoming common soon
afterwards. Dual-depth (also known as dual-stage) airbags appeared on passenger cars in 1998. By
2005, deaths related to airbags had declined, with no adult deaths and two child deaths attributed to
airbags that year. However, injuries remain fairly common in accidents with an airbag deployment.
Serious injuries are less common, but severe or fatal injuries can occur to vehicle occupants very
near an airbag or in direct contact when it deploys. Such injuries may be sustained by unconscious
drivers slumped over the steering wheel, unrestrained or improperly restrained occupants who slide
forward in the seat during precrash braking, and properly belted drivers sitting very close to the
steering wheel. A good reason for the driver not to cross hands over the steering wheel, a rule
taught to most learner drivers, but quickly forgotten by most, is that an airbag deployment while
negotiating a turn may result in the driver's hand(s) being driven forcefully into his or her face,
exacerbating any injuries from the airbag alone.
Improvements in sensing and gas-generator technology have allowed the development of third-
generation airbag systems that can adjust their deployment parameters to size, weight, position, and
restraint status of the occupant. These improvements have demonstrated a reduced injury risk factor
for small adults and children, who had an increased risk of injury with first-generation airbag
systems.[114]
One model of airbags made by the Takata Corporation used ammonium nitrate–based gas-
generating compositions in airbag inflators instead of the more stable, but more expensive
compound tetrazole. The ammonium nitrate-based inflators have a flaw where old inflators with long-
term exposure to hot and humid climate conditions could rupture during deployment, projecting
metal shards though the airbag and into the driver.[115] The defect caused seven deaths and over 100
injuries in the U.S., and one death in Malaysia.[116] The National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration (NHTSA) recalled over 33 million vehicles in May 2015, [117] and fined Takata $70
million in November 2015.[118] Toyota, Mazda, and Honda have said that they will not use ammonium-
nitrate inflators.[119][120]
Airbag fatality statistics[edit]
From 1990 to 2000, the United States NHTSA identified 175 fatalities caused by air bags. Most of
these (104) have been children. About 3.3 million air-bag deployments have occurred during that
interval, and the agency estimates more than 6,377 lives were saved and countless injuries were
prevented.[113][121]
A rear-facing infant restraint put in the front seat of a vehicle places an infant's head close to the
airbag, which can cause severe head injuries or death if the airbag deploys. Some modern cars
include a switch to disable the front-passenger airbag, in case a child-supporting seat is used there
(although not in Australia, where rear-facing child seats are prohibited in the front where an airbag is
fitted).
In vehicles with side airbags, it is dangerous for occupants to lean against the windows, doors, and
pillars, or to place objects between themselves and the side of the vehicle. Articles hung from a
vehicle's clothes hanger hooks can be hazardous if the vehicle's side-curtain airbags deploy. [122] A
seat-mounted airbag may also cause internal injury if the occupant leans against the door. [123][124]
Aerospace and military applications[edit]

The aerospace industry and the United States government have applied airbag technologies for
many years. NASA and United States Department of Defense have incorporated airbag systems in
various aircraft and spacecraft applications as early as the 1960s.
Spacecraft airbag landing systems[edit]
NASA engineers test the Mars Pathfinder airbag landing system on simulated Martian terrain.

The first use of airbags for landing were Luna 9 and Luna 13, which landed on the Moon in 1966 and
returned panoramic images. As with later missions, these would use the airbags to bounce along the
surface, absorbing landing energy. The Mars Pathfinder lander employed an innovative airbag
landing system, supplemented with aerobraking, parachute, and solid rocket landing thrusters. This
prototype successfully tested the concept, and the two Mars Exploration Rover Mission landers
employed similar landing systems. The Beagle 2 Mars lander also tried to use airbags for landing;
the landing was successful, and the lander touched down safely, but several of the spacecraft's solar
panels failed to deploy, thereby disabling the spacecraft.
Aircraft airbag landing systems[edit]
Airbags have also been used on military fixed-wing aircraft, such as the escape crew capsule of
the F-111 Aardvark.
Occupant protection[edit]
OH-58D CABS test
The United States Army has incorporated airbags in its UH-60A/L[125][126] Black Hawk and OH-

58D Kiowa Warrior[127] helicopter fleets. The Cockpit Air Bag System (CABS)[128] consists of forward
and lateral airbags, and an inflatable tubular structure (on the OH-58D only) with an Electronic Crash
Sensor Unit (ECSU). The CABS system was developed by the United States Army Aviation Applied
Technology Directorate, through a contract with Simula Safety Systems (now BAE Systems).[129] It is
the first conventional airbag system for occupant injury prevention (worldwide) designed and
developed and placed in service for an aircraft, and the first specifically for helicopter applications. [130]
[131]
Tire-pressure monitoring system

A tire-pressure monitoring system (TPMS) is an electronic system designed to monitor the air
pressure inside the pneumatic tires on various types of vehicles.[1] TPMS report real-time tire-
pressure information to the driver of the vehicle, either via a gauge, a pictogram display, or a simple
low-pressure warning light. TPMS can be divided into two different types – direct (dTPMS) and
indirect (iTPMS). TPMS are provided both at an OEM (factory) level as well as an aftermarket
solution. The target of a TPMS is avoiding traffic accidents, poor fuel economy, and increased tire
wear due to under-inflated tires through early recognition of a hazardous state of the tires. This
functionality first appeared in luxury vehicles in Europe in the 1980s, while mass-market adoption
followed the USA passing the 2000 TREAD Act after the Firestone and Ford tire controversy.
Mandates for TPMS technology in new cars have continued to proliferate in the 21st century in
Russia, the EU, Japan, South Korea and many other Asian countries.
Contents
 1History
o 1.1Initial adoption
o 1.2Firestone recall and legal mandates
o 1.3Run-flat tires
 2Direct vs. indirect
o 2.1Indirect TPMS
o 2.2Direct TPMS
 3Maintenance issues
o 3.1Valve-stem corrosion
o 3.2Tire sealant compatibility
 4Benefits of TPMS
 5Privacy concerns with direct TPMS
 6Heavy-duty vehicles
 7Icons
 8See also
 9References
History[edit]
Initial adoption[edit]
Due to the influence tire pressure has on vehicle safety and efficiency, tire-pressure monitoring
(TPM) was first adopted by the European market as an optional feature for luxury passenger
vehicles in the 1980s. The first passenger vehicle to adopt TPM was the Porsche 959 in 1986, using
a hollow spoke wheel system developed by PSK. In 1996 Renault used the Michelin PAX
system[2] for the Scenic and in 1999 the PSA Peugeot Citroën decided to adopt TPM as a standard
feature on the Peugeot 607. The following year (2000), Renault launched the Laguna II, the first high
volume mid-size passenger vehicle in the world to be equipped with TPM as a standard feature. In
the United States, TPM was introduced by General Motors for the 1991 model year for the Corvette
in conjunction with Goodyear run-flat tires. The system uses sensors in the wheels and a driver
display which can show tire pressure at any wheel, plus warnings for both high and low pressure. It
has been standard on Corvettes ever since.
Firestone recall and legal mandates[edit]
The Firestone recall in the late 1990s (which was linked to more than 100 deaths
from rollovers following tire tread-separation), pushed the United States Congress to legislate
the TREAD Act. The Act mandated the use of a suitable TPMS technology in all light motor vehicles
(under 10,000 pounds), to help alert drivers of under-inflation events. This act affects all light motor
vehicles sold after September 1, 2007. Phase-in started in October 2005 at 20%, and reached 100%
for models produced after September 2007. In the United States, as of 2008 and the European
Union, as of November 1, 2012, all new passenger car models (M1) released must be equipped with
a TPMS. From November 1, 2014, all new passenger cars sold in the European Union must be
equipped with a TPMS. For N1 vehicles, TPMS are not mandatory, but if a TPMS is fitted, it must
comply with the regulation.
On July 13, 2010, the South Korean Ministry of Land, Transport and Maritime Affairs announced a
pending partial-revision to the Korea Motor Vehicle Safety Standards (KMVSS), specifying that
"TPMS shall be installed to passenger vehicles and vehicles of GVW 3.5 tons or less, ... [effective]
on January 1, 2013 for new models and on June 30, 2014 for existing models". [3] Japan is expected
to adopt European Union legislation approximately one year after European Union implementation.
Further countries to make TPMS mandatory include Russia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Israel,
Malaysia and Turkey. After the TREAD Act was passed, many companies responded to the market
opportunity by releasing TPMS products using battery-powered radio transmitter wheel modules.
Run-flat tires[edit]
The introduction of run-flat tires and emergency spare tires by several tire and vehicle manufacturers
has motivated to make at least some basic TPMS mandatory when using run-flat tires. With run-flat
tires, the driver will most likely not notice that a tire is running flat, hence the so-called "run-flat
warning systems" were introduced. These are most often first generation, purely roll-radius based
iTPMS, which ensure that run-flat tires are not used beyond their limitations, usually 80 km/h (50
mph) and 80 km (50 miles) driving distance. The iTPMS market has progressed as well. Indirect
TPMS are able to detect under-inflation through combined use of roll radius and spectrum analysis
and hence four-wheel monitoring has become feasible. With this breakthrough, meeting the legal
requirements is possible also with iTPMS.
Direct vs. indirect[edit]

Indirect TPMS[edit]
Indirect TPMS do not use physical pressure sensors but measure air pressures by monitoring
individual wheel rotational speeds and other signals available outside of the tire itself. First
generation iTPMS systems are based on the principle that under-inflated tires have a slightly smaller
diameter (and hence higher angular velocity) than a correctly inflated one. These differences are
measurable through the wheel speed sensors of ABS/ESC systems. Second generation iTPMS can
also detect simultaneous under-inflation in up to all four tires using spectrum analysis of individual
wheels, which can be realized in software using advanced signal processing techniques.
iTPMS cannot measure or display absolute pressure values; they are relative by nature and have to
be reset by the driver once the tires are checked and all pressures adjusted correctly. The reset is
normally done either by a physical button or in a menu of the on-board computer. iTPMS are,
compared to dTPMS, more sensitive to the influences of different tires and external influences like
road surfaces and driving speed or style. The reset procedure [4], followed by an automatic learning
phase of typically 20 to 60 minutes of driving under which the iTPMS learns and stores the reference
parameters before it becomes fully active, cancels out many, but not all of these. As iTPMS do not
involve any additional hardware, spare parts, electronic or toxic waste as well as service whatsoever
(beyond the regular reset), they are regarded as easy to handle and very customer friendly. [5]
Since factory installation of TPMS became mandatory in November 2014 for all new passenger
vehicles in the EU, various iTPMS have been type-approved according to UN Regulation R64.
Examples for this are most of the VW group models, but also numerous Honda, Volvo, Opel, Ford,
Mazda, PSA, FIAT and Renault models. iTPMS are quickly gaining market shares in the EU and are
expected to become the dominating TPMS technology in the near future.
iTPMS are regarded as inaccurate by some due to their nature, but given that simple ambient
temperature variations can lead to pressure variations of the same magnitude as the legal detection
thresholds, many vehicle manufacturers and customers value the ease of use and tire/wheel change
higher than the theoretical accuracy of dTPMS.
Direct TPMS[edit]
direct TPM sensor fitted in valve system, manufacturer VDO
A damaged direct TPMS sensor being removed
Main article: Direct TPMS

