DSIVERS Cony py, PACULIAD DR Cine ast PURCAS MARNE ToAg RESTCA LerEntinsnnar, Perienta ye py AR UNGEATRRTA PrOpGsit de este exprri _ fencia de un Semiconductor, nio tipo Py varia con 1a tempers Yo €86n ae a) aa concentracion de movilidad de 16 Kemperaturas examina Go 'estos: dos atectos so, Beeeees er negne act qiela ! oo Resistencia para oierts Eemperatura es minima. Realizand ; mediciones my por Sta temperatura, se Pusde-obte. > ! eaten Ewaler del ancho de 3s banda prohibida det germanio.Por Piolo, OCG parte tas medicionos a tenperaturne Pajas, permiten obte 1 per ta variacion de 1a movilidad de log Portadored: conitg 1 Reon Sratura. (Rango total de temperaturas; 20-200°e) , germa~ Ja varia de carga y by aa j i i Jee id i Generalmente todos los libros sobre eloctrdaiea, semis } conductores 0 ffsica dol estado S6lids contiensn capituica Sobre Ja-teorfa de las bandas de-onergta ¥ la teort, tibilidad de Semiconductores . ade tondug “Por ejempio ‘Le= “Introd i Adler. (s3 | % PP. 35-54, tion to Semiconductor Physics" por B : Vol. 1) ohn witey 1964 (ie Pac.c.r. y af. “Introduction to ch. Hid Stato Physics" por ' el, cohn Wiley 1953 pp. 747-365 (Bib Pac.c py M1.) “Modern Physics" por R.Sproull, | Miley 1956 pp. 325-339 (Bib. Pac. cw. y 4.) Escaneado con CamScannerAyn tee nametes cow vida de cal bine agen con tie fer oineapee hes Lobe censbaeean Figura 2 cIReuIVE COMPLETO Iv. aparare wae Mmestra de germanio, tipo p, loxlxlmm, montade en un cixeulto (ver £igara 1), con horno eléctrico y termocupla cobre= ConeranTay rr -—t—“C*™*=rti‘ e.CtsCstésCiéCO mador 220v/6.3V para alimentar ol horno eléctrico. wana pila de 45v, un miliamperimetro de lm y un aiero - amperfmetro de 200 4A, pata medic la resistencia de la muestra de germnio. ‘ ‘ wun term con agua y hielo, para obtener un punto de refo~ rencia para la texmocupla. mun galvanémetro para medir laitensién de. 1. urva de calibracién (rigusa 3). rmanio es my frégil \ a termocupia, con Tonga cuidado: el g L. Armar el cirewito AL2-2 (ver figura) . i 2. Variando 1a tensiéu de entrada del horno eléctrico se varia la temperatura de 1a muestra.de germanio, me se mide con el galvanémetro, util: zando su curva de ‘cali: Escaneado con CamScannerida. ta res beac foncia de La nesta de qoxmanio se calcula de los valores dslig, ig y Rj. Avmentar Ja tempesatura on et correspoudientes ip Y ig. La temperatura maxima es de 200°C. Dara touperaturas mAs altas se Cunden cone~ xiones del gerwnio con lds alambres de cobre (soldadu, xa de plows). Realivar las mismas mediciones disminuyen do ia temperatura desde 2d0°C a temperatura ambiental. pI y anukar Los valores VI. RESUFPAROS A Cr aleular Graficar log T 'g imeluyendo errores. 2.- Graficar log Tvs. log ". Caleuiar b y My, errores. Para el Gitimo valor utilice/thy volt. seg a 300°K, incluyendo 1,900 cm?/ AsumiendoAg = Keg (T/tg) 16, 4, = 3900 cm2/vs a at 200°K, y tomando los valores experimentales de b y . calcule A de la férmula: 4. = q¢ \y, mye a7? i ce aa xr’ tomando T = 450°K 4. Calcule nj, pe 360°K y 450°K y compare con Na 5.- Calcule el niimero de Atomos i de volumen y compare coa My. de g: anio por unidad .- Cémo depends {cvatitativemente) on los tales la con~ ductibilidad chtstric la temperatura? Qué es la banda de ay la de conduetibilidad? Qué es un ¢ ipo n? Qué es a termoc Cémo influye un ercor en las dimensiones de la muestra de gernanio en el resuitado de Rg y b?Céno influye en Nq? : 6.