Direct TPMS employ pressure sensors on each wheel, either internal or external. The sensors
physically measure the tire pressure in each tire and report it to the vehicle's instrument cluster or a
corresponding monitor. Some units also measure and alert temperatures of the tire as well. These
systems can identify under-inflation in any combination, be it one tire or all, simultaneously. Although
the systems vary in transmitting options, many TPMS products (both OEM and aftermarket) can
display real time tire pressures at each location monitored whether the vehicle is moving or parked.
There are many different solutions, but all of them have to face the problems of exposure to hostile
environments. The majority are powered by batteries which limit their useful life. Some sensors
utilise a wireless power system similar to that used in RFID tag reading which solves the problem of
limited battery life by electromagnetic induction. This also increases the frequency of data
transmission up to 40 Hz and reduces the sensor weight which can be important in motorsport
applications. If the sensors are mounted on the outside of the wheel, as are some aftermarket
systems, they are subject to mechanical damage, aggressive fluids, as well as theft. When mounted
on the inside of the rim, they are no longer easily accessible for battery change and the RF link must
overcome the attenuating effects of the tire which increases the energy need.
A direct TPMS sensor consists of the following main functions requiring only a few external
components — e.g. battery, housing, PCB — to get the sensor module that is mounted to the valve
stem inside the tire:
 pressure sensor;
 analog-digital converter;
 microcontroller;
 system controller;
 oscillator;
 radio frequency transmitter;
 low frequency receiver, and
 voltage regulator (battery management).
Most originally fitted dTPMS have the sensors mounted on the inside of the rims and the batteries
are not exchangeable. With a discharged battery then meaning that the whole sensor will have to be
replaced and the exchange being possible only with the tires dismounted, the lifetime of the battery
becomes a crucial parameter. To save energy and prolong battery life, many dTPMS sensors do not
transmit information when not rotating (which eliminates spare tire monitoring) or apply a complex,
expensive two-way communication which enables wake-up of the sensor. For OEM auto dTPMS
units to work properly, they need to recognize the sensor positions and must ignore the signals from
other vehicles. There are numerous tools and procedures to make the dTPMS "learn" or "re-learn"
this information, some driver implemented, others done by workshops. The cost and variety of spare
parts, procedures and tools has led to trouble and confusion for customers and workshops.
Aftermarket dTPMS units not only transmit while vehicles are moving or parked, but also provide
users with numerous advanced monitoring options including data logging, remote monitoring options
and more. They are available for all types of vehicles, from motorcycles to heavy equipment, and
can monitor up to 64 tires at a time, which is important for commercial vehicles. Many aftermarket
dTPMS units do not require specialized tools to program or reset, making them much simpler to use.
Maintenance issues[edit]
Valve-stem corrosion[edit]
First-generation of TPMS sensors that are integral with the valve stem have suffered from corrosion.
[6][7]
Metallic valve caps can become seized to the valve stem because of galvanic corrosion of
dissimilar metals, and efforts to remove it can break the stem, destroying the sensor. A similar fate
may befall an after-market brass valve core inside the stem that may have been installed by unwary
technician, replacing the original specialized nickel-coated cores. (They can be distinguished by the
yellowish colour of the brass.) Seizure of the valve can complicate repair of a tire leak, possibly
requiring replacement of the entire sensor.
Tire sealant compatibility[edit]
There is controversy regarding the compatibility of after-market tire sealants with dTPMS that
employ sensors mounted inside the tire. Some manufacturers of sealants assert that their products
are indeed compatible,[8] but others warned that the "sealant may come in contact with the sensor in
a way that renders the sensor TEMPORARILY inoperable until it is properly cleaned, inspected and
re-installed by a tire care professional".[9] Such doubts are also reported by others.[10][11] Use of such
sealants may void the TPMS sensor warranty.[8]
Benefits of TPMS[edit]
The dynamic behavior of a pneumatic tire is closely connected to its inflation pressure. Key factors
like braking distance and lateral stability require the inflation pressures to be adjusted and kept as
specified by the vehicle manufacturer. Extreme under-inflation can even lead to thermal and
mechanical overload caused by overheating and subsequent, sudden destruction of the tire itself.
Additionally, fuel efficiency and tire wear are severely affected by under-inflation. Tires do not only
leak air if punctured, they also leak air naturally, and over a year, even a typical new, properly
mounted tire can lose from 20 to 60 kPa (3 to 9 psi), roughly 10% or even more of its initial pressure.
The significant advantages of TPMS are summarized as follows:
Fuel savings: According to the GITI, for every 10% of under-inflation on each tire on a vehicle, a 1%
reduction in fuel economy will occur. In the United States alone, the Department of Transportation
estimates that under inflated tires waste 2 billion US gallons (7,600,000 m3) of fuel each year.
Extended tire life: Under inflated tires are the #1 cause of tire failure and contribute to tire
disintegration, heat buildup, ply separation and sidewall/casing breakdowns. Further, a difference of
10 pounds per square inch (69 kPa; 0.69 bar) in pressure on a set of duals literally drags the lower
pressured tire 2.5 metres per kilometre (13 feet per mile). Moreover, running a tire even briefly on
inadequate pressure breaks down the casing and prevents the ability to retread. It is important to
note that not all sudden tire failures are caused by under-inflation. Structural damages caused, for
example, by hitting sharp curbs or potholes, can also lead to sudden tire failures, even a certain time
after the damaging incident. These cannot be proactively detected by any TPMS.
Decreased downtime and maintenance: Installing the TPMS for vehicles will cut the costly hours of
downtime caused by under-inflated tires. It will also reduce the maintenance hassle as you don’t
need to undergo the hassle of checking the tire pressure with a manual gauge. [12]
Improved safety: Under-inflated tires lead to tread separation and tire failure, resulting in 40,000
accidents, 33,000 injuries and over 650 deaths per year. Further, tires properly inflated add greater
stability, handling and braking efficiencies and provide greater safety for the driver, the vehicle, the
loads and others on the road.
Environmental efficiency: Under-inflated tires, as estimated by the Department of Transportation,
release over 26 billion kilograms (57.5 billion pounds) of unnecessary carbon-monoxide pollutants
into the atmosphere each year in the United States alone.
Further statistics include:
The French Sécurité Routière, a road safety organization, estimates that 9% of all road accidents
involving fatalities are attributable to tire under-inflation, and the German DEKRA, a product safety
organization, estimated that 41% of accidents with physical injuries are linked to tire problems. [citation
needed]
The European Union reports that an average under-inflation of 40 kPa produces an increase of fuel
consumption of 2% and a decrease of tire life of 25%. The European Union concludes that tire
under-inflation today is responsible for over 20 million liters of unnecessarily-burned fuel, dumping
over 2 million tonnes of CO2 into the atmosphere, and for 200 million tires being prematurely wasted
worldwide.[citation needed]
Privacy concerns with direct TPMS[edit]

Because each tire transmits a unique identifier, vehicles may be easily tracked using existing
sensors along the roadway.[13] This concern could be addressed by encrypting the radio
communications from the sensors but such privacy provisions were not stipulated by the NHTSA.
Heavy-duty vehicles[edit]
U.S. National Highway Traffic Safety Administration regulations [14] only apply to vehicles under
10,000 pounds. For heavy duty vehicles (Classes 7 and 8, gross vehicle weight [GVW] greater than
26,000 pounds), most of the above-mentioned systems don't work well, requiring the development of
other systems.
The US Department of Transportation has commissioned several studies to find systems that work
on the heavy duty market specifying some goals that were needed in this market. [15][16]
The SAE has tried to disseminate best practices, since legal regulations for heavy vehicles has been
lagging.[17]
One problem is lack of standardization. Tires are often purchased in bulk and moved between
tractors over time, so a given TPMS system can only work with compatible sensors in the tires,
creating logistic problems. RF systems for these units must also work over much longer ranges,
which may force repeater systems to be installed on the tractor or trailer. It is expected that battery
lives on these systems should be in the five- to seven-year range, since the cost of breaking down a
tire can be so much more expensive. The U.S. Department of Transportation's maximum-loading
requirements force trailer manufacturers to spread loads over multiple axles, giving rise to trailers
with typically 8 to 12 tires, but as many as 96 tires on specialty haulers.
Tire casings can have typical lifetimes of ten or more years, through multiple retreading processes.
This has given rise to a specialized industry that focuses solely on issues found in the trucking
industry.
Central inflation systems originally claimed to eliminate the need for pressure-monitoring systems.
Some major inflation systems are Meritor PSI, Hendrickson International, Stemco AERIS and Vagia
(used mostly in South America). They have not yielded a complete solution, since they do not solve
all the issues (i.e., no support for the steerable axle), and they bring new issues with maintenance of
the rotary couplings in the hub caps. Inflation systems can sometimes shorten the life of tires by
concealing slow leaks caused by embedded objects, which drivers would otherwise remove after
inspecting the problem tire.
For a tire-pressure sensor to be completely effective, it must have several capabilities to allow for the
various maintenance personnel groups to use them.
First, each driver is required to do a pre-trip inspection, so it is beneficial if the tire-pressure monitor
has an indicator that can be read without tools.
Second, it usually should have the ability to cover dual sets of tires in some fashion. It is also
beneficial if the fill points can be centralized so that inflation can be accomplished easily without
reaching through the small hand holes in the rims.
Third, it needs to have a wireless communication system that has an appropriate range and battery
life. It is important that sensors regularly communicate an "I'm alive" condition, since having a dead
sensor can be worse than having no sensor at all.
Fourth, these systems should have the capability to adapt to the changing of tires and trailers with
minimal operator intervention. It is important to use a system having a longer range, since a repeater
increases cost.
These requirements can be met by systems with external pressure sensors that connect to the valve
stem on each tire. When tires are replaced, the sensor is moved to the new tire.
Although these systems can alert a driver to a hazardous blowout condition, they may not help fleets
deal with slow-leaking tires, unless the driver reports them to fleet-maintenance personnel before it
is too late. This has given rise in recent years to monitoring solutions that track the tire condition and
send alerts to fleet-maintenance personnel. This allows them to schedule maintenance on a slow-
leaking tire on an exception basis, instead of having to check each tire manually. Many fleets today
admit that tire-pressure checking is a major problem in enforcement. Most have policies in place
requiring the regular check of every tire, however, the practice is not terribly effective because of the
sheer scope of the issue, and the fact that it is hard to get a complete record of all tire checking.
Today, the best systems employ automated data collection. Some of these use gate readers that
automate the collection of tire data to a database, or to a web portal, that allows maintenance
operators to see data for the entire fleet at a glance. For long-haul fleets that may not see their
vehicles for long periods of time, a centralized reading system may not work, but there are emerging
systems that aggregate the tire-pressure-sensor data back to the asset-tracking system so that
alerts can be sent back to the main office when an issue arises. For small fleets, handheld devices
exist that allow a person checking tires to simply walk around vehicles and collect data for
downloading to a central database, allowing enforcement and trending to be done without errors.
Some automotive manufacturers have attempted to broaden their scope into the heavy-duty
markets, a few manufacturers have focused solely on this market.
Icons[edit]
TPMS system dashboard icons
TPMS low pressure warning icon

TPMS system failure icon
HAT IS TPMS & HOW DOES IT WORK?

 Research /
 What is TPMS & How Does it Work?
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The purpose of the tire pressure monitoring system (TPMS) in your vehicle is to warn you that at least one or more tires are significantly
under-inflated, possibly creating unsafe driving conditions. The TPMS low tire pressure indicator is a yellow symbol that illuminates on the
dashboard instrument panel in the shape of a tire cross-section (that resembles a horseshoe) with an exclamation point.
That indicator light in your vehicle has a history. It’s a history rooted in years of uncertainty about proper tire pressure and many serious car
accidents that might have been avoided had drivers known their air pressure was low. Even now, it’s estimated that a substantial number of
vehicles hit the road each day with underinflated tires. However, proper tire maintenance with the aid of a TPMS can and does help prevent
many serious accidents.
Before this indicator light became commonplace, knowing whether your air pressure had reached unsafe levels meant getting out, crouching
down, and using a tire gauge. With few exceptions, this was the only pressure-checking tool ordinary consumers had at their disposal.
Then, in response to a surge in accidents due to underinflated tires, the US government passed the Transportation Recall Enhancement,
Accountability, and Documentation (TREAD) Act. One of the outcomes of this legislation is that most vehicles sold in the United States since
2007 include a tire pressure monitoring system of some kind.
Not every TPMS works the same way. The illumination of the low tire pressure indicator represents the final step in the process of either an
indirect TPMS or a direct TPMS.
INDIRECT TPMS: WHAT IS INDIRECT TPMS & HOW

DOES IT WORK?
An indirect TPMS typically relies on wheel speed sensors that the anti-lock brake system uses. These sensors measure the rate of revolution
each wheel is making and can be used by on-board computer systems to compare with each other and to other vehicle operation data such
as speed.
Based on the rate of revolution of each wheel, the computer can interpret the relative size of the tires on your vehicle. When a wheel starts
spinning faster than expected, the computer calculates that the tire is underinflated and alert the driver accordingly.
So, an indirect tire pressure monitoring system doesn’t actually measure tire pressure. It’s not electronically processing the same kind of
measurement you might see with a tire gauge. Instead, an indirect tire pressure monitor simply measures how fast your tires are rotating and
sends signals to the computer that will actuate the indicator light when something in the rotation seems amiss.
ADVANTAGES OF INDIRECT TPMS

-- Relatively inexpensive compared to a direct TPMS
-- Requires less programming/maintenance over the years than a direct TPMS
-- Less overall installation maintenance than its direct counterpart
DISADVANTAGES OF INDIRECT TPMS

-- May become inaccurate if you purchase a bigger or smaller tire
-- May be unreliable when tires are unevenly worn
-- Must be reset after properly inflating every tire
-- Must be reset after routine tire rotation
DIRECT TPMS: WHAT IS DIRECT TPMS & HOW DOES

IT WORK?
Direct TPMS uses pressure monitoring sensors within each tire that monitor specific pressure levels – not just wheel revolution data from the
anti-lock brake system.
Sensors in a direct TPMS may even provide tire temperature readings. The direct tire pressure monitoring system sends all of this data to a
centralized control module where it’s analyzed, interpreted, and, if tire pressure is lower than it should be, transmitted directly to your
dashboard where the indicator light illuminates. A direct tire pressure monitor usually sends all of this data wirelessly. Each sensor has a
unique serial number. This is how the system not only distinguishes between itself and systems on other vehicles, but also among pressure
readings for each individual tire.
Many manufacturers use proprietary technology for these highly specialized systems, so replacing a TPMS in a way that’s consistent and
compatible with your vehicle will require an experienced, knowledgeable technician.
ADVANTAGES OF DIRECT TPMS
-- Deliver actual tire pressure readings from inside the tire
-- Not prone to inaccuracies because of tire rotations or tire replacements
-- Simple resynchronization after tire rotation or tire replacements
-- Batteries inside the sensors usually last for about a decade.
-- May be included in a vehicle’s spare tire
DISADVANTAGES OF DIRECT TPMS

-- More expensive overall than an indirect TPMS
-- Though simple, resynchronization may require costly tools.
-- Battery rarely serviceable; if the battery is drained, the whole sensor must be changed.
-- Proprietary systems make installation, service, and replacement confusing for consumers and auto shops.
-- Sensors are susceptible to damage during mounting/demounting
TIRE PRESSURE AND SAFETY

Although the methods may be different, both systems serve the same purpose and activate the same indicator light. Even though a TPMS
can deliver accurate alerts when properly maintained, it’s not a replacement for manual air pressure checks, consider it just another item in
your car maintenance toolbox.
CONTINUE YOUR JOURNEY

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miles at speeds up to 50 MPH without disruption.
Working Of Tyre Pressure Monitoring System:

Tyre Pressure Monitoring System or TPMS is an electronic system which monitors the
pressure of air in the tyres of the vehicle. TPMS checks the tyre pressure continuously
and informs the driver if tyres are underinflated or overinflated. A few years ago, only on
the luxury vehicles offered this system. However, now it is rapidly gaining popularity
among the other vehicles.
Functions of Tyre Pressure Monitoring System:
1. To check the tyre pressure continuously.

2. To inform the driver about the wrong tyre pressure.
Types of Tyre Pressure Monitoring System:
TPMS are mainly classified into two different types viz. Indirect TPMS and Direct TPMS.
Indirect Tyre Pressure Monitoring System:
Schematic of
Indirect TPMS (Courtesy- Toyota Motor Corporation)
This system does not directly measure the pressure of air in the tyres. Instead, it relies
on measuring the angular speed of the tyres and from that judges the tyre pressure.
This measurement works on the simple principle that the under-inflated tyre will have
higher angular velocity due to its small size and vice versa. As this system does not
carry out any direct pressure measurement, it does not employ the air pressure sensor.
Some systems of this type may also measure the difference in the pressures of the two
tyres i.e. differential pressure. Generally, Indirect Tyre Pressure Monitoring System
uses the data generated by the speed sensors of ABS or ESP.
Nowadays, highly specialized software process the data generated by the speed
sensors. Thus, they increase the accuracy of the system.
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Direct Tyre Pressure Monitoring System:
Schematic of
Direct TPMS (Courtesy- Toyota Motor Corporation)
This system measures the absolute tyre pressure in each tyre of the vehicle with the
help of the air pressure sensor fitted either internal or external to the tyre. These
sensors then transmit the data to the central monitoring system which ultimately
transfers it to the ECU of the vehicle where it is processed and a warning is given to the
driver if any problem is observed. Some of the systems of this type are also capable of
measuring the temperature of air in the tyres.
Tyr
e pressure sensor fitment (Courtesy- CARiD.com)
Advantages of using Tyre Pressure Monitoring System:
1. Improves safety: Under-inflated or over-inflated tyres severely hamper

the steering accuracy and hence such a vehicle is more prone to accidents. By
warning the driver about the wrong tyre pressure, TPMS improves the safety of
the vehicle.
2. Improves fuel efficiency: Correct tyre pressure ensures the lower rolling
resistance to tyres and hence fuel efficiency of the vehicle is improved.
How Tire Pressure

Monitoring Systems Work
BY ERIC BAXTER
Browse the article How Tire Pressure Monitoring Systems Work

Tire pressure monitoring systems are meant to help drivers catch underinflated tires before
they become a hazard. Want to learn more? Check out these car safety pictures!
THINKSTOCK/COMSTOCK IMAGES/GETTY IMAGES
If you own a car built after 2007, you have a tire pressure monitor system at
work. You know it best as the horseshoe-shaped light (it's actually a stylized,
flattened tread and sidewall of a tire) with an exclamation point in the center. It's
also the light that can plague you by coming on and going off at inexplicable
times, and sometimes signaling an expensive trip to the dealership.
But this indicator light is the visible part of a larger pressure monitoring system,
and it's there to help. When it's on, it's telling you that your tires need air.
The various tire pressure monitoring systems (or TPMS) used by auto makers

are designed to monitor the air pressure in a car's tires. The idea behind a TPMS
is primarily safety-related -- underinflated tires offer a less stable ride, and they're
more prone to possible blowouts. By calling attention to an "underinflation event,"
the system can prompt the driver to inflate the tire (or tires) to the proper levels.
Sensors within the tire, or on the car, send information to one or several modules
in the car. These modules are programmed with a range of acceptable
circumstances. For direct tire pressure monitoring, this is often between 28 and
35 pounds per square inch (psi) of air in the tire.
This rather innocent light has a tragic origin. During the late 1990s, more than
100 automotive fatalities were attributed to Firestone tires that lost their tread
when they were run underinflated, and friction heated them beyond their
capability to handle. The tires blew out or delaminated, and this led to the rollover
of the vehicles they were on. Most of those vehicles were Ford Explorers, and
many times one or more of the occupants died.
The fatalities led to two major changes to the automotive industry. The first was
the Transportation Recall Enhancement, Accountability and Documentation Act
(The TREAD Act). The act, later signed into law, required tracking of, and
response to, any possible danger signs from vehicles that would require a recall
or posed a safety risk.
The second major addition was the requirement of a TPMS system on all cars
built after 2007 in the United States. Like most quickly-introduced changes, there
were problems with the systems. But as technology improves, and engineers
refine how the systems function, they're becoming smoother and more reliable.
Read on and find out how the systems actually see inside your tire, what they
see, and how your car reacts to the information.
Direct and Indirect Tire Pressure Monitoring Systems
If your light goes off, it's a good idea to check your tire pressure as soon as possible.
STOCKBYTE/GETTY IMAGES
Direct tire pressure monitoring systems use individual sensors inside each

tire, and sometimes a full-size spare, to transmit information to a central control
module. The sensors read internal pressure, and sometimes temperature. The
information received at the module is analyzed, and any issues with any of the
tires are sent to the car's vehicle information system, or low-pressure light.
Information is most often sent wirelessly as a radio signal. While some

aftermarket systems are mounted outside the tire, most manufacturers use a
sensor mounted inside the tire. This is where the expense for the consumer
comes in. Each sensor has a battery with a life of about a decade. On most, the
battery is not serviceable, and the entire sensor must be changed. The sensor
stem is also subject to damage, as is the sensor itself, when the tire hits a curb or
the car gets into an accident. And each time a sensor is changed, it generally has
to be reprogrammed into the control module so it can be recognized.
The wireless system is also prone to problems and challenges, as well as being
integrated with other car systems that can fail or become corrupted over time.
Added to this mix is the often-proprietary technology used by each manufacturer,
making the range of sensors out there a confusing mix for shops and consumers.
Indirect tire pressure monitoring systems don't rely on sensors to do the

work, or at least not pressure sensors. The systems rely on wheel speed sensor
data to interpret the size of a tire based on how fast it rotates -- a small tire would
rotate faster than a larger tire, and an underinflated tire is smaller than one with
proper inflation. All of this data can be gleaned by electronic monitors within in
the car, and then interpreted using advanced programming and processing.
This system is less prone to the vagaries of direct sensors, but more attention
must be paid to it. For instance, imagine that a driver fills up his tires with air at a
gas station and checks the pressure before heading out on a long trip. An indirect
system needs to be reset every time the tires are inflated, or it will see the newly
inflated tires as a possible hazard. In this case, if it isn't reset, the system will see
bigger tires and may warn the driver of over inflation.
For lots more information on safety and regulatory systems, see the links on the
next page.
How Airbags Work

BY MARSHALL BRAIN
Browse the article How Airbags Work
The deployed airbag inside the remains of an Enzo Ferrari. See more car safety pictures.
MICHAEL TULLBERG/GETTY IMAGES
For years, the trusty seat belt provided the sole form of passive restraint in our
cars. There were debates about their safety, especially relating to children, but
over time, much of the country adopted mandatory seat-belt laws. Statistics have
shown that the use of seat belts has saved thousands of lives that might have
been lost in collisions.
Like seat belts, the concept of the airbag -- a soft pillow to land against in a crash
-- has been around for many years. The first patent on an inflatable crash-landing
device for airplanes was filed during World War II. In the 1980s, the first
commercial airbags appeared in automobiles.
Since model year 1998, all new cars sold in the United States have been
required to have airbags on both driver and passenger sides. (Light trucks came
under the rule in 1999.) To date, statistics show that airbags reduce the risk of
dying in a direct frontal crash by about 30 percent. Then came seat-mounted
and door-mounted side airbags. Today, some cars go far beyond having dual
airbags to having six or even eight airbags. Having evoked some of the same
controversy that surrounded seat-belt use in its early years, airbags are the
subject of serious government and industry research and tests.
In this article, you'll learn about the science behind the airbag, how the device
works, what its problems are and where the technology goes from here.
Laws of Motion
Before looking at specifics, let's review our knowledge of the laws of motion.
First, we know that moving objects have momentum (the product of the mass
and the velocity of an object). Unless an outside force acts on an object, the
object will continue to move at its present speed and direction. Cars consist of
several objects, including the vehicle itself, loose objects in the car and, of
course, passengers. If these objects are not restrained, they will continue moving
at whatever speed the car is traveling at, even if the car is stopped by a collision.
Stopping an object's momentum requires force acting over a period of time.

When a car crashes, the force required to stop an object is very great because
the car's momentum has changed instantly while the passengers' has not -- there
is not much time to work with. The goal of any supplemental restraint system is to
help stop the passenger while doing as little damage to him or her as possible.
What an airbag wants to do is to slow the passenger's speed to zero with little or
no damage. The constraints that it has to work within are huge. The airbag has
the space between the passenger and the steering wheel or dashboard and a
fraction of a second to work with. Even that tiny amount of space and time is
valuable, however, if the system can slow the passenger evenly rather than
forcing an abrupt halt to his or her motion.
In the next section, we'll look at the parts of an airbag and see how it inflates.
Airbag Inflation
The goal of an airbag is to slow the passenger's forward motion as evenly as

possible in a fraction of a second. There are three parts to an airbag that help to
accomplish this feat:
 The bag itself is made of a thin, nylon fabric, which is folded into the

steering wheel or dashboard or, more recently, the seat or door.
 The sensor is the device that tells the bag to inflate. Inflation happens
when there is a collision force equal to running into a brick wall at 10 to 15
miles per hour (16 to 24 km per hour). A mechanical switch is flipped when
there is a mass shift that closes an electrical contact, telling the sensors that a
crash has occurred. The sensors receive information from
an accelerometer built into a microchip.
 The airbag's inflation system reacts sodium azide (NaN3) with
potassium nitrate (KNO3) to produce nitrogen gas. Hot blasts of the nitrogen
inflate the airbag.
The airbag and inflation system stored in the steering wheel. See more car safety images.
Early efforts to adapt the airbag for use in cars bumped up against prohibitive
prices and technical hurdles involving the storage and release of compressed
gas. Researchers wondered:
 If there was enough room in a car for a gas canister

 Whether the gas would remain contained at high pressure for the life of
the car
 How the bag could be made to expand quickly and reliably at a variety of
operating temperatures and without emitting an ear-splitting bang
The inflation system uses a solid propellant and an igniter.

They needed a way to set off a chemical reaction that would produce the
nitrogen that would inflate the bag. Small solid-propellant inflators came to the
rescue in the 1970s.
The inflation system is not unlike a solid rocket booster (see How Rocket
Engines Work for details). The airbag system ignites a solid propellant, which
burns extremely rapidly to create a large volume of gas to inflate the bag. The
bag then literally bursts from its storage site at up to 200 mph (322 kph) -- faster
than the blink of an eye! A second later, the gas quickly dissipates through tiny
holes in the bag, thus deflating the bag so you can move.
Even though the whole process happens in only one-twenty-fifth of a second,

the additional time is enough to help prevent serious injury. The powdery
substance released from the airbag, by the way, is regular cornstarch or talcum
powder, which is used by the airbag manufacturers to keep the bags pliable and
lubricated while they're in storage.
Next, we'll look at some of the safety cautions associated with airbags, especially
where children are concerned.
Airbag Safety Concerns

Since the early days of auto airbags, experts have cautioned that airbags are to
be used in tandem with seat belts. Seat belts were still completely necessary
because airbags worked only in front-end collisions occurring at more than 10
mph (6 kph). Only seat belts could help in side swipes and crashes (although
side-mounted airbags are becoming more common now), rear-end collisions and
secondary impacts. Even as the technology advances, airbags still are only
effective when used with a lap/shoulder seat belt.
It didn't take long to learn that the force of an airbag can hurt those who are too
close to it. Researchers have determined that the risk zone for driver airbags is
the first 2 to 3 inches (5 to 8 cm) of inflation. So, placing yourself 10 inches (25
cm) from your driver airbag gives you a clear margin of safety. Measure this
distance from the center of the steering wheel to your breastbone. If you currently
sit less than 10 inches away, you can adjust your driving position in the following
ways:
 Move your seat to the rear as far as possible while still reaching the
pedals comfortably.
 Slightly recline the back of your seat. Although car designs vary, most
drivers can achieve the 10-inch distance even with the driver seat all the way
forward by slightly reclining the back of the seat. If reclining the seat makes it
hard to see the road, you can raise yourself up by using your car's seat-raising
system (not all cars have this!) or a firm, non-slippery cushion to achieve the
same effect.
 Point the airbag toward your chest, instead of your head and neck, by
tilting your steering wheel downward (this only works if your steering wheel is
adjustable).
The rules are different for children. An airbag can seriously injure or even kill an
unbuckled child who is sitting too close to it or is thrown toward the dash during
emergency braking. Experts agree that the following safety points are important:
 Children 12 and under should ride buckled up in a properly installed, age-

appropriate car seat in the rear seat.
 Infants in rear-facing child seats (under one year old and weighing less
than 20 pounds / 10 kg) should never ride in the front seat of a car that has a
passenger-side airbag.
 If a child over one year old must ride in the front seat with a passenger-
side airbag, he or she should be in a front-facing child safety seat, a booster
seat or a properly fitting lap/shoulder belt, and the seat should be moved as far
back as possible.
For more information about child car seats, read Car Seats: Fast Facts.
In certain special cases, car owners can request the ability to deactivate their
airbags. In the next section, we'll discuss steps to take if you want to have your
airbag deactivated.
Airbag Deactivation
In response to concerns about children -- and others, especially smaller people --
being killed or seriously injured by malfunctioning or overly powerful airbags,
the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) in 1997 issued a
final rule to allow auto manufacturers to use lower-powered airbags. This rule
permits airbags to be depowered by 20 to 35 percent. In addition, starting in
1998, repair shops and dealers were allowed to install on/off switches that allow
airbags to be deactivated. Vehicle owners could now be authorized (by the
NHTSA) to get on/off switches installed for one or both airbags in their car if they
(or other users of their car) fell into one or more of these specific risk groups:
 For both driver and passenger sides - Individuals with medical

conditions in which the risks of deploying the airbag exceed the risk of impact
in the absence of an airbag
 For the driver side (in addition to medical conditions) - Those who
cannot position themselves to properly operate their cars at least 10 inches
(25.4 cm) back from the center of the driver airbag cover
 For the passenger side (in addition to medical conditions) - Individuals
who need to transport a baby in a rear-facing child restraint in the front seat
because the car has no rear seat, the rear seat is too small to accommodate a
rear-facing child seat or because it's necessary to constantly monitor a child's
medical condition
 For the passenger side (in addition to medical conditions) - Individuals
who need to carry children between one and 12 years old in the front seat
because (a) the car has no rear seat, (b) the vehicle owner must carry more
children than can fit into the back seat or (c) because it's necessary to
constantly monitor a child's health
If you would like to get an on-off switch installed in your car, you need a copy of
NHTSA's brochure, "airbags and On-Off Switches: Information for an Informed
Decision," and the accompanying form, Request for airbag On-Off Switch. You
can find these on the NHTSA Web site, as well as at AAA clubs, new-car dealers
and state motor vehicle departments. The NHTSA will send you a letter of
authorization that you can take to a repair shop. (Before you bother with all this,
you should check with your auto dealer or repair shop to see if an on-off switch is
available for your car.) Some retrofit on-off switches can be found and used if
federal requirements are met -- switches must be operated by a key and
equipped with warning lights to indicate whether the bags are turned off or on.
Obviously, even you have the option of turning it off, the airbag should be left on
for drivers who can sit at least 10 inches back. For those who can't (even with the
suggestions listed above), the bag can be turned off. A group of doctors at the
National Conference on Medical Indications for airbag Deactivation considered
the medical conditions commonly reported in letters to the NHTSA as possible
justification for turning off airbags. They did not, however, recommend turning off
airbags for relatively common conditions, such as:
 pacemakers
 eyeglasses
 angina
 emphysema
 asthma
 mastectomy
 previous back or neck surgery
 advanced age
 osteoporosis
 arthritis
 pregnancy
Generally speaking, you can't deactivate your airbag without installing a retrofit
on-off switch. However, if a retrofit on-off switch is not yet available (from the
vehicle manufacturer) for your car, the NHTSA will authorize airbag deactivation
on a case-by-case basis under appropriate conditions. Never try to disable the
bag yourself -- remember, this is no soft cushion! It packs a wallop and can hurt
you when you don't know what you're doing.
As for factory-installed on-off switches, the NHTSA allows car manufacturers to
install passenger airbag on-off switches in new vehicles under limited
circumstances -- only if the vehicle has no rear seat or if the rear seat is too small
to accommodate a rear-facing child safety seat. And manufacturers are not
currently allowed to install on-off switches for the driver airbag in any new
vehicle. Why these rules? The NHTSA decided against widespread factory-
installed on-off switches for fear that they would become standard equipment in
all new vehicles -- even those purchased by people not in at-risk groups. They
also saw the integration of on-off switches into new cars (and the subsequent
redesign of instrument panels) as something that would divert resources from the
development of safer, more advanced airbag systems.
The Future of Airbags
Activities aimed at maintaining and improving the lifesaving benefits of airbags

are in full swing. New NHTSA-sponsored tests use improved "dummy" injury
criteria based on new knowledge and research.
Until recently, most of the strides made in auto safety were in front and rear
impacts, even though 40 percent of all serious injuries from accidents are the
result of side impacts, and 30 percent of all accidents are side-impact collisions.
Many carmakers have responded to these statistics (and the resulting new
standards) by beefing up doors, door frames and floor and roof sections. But cars
that currently offer side airbags represent the new wave of occupant protection.
Engineers say that designing effective side airbags is much more difficult than
designing front airbags. This is because much of the energy from a front-impact
collision is absorbed by the bumper, hood and engine, and it takes almost 30 to
40 milliseconds before it reaches the car's occupant. In a side impact, only a
relatively thin door and a few inches separate the occupant from another vehicle.
This means that door-mounted side airbags must begin deploying in a mere five
or six milliseconds!
Volvo engineers experimented with different ways of mounting side airbags and

chose seat-back installation because that protects passengers of all sizes
regardless of how the seat is positioned. This arrangement allows them to place
a triggering mechanical sensor on the sides of the seat cushions under the
driver and front passenger. This prevents the airbag on the undamaged side of
the car from inflating. Installing the entire airbag package in the seat-back also
offers the advantage of preventing unnecessary deployments that might be
caused by collisions with pedestrians or bicycles. It takes a collision of about 12
mph (19 kph) to trigger side airbags.
BMW engineers have chosen door-mounted airbags. The door has more

space, allowing for a bigger bag that provides more coverage.
The head airbag, or Inflatable Tubular Structure (ITS), looks a little like a big

sausage and, unlike other airbags, is designed to stay inflated for about five
seconds to offer protection against second or third impacts. Working with the side
airbag, the ITS is supposed to offer better protection in some side collisions.
Another option for head protection in side impacts is the curtain airbag.
All of this makes it pretty clear that the science of airbags is still new and under
rapid development. You can expect many advances in this field as designers
come up with new ideas and learn from real-world crash data.
For more information on airbags and related topics, check out the links on the
next page.
How Seatbelts Work
BY TOM HARRIS
Browse the article How Seatbelts Work
A driver puts on his seatbelt. See more car safety pictures.
SABAH ARAR/AFP/GETTY IMAGES
According to a research report from the National Highway Traffic and Safety

Administration, seatbelts save approximately 13,000 lives in the United States
each year. Furthermore, the NHTSA estimates that 7,000 U.S. car accident
fatalities would have been avoided if the victims had been wearing belts.
While seatbelts do occasionally contribute to serious injury or death, nearly all

safety experts agree that buckling up dramatically increases your chances of
surviving an accident. According to the NHTSA, seatbelts reduce the risk of
death for a front seat car occupant by about 50 percent.
When you think about it, this is absolutely amazing: How can a piece of fabric
end up being the difference between life and death? What does it actually do? In
this article, we'll examine the technology of seatbelts to see why they are one of
the most important technologies in any car.
Crashing Concepts
The basic idea of a seatbelt is very simple: It keeps you from flying through the
windshield or hurdling toward the dashboard when your car comes to an abrupt
stop. But why would this happen in the first place? In short, because of inertia.
Inertia is an object's tendency to keep moving until something else works against
this motion. To put it another way, inertia is every object's resistance to changing
its speed and direction of travel. Things naturally want to keep going.
If a car is speeding along at 50 miles per hour, inertia wants to keep it going 50
mph in one direction. Air resistance and friction with the road are constantly
slowing it down, but the engine's power compensates for this energy loss.
Anything that is in the car, including the driver and passengers, has its own
inertia, which is separate from the car's inertia. The car accelerates riders to its
speed. Imagine that you're coasting at a steady 50 miles per hour. Your speed
and the car's speed are pretty much equal, so you feel like you and the car are
moving as a single unit.
But if the car were to crash into a telephone pole, it would be obvious that your
inertia and the car's were absolutely independent. The force of the pole would
bring the car to an abrupt stop, but your speed would remain the same. Without a
seatbelt, you would either slam into the steering wheel at 50 miles per hour or go
flying through the windshield at 50 miles per hour. Just as the pole slowed the
car down, the dashboard, windshield or the road would slow you down by
exerting a tremendous amount of force.
It is a given that no matter what happens in a crash, something would have to
exert force on you to slow you down. But depending on where and how the force
is applied, you might be killed instantly or you might walk away from the damage
unscathed.
If you hit the windshield with your head, the stopping power is concentrated on
one of the most vulnerable parts of your body. It also stops you very quickly,
since the glass is a hard surface. This can easily kill or severely injure a person.
A seatbelt applies the stopping force to more durable parts of the body over a
longer period of time. In the next section, we'll see how this reduces the chances
of major injury.
Taking a Hit
In the last section, we saw that any time a car comes to a sudden stop, a
passenger comes to a sudden stop as well. A seatbelt's job is to spread the
stopping force across sturdier parts of your body in order to minimize damage.
A typical seatbelt consists of a lap belt, which rests over your pelvis, and
a shoulder belt, which extends across your chest. The two belt sections are
tightly secured to the frame of the car in order to hold passengers in their seats.
When the belt is worn correctly, it will apply most of the stopping force to the rib
cage and the pelvis, which are relatively sturdy parts of the body. Since the belts
extend across a wide section of your body, the force isn't concentrated in a small
area, so it can't do as much damage. Additionally, the seatbelt webbing is made
of more flexible material than the dashboard or windshield. It stretches a little bit,
which means the stop isn't quite so abrupt. The seatbelt shouldn't give more than
a little, however, or you might bang into the steering wheel or side window. Safe
seatbelts will only let you shift forward slightly.
A car's crumple zones do the real work of softening the blow. Crumple zones
are areas in the front and rear of a car that collapse relatively easily. Instead of
the entire car coming to an abrupt stop when it hits an obstacle, it absorbs some
of the impact force by flattening, like an empty soda can. The car's cabin is much
sturdier, so it does not crumple around the passengers. It continues moving
briefly, crushing the front of the car against the obstacle. Of course, crumple
zones will only protect you if you move with the cab of the car -- that is, if you are
secured to the seat by your seatbelt.
The simplest sort of seatbelt, found in some roller coasters, consists of a length

of webbing bolted to the body of the vehicle. These belts hold you tightly against
the seat at all times, which is very safe but not particularly comfortable.
Car seatbelts have the ability to extend and retract -- you can lean forward
easily while the belt stays fairly taut. But in a collision, the belt will suddenly
tighten up and hold you in place. In the next section, we'll look at the machinery
that makes all this possible.
Extend and Retract
A spiraled spring rotates the spool to keep the seatbelt webbing taut.
In a typical seatbelt system, the belt webbing is connected to a retractor

mechanism. The central element in the retractor is a spool, which is attached to
one end of the webbing. Inside the retractor, a spring applies a rotation force,
or torque, to the spool. This works to rotate the spool so it winds up any loose
webbing.
When you pull the webbing out, the spool rotates counter-clockwise, which turns
the attached spring in the same direction. Effectively, the rotating spool works
to untwist the spring. The spring wants to return to its original shape, so it resists
this twisting motion. If you release the webbing, the spring will tighten up, rotating
the spool clockwise until there is no more slack in the belt.
The retractor has a locking mechanism that stops the spool from rotating when
the car is involved in a collision. There are two sorts of locking systems in
common use today:
 systems triggered by the car's movement

 systems triggered by the belt's movement
The first sort of system locks the spool when the car rapidly decelerates (when it
hits something, for example). The diagram below shows the simplest version of
this design.
The central operating element in this mechanism is a weighted pendulum.
When the car comes to a sudden stop, the inertia causes the pendulum to swing
forward. The pawl on the other end of the pendulum catches hold of a
toothed ratchet gear attached to the spool. With the pawl gripping one of its
teeth, the gear can't rotate counter-clockwise, and neither can the connected
spool. When the webbing loosens again after the crash, the gear rotates
clockwise and the pawl disengages.
The second kind of system locks the spool when something jerks the belt
webbing. The activating force in most designs is the speed of the spool rotation.
The diagram shows a common configuration.
The central operating element in this design is a centrifugal clutch -- a weighted

pivoting lever mounted to the rotating spool. When the spool spins slowly, the
lever doesn't pivot at all. A spring keeps it in position. But when something yanks
the webbing, spinning the spool more quickly, centrifugal force drives the
weighted end of the lever outward.
The extended lever pushes a cam piece mounted to the retractor housing. The
cam is connected to a pivoting pawl by a sliding pin. As the cam shifts to the left,
the pin moves along a groove in the pawl. This pulls the pawl into the spinning
ratchet gear attached to the spool. The pawl locks into the gear's teeth,
preventing counter-clockwise rotation.
In some newer seatbelt systems, a pretensioner also works to tighten the belt
webbing. In the next section, we'll see how these devices work.
The Pretensioner
When the gas is ignited, the pressure pushes the piston up to rotate the retractor.
The idea of a pretensioner is to tighten up any slack in the belt webbing in the
event of a crash. Whereas the conventional locking mechanism in a retractor
keeps the belt from extending any farther, the pretensioner actually pulls in on
the belt. This force helps move the passenger into the optimum crash position in
his or her seat. Pretensioners normally work together with conventional locking
mechanisms, not in place of them.
There are a number of different pretensioner systems on the market. Some

pretensioners pull the entire retractor mechanism backward and some rotate the
spool itself. Generally, pretensioners are wired to the same central control
processor that activates the car's air bags. The processor monitors mechanical or
electronic motion sensors that respond to the sudden deceleration of an impact.
When an impact is detected, the processor activates the pretensioner and then
the air bag.
Some pretensioners are built around electric motors or solenoids, but the most

popular designs today use pyrotechnics to pull in the belt webbing. The diagram
below shows a representative model.
The central element in this pretensioner is a chamber of combustible gas. Inside

the chamber, there is a smaller chamber with explosive igniter material. This
smaller chamber is outfitted with two electrodes, which are wired to the central
processor.
When the processor detects a collision, it immediately applies an electrical

current across the electrodes. The spark from the electrodes ignites the igniter
material, which combusts to ignite the gas in the chamber. The burning gas
generates a great deal of outward pressure. The pressure pushes on
a piston resting in the chamber, driving it upward at high speed.
A rack gear is fastened to one side of the piston. When the piston shoots up, the
rack gear engages a gear connected to the retractor spool mechanism. The
speeding rack rotates the spool forcefully, winding up any slack belt webbing.
Load Limiters
In severe crashes, when a car collides with an obstacle at extremely high speed,
a seatbelt can inflict serious damage. As a passenger's inertial speed increases,
it takes a greater force to bring the passenger to a stop. In other words, the faster
you're going on impact, the harder the seatbelt will push on you.
Some seatbelt systems use load limiters to minimize belt-inflicted injury. The

basic idea of a load limiter is to release a little more excess belt webbing when a
great deal of force is applied to the belt. The simplest load limiter is a fold sewn
into the belt webbing. The stitches holding the fold in place are designed to break
when a certain amount of force is applied to the belt. When the stitches come
apart, the webbing unfolds, allowing the belt to extend a little bit more.
More advanced load limiters rely on a torsion bar in the retractor mechanism. A
torsion bar is just a length of metal material that will twist when enough force is
applied to it. In a load limiter, the torsion bar is secured to the locking mechanism
on one end and the rotating spool on the other. In a less severe accident, the
torsion bar will hold its shape, and the spool will lock along with the locking
mechanism. But when a great deal of force is applied to the webbing (and
therefore the spool), the torsion bar will twist slightly. This allows the webbing to
extend a little bit farther.
Over the years, seatbelts have proven to be far and away the most important
safety device in cars and trucks. They are by no means infallible, however, and
car safety engineers see a lot of room for improvement in today's design. In the
future, cars will be outfitted with better belts, better air bags and, most likely,
completely new safety technology. Of course, the government will still have to
address the biggest problem with safety devices -- getting people to use them.
For more information on seatbelts and other safety systems, check out the links
on the next page
Car Seats: Fast Facts

BY SHANE SPECK
Browse the article Car Seats: Fast Facts
In a crash at just 30 miles per hour (48.3 kilometers per hour), an unrestrained
passenger is thrown forward with a force 30 to 60 times their body weight. Learn
more about crash dynamics. Seatbelts are designed to hold you into the car and
spread the destructive force of the impact over the more resilient parts of your
body, increasing your chances of avoiding death or serious injury in a crash by
up to 50 percent. Learn more about seatbelts.
There are three basic types of child car seats, each designed for different ages
(and sizes) of children:
 Rear-facing infant seats and convertible seats
 Forward-facing car seats
 Booster seats and backless boosters
Learn more about types of car seats. Rear-facing infant seats are generally
suitable for babies up to 22 pounds (about 10 kilograms), roughly from birth to 12
months. Learn more about rear-facing car seats. According to the National
Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), all children ages 12 and under
should ride in the back seat. Learn more about car seat safety. Rear-facing car
seats provide greater protection for the baby's head, neck and spine than
forward-facing seats. Learn more about rear-facing car seats. Types of car seat
harness styles:
 The three-point harness has straps that cross over the shoulders and

fasten to a buckle near the bottom of the seat.
 The five-point harness has five straps: two at the shoulders, two at the
hips and one at the crotch.
 The overhead shield features a padded shield that swings down around
the child, similar to the restraints often found on fairground rides.
 A t-shield comprises a padded t-shaped or triangular shield attached to
shoulder straps. Rather than swinging over the child, this shield is attached to
the front of the unit.
Learn more about car seat harness styles. For children older than 1 year and
heavier than around 20 lbs (9.1 kg), a forward-facing seat becomes
suitable. Learn more about forward-facing car seats. According to the NHTSA,
placing a child in the back seat instead of the front seat reduces the risk of death
by 27 percent, whether the car has a passenger-side airbag or not. Learn more
about car seat safety. When a child is too big for a harnessed car seat, it's time to
use a booster seat. A child is to be considered "too big" if he exceeds the
manufacturer's weight limit or the top of his head is higher than the top of the
seat. Usually a child will need a booster seat between the ages of four or
six. Learn more about booster seats. A seatbelt is designed to sit across the
pelvis and ribcage, spreading the force of an impact over the strongest parts of
our skeleton. A booster seat works by raising the child so that the adult seatbelt
fits across these areas. Learn more about booster seats. Usually by the age of
six, or when a child can sit up straight on his own without slumping or slouching,
he can graduate from a full booster seat to a backless booster seat. A backless
booster seat is simply a standard booster seat without the backrest. Learn more
about booster seats. A child ready to use an adult seat belt without the aid of a
booster seat will be around 4 feet, 9 inches (about 1 1/2 meters) tall and roughly
eight years old. Please keep in mind that, because children do vary in size by
age, some children could still need a booster seat at the age of 10 or 11. Learn
more about booster seats. A child is not ready to use a regular seat belt until:
 He is tall enough so that his legs bend at the knees against the edge of
the seat.
 He is mature enough to remain seated with his back flat on the seat, not
slouching.
 The lap belt sits high on the thighs or low on the hips, not on the stomach.
 The shoulder belt crosses the shoulder and chest, avoiding the arms and
the neck.
Learn more about seat belt recommendations. Whether you're purchasing
something new or second-hand, pay attention to recall notices. For more
information regarding child car seat recalls, check out the U.S. Consumer
Product Safety Commission Web site or the NHTSA Web site. Learn more about
recall notices. LATCH stands for "Lower Anchors and Tethers for Children" and
eliminates the need to use seat belts to secure the child car seat to the vehicle.
However, your vehicle must be fitted with the anchor system. In 2002, most new
vehicles began to be manufactured with the LATCH system installed. Learn more
about the LATCH system. LATCH is not necessarily safer than using seat belts
to secure a car seat, though it may make it easier to achieve a safe installation.
Your child car seat retailer will be able to advise you on suitability for your
vehicle. Learn more about the LATCH system. Here's what to look for when
buying an infant car seat:
 Use a rear-facing seat, rated for up to 20 pounds (9.07 kilograms). You
will be able to find models that go to 22, 30 or 35 pounds (9.8, 13.6 or 15.9
kilograms), if necessary.
 A 5-point harness is preferred.
 A front adjuster to tighten the harness makes it easier to use.
 Newborn babies and infants should have a maximum recline of 45
degrees. Some car seats have built in angle indicators and adjusters to help
get the correct recline.
 Most models with a handle will require that the handle be lowered when
traveling.
 A rear-facing tether, impact foam and rebound bar may improve safety. "
 Dedicated infant seats may fit your child better than convertible models.
 Some models may include a complete base system and stroller, while
others may just have a convenient base. Select the system that is most
suitable for you.
Learn more about infant car seats. When looking for a convertible car seat,
you'll want to keep the following in mind:
 A rear-facing seat is safer. Select a model with a 30 or 35 pound (13.6 or

15.9 kilogram) rear-facing weight limit and keep your child rear-facing as long
as possible.
 Your seat should be converted to front facing when the top of your child's
head reaches the top of the seat, or when the child reaches the 30 or 35
pound (13.6 or 15.9 kilogram) rear-facing limit.
 Try to find a model with a 5-point harness and a front harness adjuster.
 Some models feature tethers that can be used rear-facing and have
impact foam for added safety. Some models may also have built-in locking
clips.
Learn more about convertible car seats.
When buying a booster seat, consider this:

 You should use a booster seat after your child reaches 40 pounds (18.1
kilograms).Use it with a lap and shoulder belt.
 Use the booster seat until the manufacturer's weight limit is met or until
your child can wear a seatbelt properly.
 Use a high backed model if your vehicle has low seat backs with no head
rests. A backless model is fine if your vehicle has headrests.
 Many booster seats have adjustable head supports and extra padding for
comfort. Learn more about booster seats
How Tire Pressure

Monitoring Systems Work
BY ERIC BAXTER
Browse the article How Tire Pressure Monitoring Systems Work
Tire pressure monitoring systems are meant to help drivers catch underinflated tires before
they become a hazard. Want to learn more? Check out these car safety pictures!
THINKSTOCK/COMSTOCK IMAGES/GETTY IMAGES

If you own a car built after 2007, you have a tire pressure monitor system at
work. You know it best as the horseshoe-shaped light (it's actually a stylized,
flattened tread and sidewall of a tire) with an exclamation point in the center. It's
also the light that can plague you by coming on and going off at inexplicable
times, and sometimes signaling an expensive trip to the dealership.
But this indicator light is the visible part of a larger pressure monitoring system,
and it's there to help. When it's on, it's telling you that your tires need air.
The various tire pressure monitoring systems (or TPMS) used by auto makers

are designed to monitor the air pressure in a car's tires. The idea behind a TPMS
is primarily safety-related -- underinflated tires offer a less stable ride, and they're
more prone to possible blowouts. By calling attention to an "underinflation event,"
the system can prompt the driver to inflate the tire (or tires) to the proper levels.
Sensors within the tire, or on the car, send information to one or several modules
in the car. These modules are programmed with a range of acceptable
circumstances. For direct tire pressure monitoring, this is often between 28 and
35 pounds per square inch (psi) of air in the tire.
This rather innocent light has a tragic origin. During the late 1990s, more than
100 automotive fatalities were attributed to Firestone tires that lost their tread
when they were run underinflated, and friction heated them beyond their
capability to handle. The tires blew out or delaminated, and this led to the rollover
of the vehicles they were on. Most of those vehicles were Ford Explorers, and
many times one or more of the occupants died.
The fatalities led to two major changes to the automotive industry. The first was
the Transportation Recall Enhancement, Accountability and Documentation Act
(The TREAD Act). The act, later signed into law, required tracking of, and
response to, any possible danger signs from vehicles that would require a recall
or posed a safety risk.
The second major addition was the requirement of a TPMS system on all cars
built after 2007 in the United States. Like most quickly-introduced changes, there
were problems with the systems. But as technology improves, and engineers
refine how the systems function, they're becoming smoother and more reliable.
Read on and find out how the systems actually see inside your tire, what they
see, and how your car reacts to the information.
Direct and Indirect Tire Pressure Monitoring Systems
If your light goes off, it's a good idea to check your tire pressure as soon as possible.
STOCKBYTE/GETTY IMAGES
Direct tire pressure monitoring systems use individual sensors inside each

tire, and sometimes a full-size spare, to transmit information to a central control
module. The sensors read internal pressure, and sometimes temperature. The
information received at the module is analyzed, and any issues with any of the
tires are sent to the car's vehicle information system, or low-pressure light.
Information is most often sent wirelessly as a radio signal. While some

aftermarket systems are mounted outside the tire, most manufacturers use a
sensor mounted inside the tire. This is where the expense for the consumer
comes in. Each sensor has a battery with a life of about a decade. On most, the
battery is not serviceable, and the entire sensor must be changed. The sensor
stem is also subject to damage, as is the sensor itself, when the tire hits a curb or
the car gets into an accident. And each time a sensor is changed, it generally has
to be reprogrammed into the control module so it can be recognized.
The wireless system is also prone to problems and challenges, as well as being
integrated with other car systems that can fail or become corrupted over time.
Added to this mix is the often-proprietary technology used by each manufacturer,
making the range of sensors out there a confusing mix for shops and consumers.
Indirect tire pressure monitoring systems don't rely on sensors to do the

work, or at least not pressure sensors. The systems rely on wheel speed sensor
data to interpret the size of a tire based on how fast it rotates -- a small tire would
rotate faster than a larger tire, and an underinflated tire is smaller than one with
proper inflation. All of this data can be gleaned by electronic monitors within in
the car, and then interpreted using advanced programming and processing.
This system is less prone to the vagaries of direct sensors, but more attention
must be paid to it. For instance, imagine that a driver fills up his tires with air at a
gas station and checks the pressure before heading out on a long trip. An indirect
system needs to be reset every time the tires are inflated, or it will see the newly
inflated tires as a possible hazard. In this case, if it isn't reset, the system will see
bigger tires and may warn the driver of over inflation.
For lots more information on safety and regulatory systems, see the links on the
next page
Pedestrian safety through vehicle design

One of a series of safety research vehicles produced by British Leyland in the 1970s including a pedestrian-
friendly bonnet
In May 2013 the World Health Organization (WHO) reported that more than
270,000 pedestrians lose their lives on the world’s roads each year accounting for 22% of the total
1.24 million road traffic deaths. [1] Despite the magnitude of the problem, most attempts at reducing
pedestrian deaths had historically focused solely on education and traffic regulation. Since the
1970s, crash engineers have begun to use design principles that have proved successful in
protecting car occupants to develop vehicle design concepts that reduce the likelihood of injuries to
pedestrians in the event of a car-pedestrian crash. These involve redesigning the bumper, hood
(bonnet), and the windshield and pillar to be energy absorbing (softer) without compromising the
structural integrity of the car. With the advent of ADAS (Automated Advanced Driver Assist Systems)
since 2005, new pedestrian detection and crash avoidance and mitigation systems offer even
greater improvements through active rather than passive protection systems. For example, omniview
technology allows a driver to see what is a around the vehicle before moving.
Omniview technology gives the impression of looking down on the space around the car, and allows the driver
to see people and objects in the immediately vicinity before moving off
Contents
 1Anatomy of a pedestrian crash

 2Reducing pedestrian injuries
o 2.1Protecting the head
o 2.2Protecting the limbs
 3Trams
 4See also
 5References
 6Further reading
 7External links
Anatomy of a pedestrian crash[edit]
The sequence of events in a car-pedestrian crash
Many pedestrian crashes involve a forward moving car (as opposed to buses and other vehicles with
a vertical hood/bonnet). In such a crash, a standing or walking pedestrian is struck and accelerated
to the speed of the car and then continues forward as the car brakes to a halt. The pedestrian is
impacted twice, first by the car and then by the ground, but most of the fatal injuries occur due to
interaction with the car. Vehicle designers usually focus on understanding the car-pedestrian
interaction, which is characterized by the following sequence of events: the vehicle bumper first
contacts the lower limbs of the pedestrian, the leading edge of the hood hits the
upper thigh or pelvis, and the head and upper torso are struck by the top surface of the hood and/or
windshield.[2]
Reducing pedestrian injuries[edit]

Most pedestrian deaths occur due to the traumatic brain injury resulting from the hard impact of the
head against the stiff hood or windshield. [2] In addition, although usually non-fatal, injuries to the
lower limb (usually to the knee joint and long bones) are the most common cause of disabilities.
A Frontal Protection System (FPS) than can be device fitted to the front end of a vehicle to protect
both pedestrians and cyclists in the event of a front-end collision. Car design has been shown to
have a large impact on the scope and severity of pedestrian injury in car crashes. [3]
While the lower limb is the most commonly injured body region, most pedestrian fatalities are caused by head
injuries.[3]
Volvo has created a pedestrian and cycle recognition ADAS with automatic braking designed to

reduce pedestrian collisions. With pedestrian injuries and fatalities increasing dramatically in the US
in 2017, perhaps because of increasingly distracted driving with entertainment and communication
systems in cars, pedestrian safety driver support systems may become widespread.
Protecting the head[edit]
The hood of most vehicles is usually fabricated from sheet metal, which is a compliant energy
absorbing structure which poses a comparatively small threat. Most serious head injuries occur
when there is insufficient clearance between the hood and the stiff underlying engine components. A
gap of approximately 10 cm is usually enough to allow the pedestrian’s head to have a
controlled deceleration and a significantly reduced risk of death.[3] Creating room under the hood is
not always easy because usually there are other design constraints, such as aerodynamics and
styling. In some regions of the hood it can be impossible. These include along the edges on which
the hood is mounted and the cowl, where the hood meets the windshield. Engineers have attempted
to overcome this problem by using deformable mounts, and by developing more ambitious solutions
such as airbags that are activated during the crash and cover the stiff regions of the hood. [4] Some
models, like the Citroën C6 and Jaguar XK feature a novel pop-up bonnet design, which adds
6.5 cm (2.5", C6) extra clearance over the engine block if the bumper senses a hit. In 2012 and
2015, the Volvo V40 and the Land Rover Discovery Sport have an under-the hood airbag designed
to operate if the hood senses a hit. The airbag is also designed to cover the windshield pillars to help
protect the pedestrian's head.
Protecting the limbs[edit]
Most limb injuries occur due to a direct blow from the bumper and the leading edge of the hood. This
leads to contact fractures of the femur and the tibia/fibula and damage to the knee ligaments due to
bending of the joint. Thus, attempts at reducing these injuries involve reducing the peak contact
forces by making the bumper softer and increasing the contact area and by limiting the amount of
knee bending by modifying the geometry of the front end of the car. Computer simulations and
experiments with cadavers show that when cars have lower bumpers, the thigh and leg rotate
together causing the knee to bend less and thus reducing the likelihood of ligament injuries. Deeper
bumper profiles and structures under the bumper (such as the air dam) can also assist in limiting the
rotation of the leg.[5]
Trams[edit]
A protective shield in front of a Helsinki tram, ca 1975. When a person hits the detector (yellow arrow), a shield
(red arrow) launches to prevent the person from going under the wheels.
An early example can be found on trams in the form of a lifeguard which prevents pedestrians from
being caught between the wheels of the leading bogie should they be hit. When a pedestrian hit the
lifeguard a scoop/grille would be automatically lowered in front of the vehicle. This protects the tram
against derailment as well as reducing the likelihood of the pedestrian being killed.
Pedestrian Protection
People and vehicles often share the road, especially in densely populated areas. In a fast-paced
world with many distractions, the reality is that pedestrians and vehicles are involved in
accidents with severe or fatal injuries as a result.
Autoliv’s solution to protect the vulnerable road users resulted in the advancements and creation
of the Pedestrian Protection Systems including systems such as Pedestrian Airbag and Active
Hood Lifters.
Pedestrian Passive Safety Protection devices:
 Pedestrian Protection Airbag - Aims to mitigate head impact to hard structure such
as A-pillars and windscreen frame
 Active Hood Lifters - Aims to mitigate head impact to structure beneath the hood i.e.
engine, suspension tower battery etc
Pedestrian Protection Airbag
The pedestrian protection airbag aims to mitigate the head impact in case of an pedestrian-
vehicle accident and reduces the severity of pedestrian head injuries.
Active Hood Lifters

Active hood lifters aims to mitigate head impact to hard structures beneath the hood i.e. engine,
suspension tower battery and more.
What is pedestrian protection

4th Dec 2012
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Car manufacturers continue to quote statistics on how good their latest model’s
‘pedestrian protection’ is. But what does the term actually mean?
According to Euro NCAP – the recognised crash safety standards body across Europe
– it’s a lot more scientific than just how kind a car is to a person in a collision:
“A series of tests are carried out to replicate accidents involving child and adult
pedestrians where impacts occur at 40kph (around 25mph).
“Impact sites are then assessed and rated fair, weak and poor. As with other tests,
these are based on European Enhanced Vehicle-safety Committee guidelines.”
That’s the official line, but how does that translate to what happens in a crash with a
pedestrian and how a new car is designed to minimise the impact?
There are four ‘impact zones’ on a car: these are where the lower and upper legs
strike the bumper and bonnet respectively, as well as the areas where a child’s or and
adult’s head would strike a car’s bonnet.
Deformation tests determine what areas of the car could be improved – for example,
pedestrian protection can be bettered with more deformable plastic bumpers, and,
increasingly, systems such as sprung bonnets.
This technology “pops up” a vehicle’s engine cover, allowing more space between the
bonnet and engine. The panel is generally sprung and allows for a softer impact – with
no hard engine block directly underneath, allowing extra room for the panel to deflect.
Even a few millimetres extra room here can help reduce serious head injuries.
The theory is simple: deformable areas work by slowing down a pedestrian’s impact

with the car, reducing the unwelcome after affects.
The more you can cushion the blow – no matter what area of the car – the less
damage will be inflicted to any area of the body. The principal is the same inside a car
with inertia reel seatbelts and airbags.
Plastic and metal can be replaced. A human life can’t. This is the primary reason for
the millions of pounds spent on research and development on crash safety in the
automotive industry every year.
With Euro NCAP incorporating it into their tests as a standalone category in 2009, it
shows the importance of pedestrian protection and just how far cars have come.
There’s more on the horizon too. Developments such as autonomous braking systems
– helping to pre-empt a collision by applying a vehicle’s brakes if it senses an object in
the road – should help reduce pedestrian injuries even further.
Pedestrian safety is a field that is now developing at a seriously rapid rate – and the
benefits will be there for all, not just vehicle occupants. This can only be a good thing.
Pedestrian Protection
Slideshow
The European Commission introduced Directive 2003/102/EC relating to the protection of pedestrians and other
vulnerable road users before and in the event of a collision with a motor vehicle.
Pedestrians, of course, do not have an “impact-absorbing zone”, so in the future the vehicles will have to absorb the
impact energy. In other words, the front of the vehicle must become “soft” enough to protect pedestrians from serious
injuries.
The pedestrian-friendly headlamp
Depending on vehicle category and front design, the headlamps are located near or in the impact area of the thigh, of
the leg or of a child’s head.
Headlamps have to absorb the impact energy in a pre-defined manner along with the surrounding elements, while the
load peaks caused by internal collisions must be avoided. Moreover, headlamps should not cause additional injuries
from splinters or fragments.
Pedestrian protection simulation

Automotive Lighting owns crash-test equipment with which to carry out important preliminary checks using complete
headlamps. Tests can be carried out with various impactors, and impacts can be simulated through CAD. Since
“pedestrian protection” goes well beyond the headlamp, Automotive Lighting conducts research in cooperation with
external institutes and European carmakers in order to optimize test results.
Pedestrians
Everyone Is a Pedestrian
88
2017.
ON AVERAGE, A PEDESTRIAN WAS KILLED EVERY 88 MINUTES IN TRAFFIC CRASHES IN
Everyone has different preferences when it comes to transportation, but at one time or
another everyone is a pedestrian. Fortunately, there was a 1.7% decrease in the
number of pedestrians killed in traffic crashes in 2017, totaling 5,977 deaths.
TRAFFIC SAFETY FACTS

PEDESTRIANS, MARCH 2019 (PDF, 533.32 KB)
Whether you’re a concerned resident, a parent or a caregiver, you want to do everything
you can to make sure you, your loved ones and your neighbors can enjoy walking safely
in your community. The resources below will help you do just that. We offer pedestrians
of all ages guidance on maintaining safety while enjoying the benefits of walking.
Walking Safely
WATCH THE VIDEO
RELATED TOPIC
BICYCLE SAFETY
Know the Basics—Pedestrian Safety

10 Walking Safety Tips
1. Be predictable. Follow the rules of the road and obey signs and
signals.
2. Walk on sidewalks whenever they are available.
3. If there is no sidewalk, walk facing traffic and as far from traffic as
possible.
4. Keep alert at all times; don’t be distracted by electronic devices that
take your eyes (and ears) off the road.
5. Whenever possible, cross streets at crosswalks or intersections,
where drivers expect pedestrians. Look for cars in all directions,
including those turning left or right.
6. If a crosswalk or intersection is not available, locate a well-lit area
where you have the best view of traffic. Wait for a gap in traffic that
allows enough time to cross safely; continue watching for traffic as
you cross.
7. Never assume a driver sees you. Make eye contact with drivers as
they approach to make sure you are seen.
8. Be visible at all times. Wear bright clothing during the day, and wear
reflective materials or use a flashlight at night.
9. Watch for cars entering or exiting driveways, or backing up in
parking lots.
10. Avoid alcohol and drugs when walking; they impair your abilities
and your judgment.
9 Driving Safety Tips
1. Look out for pedestrians everywhere, at all times. Safety is a shared

responsibility.
2. Use extra caution when driving in hard-to-see conditions, such as
nighttime or bad weather.
3. Slow down and be prepared to stop when turning or otherwise
entering a crosswalk.
4. Yield to pedestrians in crosswalks and stop well back from the
cross-walk to give other vehicles an opportunity to see the crossing
pedestrians so they can stop too.
5. Never pass vehicles stopped at a crosswalk. There may be people
crossing that you can’t see.
6. Never drive under the influence of alcohol and/or drugs.
7. Follow the speed limit, especially around people on the street.
8. Follow slower speed limits in school zones and in neighborhoods
where children are present.
9. Be extra cautious when backing up—pedestrians can move into
your path.
Finding and Creating Walkable Communities

 Resident's Guide for Creating Safe and Walkable Communities
Want to improve the walkability of your neighborhood? Learn from
the examples of other communities working to improve pedestrian
safety.
 Walkability Checklist – English (PDF, 237.66 KB) | Spanish (PDF,
879.65 KB) | Asian Languages
How walkable is your community? Take a walk with your child and
find out for yourselves.
Keeping Your Kids Safe While They Walk

 Prevent Pedestrian Crashes: Parents and Caregivers of Elementary
School Children (PDF, 165.61 KB)
Elementary school children are very active and impulsive. Although
they’re learning and growing, school-age children 10 and younger
still need guidance and supervision when playing and walking near
traffic.
 Five Tips to Keep Your Children Safe on Their Way to and from
School
Strengthen your traffic safety knowledge: Teach and reinforce your
children's pedestrian safety habits.
 A Kid's Guide to Safe Walking (PDF, 3.04 MB)
This colorful pamphlet will help you teach young children safety tips
for crossing the street and things to remember when walking.
 Tips for Preteens & Teens: Prevent Pedestrian Crashes (PDF, 3.30
MB)
Remind your preteens and teens that walking around traffic requires
the same critical thinking skills as riding a bike or driving a car:
Stop, look left-right-left, be safe and be seen.
Walking Safely and Staying Fit as You Age

 Stepping Out as an Older Adult — Be Healthy, Walk Safely
Share this resource with your aging parents to help them maintain
their safety while walking for exercise or running errands.
THE TOPIC
Safety Advocates
If you're an advocate of pedestrian safety, or perhaps you work on a State or local
pedestrian program, our curriculum and resources will equip you with the tools and
information you need to effectively promote pedestrian safety.
 Accessible Pathways & Livable Communities Pocket Guide

Pocket guide containing pathway accessibility and livability
concepts for communities to consider (from Easter Seals).
 Checklist for Assessing the Accessibility of Transportation and
Mobility
Introduction and instructions on using a checklist to assess the
accessibility of a transit route, including the path of travel (from
Easter Seals).
 Child Pedestrian Safety Curriculum
Lesson plans, assessment guides, and student response forms to
teach and encourage pedestrian safety to children in kindergarten
through 5th grade.
 ESL Teacher's Guide and Student Workbook: Walk and Bike Safely
ESL guide and workbook to teach and encourage pedestrian and
bike safety to adult immigrant students who are beginning English
language learners.
 Neighborhood Wayfinding Assessment Pocket Guide
Guide and checklist to help you find your way in your community
(from Easter Seals).
 Pedestrian Safer Journey – Skills for Safe Walking for Ages 5 to 18
Interactive training package for children in elementary through high
school to develop skills for safe walking.
 Pedestrian Safety Workshop: A Focus on Older Adults (PDF, 3.54
MB) and Instructor Guide (PDF, 3.54 MB)
Presentation and guide for teaching older adults what they can do
to increase their safety as pedestrians during this three-hour
workshop.
 Tips for Preteens & Teens: Prevent Pedestrian Crashes (PDF, 3.30
MB)
Walking around traffic requires the same critical thinking skills as
riding your bike and driving a car. Apply the same walking skills you
learned as a kid: stop, look left-right-left for traffic and be safe, be
seen. Use these skills when you walk, and encourage others to do
the same.
 Traffic Safety Facts – Children (PDF, 803.25 KB)
Of the 5,987 pedestrian traffic fatalities, 245 (4%) were children in
2016.
 Traffic Safety Facts – Pedestrians (PDF, 573.55 KB)
5,987 pedestrians died in traffic crashes in 2016, a 9% increase
from the number reported in 2015.
 Walkability Checklist – English (PDF, 237.66 KB) | Spanish (PDF,
879.65 KB) | Asian Languages
Criteria to help you decide whether a neighborhood is a friendly
place to walk.
Visit FHWA's pedestrian web pages for additional information.
NHTSA IN ACTION
NHTSA is dedicated to
promoting safe behaviors on
our nation’s roads
In 2017, there were 5,977 pedestrians killed in traffic crashes, down from 6,080 the year
before. NHTSA’s pedestrian safety programs focus on the behaviors of pedestrians and
motorists to reduce injuries and fatalities on our nation’s roadways.
NHTSA demonstrates its dedication to promoting safe pedestrian and motorist behavior
through our educational material, leadership and expertise to communities across
America. We also conduct public awareness campaigns, such as Everyone is a
Pedestrian, raising awareness of the dangers to pedestrians.
Please join us in reducing traffic safety risks to pedestrians and promoting programs
and countermeasures to save the lives of all road users on our Nation's roadways.
RESOURCES
Pedestrian Safety Officials

 Focused Approach to Pedestrian and Bicycle Safety
NHTSA supports FHWA's Focused Approach to Pedestrian and
Bicyclist Safety. The approach looks at cities and States with large
numbers of pedestrian and bicyclist fatalities. NHTSA has worked
with designated focus cities and States to implement enforcement
and educational strategies that complement infrastructure
applications to reduce pedestrian and bicyclist injuries and
fatalities.
 How to Develop a Pedestrian Safety Action Plan (PDF 5.14 MB)
Guide for developing and implementing a pedestrian safety action
plan tailored to the problems and needs of State and local agencies.
 Pedestrian Safety Program Management Course
This two-day course provides a comprehensive approach to
managing pedestrian safety programs.
 Pedestrian Safety Program Technical Assessment
Find out how your State highway safety or emergency medical
services program can benefit from NHTSA's technical assessment.
 Pedestrian Safety Training for Law Enforcement
Order this CD-ROM to receive computer-based training in
pedestrian safety, followed by a certificate of completion.
 Pedsafe
An expert tool to help diagnose and address pedestrian safety
problems.
 Proven Safety Countermeasures
Proven pedestrian safety countermeasures: median refuges, road
diets, and hawk hybrid signals.
Safer and Cutting-Edge: Night Vision with

Pedestrian Detection
Possibly the coolest feature of the new BMW 7-Series sedan – which does not lack for
super tech optional gadgets — is the new night-vision system that can shed enough light
on a twilight drive that it resembles a commando raid. At 1stCertified Collision Center,
we respect the newest technology in today’s modern vehicles and hopefully we will soon
be able to see a few of these beauties here in southern, CA.
The Night Vision with Pedestrian Detection system adds people-detecting technology
that can discern between humans and animals. It was developed by Autoliv Electronics of
Sweden and is the next evolutionary technological step offered by Lexus and Mercedes-
Benz since Cadillac’s 2000 Deville sedan introduced it to the automotive sector.
Component prices have dropped since earlier models sold for about $3,000, but they’re
still not available for less than $2,000. This will likely change, though, with prices
possibly eventually dropping as low as $500 for a no-frills unit.
Passive far-infrared systems are usually mounted on the grille and scan for heat, while
near-infrared systems project light onto the road. The active night vision system, on the
other hand, can be mounted higher – in the rear-view mirror, offering a better view, but,
rain, snow, fog and distance reduce its range – it’s most profound downside – though the
range is still about two football fields long.
Some models fuse both passive and active systems. The latest systems use algorithms that
can tell whether an infrared hot spot is something living, and then swivel a headlight
element to alert the driver — and whatever’s in the road. But it is not without its
problems.
The $2,600 option does not replace the headlights, but is “another set of eyes,” sharply
illuminating 1,000 feet of pavement – roughly twice the headlights’ range – which can
make the difference between avoiding that cow or totaling your
car.
The system converts infrared camera data into an image that appears on the dashboard’s
navigation display. Warmer objects (like living things) appear as white, while cooler ones
like parked cars appear black – kind of like photographic negatives. The pedestrian-
detection feature kicks in when speeds exceed 25 mph. The system also monitors
trajectory and warn you if you’re on a collision course. Some even sound an alert. The
passive systems claim a range of up to 1,000 feet – more than 10 seconds of travel time at
60 mph — and they work better in foggy or rainy conditions.
Stats suggest improved night vision would likely reduce vehicle VS pedestrian crashes,
which comprise 4,000 of the 32,000 annual U.S. traffic fatalities, and seven in 10 of those
are at night. One in 20 U.S. crashes involves animals – with a million vehicle Vs deer
crashes annually accounting for 200 human fatalities and 25,000 injuries.
These gadgets are expensive, and other safety basics like blind spot detection, forward
collision warning, and lane-departure warning, are probably more important and
definitely much cheaper. Most important, though, is that the night vision detection-and-
warning features work, and could save a life.

International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology

(IRJET)

e-ISSN: 2395 -0056

Volume: 03 Issue: 12 | Dec -2016 www.irjet.net p-ISSN: 2395-0072

© 2016, IRJET | Impact Factor value: 4.45 | ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal
| Page 855
implementation basic on this are either with passive or withactive night vision system.
Many of those are based onSupport vector machine (SVM) or BLOB or neural networkand
others.In this implementation author has used Histogram orientedgradient (HOG)
algorithm using OpenCV library. Firstly theimage is acquired from cameras. After acquiring
the image, itis processed. The sequence of processing is as follows.In the pre-processing
stage the blur caused due to movingobject with respect to vehicle is removed. This gives
usprocess able image. After this step we have to prepare ourregion of interest (ROI). This is
very important step, if weselect incomplete or improper region of interest then theresult of
that frame will not be proper. In other words, if atthis step of region of interest misses the object
of pedestriansthen this frame is waste. First step in ROI is segmentation;segmentation is a
process to abstract the desired region fromthe image background. Usually we use threshold maps
innormal application and disparity maps in stereovisionsystems. In this work a modified
dual-threshold adaptivethreshold [12] was used. The algorithm converts the inputgray-
scale image to a binary image, where white objects arethe potential candidates and the
background is black (seeFig. 7). It works adaptively under various lighting conditionsand
the contrast levelFig. 6: Flowchart of processingFig. 7: Output of segmentation and threshold
segmentation ofa thermal camera image: From Left upper row: Originalimage, Gray scale
image, threshold gray scale : from LeftLower row :binary image, segmented image,
Thresholdsegmented imageThe additional threshold segmentation gives a better resultto
work further. After the image is segmented, the process ofmorphological opening removes small
artifacts. Next processon the binary image is to select the interconnected group ofpixels which
maybe the object we are trying to detect and
then it is labeled and it’s all properties like length,
widthheight are measured so that we can assume what actually theimage is, This process known as
connected componentlabeling (CCL).As we got the region of interest and all other details
aboutit. It is very crucial that the quality of image we got for thefinal stages is good or not,
is it contents the required objectwith proper gradients. The quality of this image
directlyaffects the result of object and pedestrians detection. Firststep here at the final stage of
processing is feature extraction.This is done by reducing the unwanted data from an image.After
this we will apply Histogram oriented gradient (HOG)algorithm which helps us to detect
what actually the object


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is. Is it the one we trying to find or not. And it will mark theobject which has been
detected.The last stage that finally validates the object is a classifier.The most common classifiers
are: support vector machine(SVM) as example of the supervised learning method,
neuralnetworks, self-organizing maps (SOM), and matrices ofneurons [15]. A very helpful
algorithm during classification isthe boosting algorithm.To summarize, in the presented system
the followingsolutions have been applied:
• modified adaptive dual
-threshold for the imagesegmentation
• Connected Component Llabel
ing (CCL) for selection ofcandidates
• Histogram of Oriented Gradients (HOG) for feature
extraction
• support vector machine (SVM) for training of the classifier.

4.
Result and experiment of the system
The proposed Pedestrian and object Detection byVideo Processing using Night thermal
Vision Systemwhere the EmguCV is use with Visual studio 2012and the Image acquisition
and processing is done toget a pedestrian in that frame and that image iscompared
previously captured image andbackground subtraction is applied.We have taken 3 type of
camera sample. somesample frame or say image randomly from googleimages and
some www.youtube.com. These picturesand video are basically taken from normal camera,
IRnight vision camera and Thermal camera. We areapplied both pedestrains detection
and Movingobject detection on all these samples and calculatedthe efficeincy of the
system.We have also taken two different of video ofIR night vision camera. In first, video a
walkingperson is captured and in second video traffic onroad is captured. So here we
have tested ourapplications capability to work and abstrat thetargeted goals.6.1 Results
for Pedestrians detections
Figure 12. Processed frame of IR Night vision Cameraand People are detected and
labelled by Red rectangleFigure 13. Processed frame of day time normal Cameraand People
are detected and labelled by Red rectangleFigure 14. Processed frame of IR thermal Camera
andPeople are detected and labelled by Red rectangleFigure 15. Missed or False detection
of some frame.
We have created a database of 50 samples ofeach IR night Vision camera, Thermal camera
andnormal camera. This database is randomly selected.And the result of analysis using it
is given below.


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| Page 857Table II: Result analysis of Pedestrians DetectionSystem
6.2. Moving Object Detection
Figure 16. Processed Image for Object detection ofnormal cameraFigure 17. Processed
Image for Object detection of IRNight Vision cameraFigure 17. Processed Image for
Object detection of IRThermal Vision camera
Table III : Analysis of Object Detection Speed (inFPS)
Object Detection Technique Processing Speed ( in FPS)
Blob Algorithm 12.5FAST Algorithm [2]* 12MSER Algorithm [2]* 6
*Average Value
5. CONCLUSIONS
In this process of object detection wehave processed image of night vision camera aswell as
thermal camera image , a Histogram ofOriented Gradients (HOG) algorithm andFeatures
from accelerated segment test (FAST)is used, which is very good and efficienttechnique to
process and analysing the feature ofimage.And Moving object detection is alsoefficiently
applied using BLOB algorithm.
This method is more efficient and reliable
In this process of object detection we have processed imageof night vision camera as well
as thermal camera image , aHistogram of Oriented Gradients (HOG) algorithm andFeatures
from accelerated segment test (FAST) is used,which is very good and efficient technique to
process andanalysing the feature of image.And Moving object detectionis also efficiently
applied using BLOB algorithm.
Type ofCamera
NormalCameraIR Night Vision ThermalCameraPreviousPaper[1]
TotalSample
50 50 50 2000
TrueDetection
49 48 49 1939
Percentage
98% 96% 98% 96.96%


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| Page 858
References
[1]

Karol Piniarski, Pawel Pawlowski, Adam D.browski,Pedestrian Detection by
Video Processing in Automotive Night Visionsystem, SIGNAL PROCESSING ALGORITHMS,
ARCHITECTURES, ARRANGEMENTS, AND APPLICATIONS,SPA 2014,September 22-24"',
2014,pp. 104-109.
[2]

J. Ge, , Y. Luo, G. Tei, Real Time Pedestrian Detection and Tracking at Night time for Driver-
Assistance Systems, IEEETransactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems, Vol. 1 0, No.2,
2009, pp. 283 -298
[3]

N. Dalal, B. Triggs, Histograms of Oriented Gradients for Human Detection, IEEE Conference
on Computer Vision andPattern Recognition, ( Vol. 1 ).2005
[4]

Honda, Honda Develops World's First Intelligent Night Vision System Able to Detect
Pedestrians and Provide DriverCautions, 2004,
http://world.honda.com/news/2004/4040824_01 /video/index.htm I.
[5]

European Commission, Towards a European road safety area: policy orientations on road
safety 201 1 -2020, Brussels

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

hideThis article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these

This article is missing information about crash injuries commonly caused by

Buckling a three-point seat belt

A seat belt (also known as a seatbelt or safety belt) is a vehicle safety device designed to secure

A lap ("2-point") belt in an airplane

A seat belt and buckle

A three-point seat belt

Bucket seat combined with a Schroth 6-point harness

Seat belt with uncovered inertial reel

Pyrotechnic pretensioner diagram

Automatic seat belt in a Honda Civic

Homologation and testing[edit]

 Criss-cross Experimental safety belt presented in the Volvo SCC. It forms a cross-brace

Automated reminders and engine start interlocks[edit]

Warning lights on a car dashboard

Mass transit considerations[edit]

Consider yourself fortunate if your vehicle's seatbelt pretensioners never have to

The pretensioner mechanism uses an explosive charge to drive a concealed

Between saves by motorcycle helmets and seat belts in assorted vehicle

Seat Belt Reminder - SBR

Seat belt reminders

What road safety problem do they address?

Who uses them?

Next steps for implementation?

Recommendations of the European Transport Safety Council (ETSC, 2006)

2006 Honda Ridgeline RT full

Frontal small-overlap crash test of a 2012 Honda Odyssey.

2018 Dodge Grand Caravan being struck by a mobile deformable barrier at 62 km/h.

Driver-side oblique crash test of a 2017 Honda Ridgeline.

Jeep Liberty undergoing routine impact testing at Chrysler's Proving Grounds

NHTSA research crash test involving two Ford Five Hundreds.

How Crash Testing Works

Car Safety Image Gallery

INSURANCE INSTITUTE OF HIGHWAY SAFETY/AP

Crash Test Dummies

The dummies contain three types of instrumentation:

A graph of the head acceleration during a crash test

Now let's take a look at a real crash test.

An Actual Crash Test

After the Crash

The "Perfect" Crash

Surviving a crash is all about kinetic energy. When your body is moving at 35

Future Safety Improvements

Technology is enabling carmakers to design and manufacture safer, smarter

Background and Ratings

 BMW 525i, 530i, 545i

What are my chances of being seriously injured?

 Head Injury Criteria (HIC)

In side-impact crashes, there are two criteria:

 Thoracic Trauma Index (TTI)

 1Active vs. passive safety

Active vs. passive safety[edit]

1975 Buick Electra with ACRS

Side airbag inflated permanently for display purposes

Deployed curtain airbag and side torso airbag in a Citroën C4

An ACU from a Geo Storm

Some cars provide the option to turn off airbags

Post-deployment view of a SEAT Ibiza airbag

Injuries and fatalities[edit]

Aerospace and military applications[edit]

NASA engineers test the Mars Pathfinder airbag landing system on simulated Martian terrain.