- Qué sustancias pnedex ser las impurezas en la muestra { dé germanio tipo p? de one Escaneado con CamScannerf B.D. 8/62 (srRcy Experiment ‘the purpose of this Lie carrier concentrabio’ Varios with temperature; and (b) the mobi of the cars See a mindmom of conductivity occurs at some temperate, By maleing measurements at temperatures sufficiently above this ce; rature, ined, this a value off the energy gap for germanium can be obta. value is called the "thermal" value of the gap. By maleing méasure- ments at a sufficiently lower temperature, the variation of mobility with temperature can be found. The temperature range necded to make these measurancnts Ls from room temperature (or preferably 0°C) ro about 160°C, The minimum in’ conductivity occurs well below Lno%G . Apparatus Required encially all that is required is.a means of varying and measuring the sampie temperature, sense of current, a voltmeter, a and a sample of suitable geometry and resistivity. Escaneado con CamScannero In the experiment deserdbed her y the eanphe wi oxmanium approximately Lcm x 0,. em x 0.) em, Le was p- about 3 otm-em, ‘the source of current: was K resistance in series to waintain an The voltage was read using a multi-metex with an impedance of 30,000 ohms/volt. uch: as Fae Share therm 1.2 Sample Preparation | For this experiment an ohmic! contact at each end of : lapped using fine em sequized. The sample is fir etallurgical lapping paper and lapping powler- Pod te is next necessary” to electroplate the ends 1 vhodium so that wires can be soldezed on. To a small. reghoa, $2 ‘ing place over the whole baz, all bu at each ond of the bar sust be pro A auicver of materials oe ‘The samples emplyed for all these © Gemimetals, Inc., 172 Spruce St., Westbury, Lele» Epgewood 3-8400). A set, catled the APE ‘Set, comp: cod, an n-type rod, and a 1/8" square w type waker for about $1.00 from thom, on a few di periments are available f «¥, (Phene yy 2 Prtype y be purchased Direct soldering on a roughened ecd (using emery board of fine acy paper) with fluxless solder and Poly~Flux (indus reial Crafis- Gen, fne., 145 High Street, Boston 10, Hass.) seeas to be equally satisfactory, and is much simpler. Escaneado con CamScannerare § chory for protecting the center of the bar. One solution of polyskycenc in toluene. Another is a solution of blact Apiezon wax in triehlovethylene, Rither of these materials can be painted on using a £ine hash. the solvent rapidly evaporates Leav- jag the solid residue, After use, the residue can be removed by : I using the same solvent. buco cement also works, and is removable with nail polish remover (or acetone). ing solution is used {To plate the specimen the follox i | 490 ces distilled water ( 10 ces 10% rhodium plating solution (Baker Rhodium Plating i Solution, No. 219) add 1,80, until the sdlution clears, ‘The solution should be held ar about 45°C. A platimum wire (or a silver coin or utensil) electrode is made positive and the specimen negative. Approximately 3 ma of current should be passed for about a minute to plate the specimen. Only one end of the specimen can be plated at one tine, the other end being contacted by tweezers which are held out of the solution. After the bar is plated and the masking removed, fine wire Leads are soldered to the plated regions. These should be at Least 9" long, and may be made from a strand of stranded wire, 1,3 Experimental Procedure ‘The bar is placed inside but near the bottom of a glass tube ‘of about 0.2 cm internal diameter and 6" length. This serves the purpose of separating the leads very simply: one lead can be taken Escaneado con CamScannerup the inside of the tube, and the other down throuch the bortom and up the outside of the tube. ‘This assembly is placed inside a test cube, and the Leads fixed firmly to the outside of the test tube, using scotch tape. A thermometer is placed inside the test tube to record the temperature. It is preferable to tape this in place so that the bulb.is opposite the bar and away from the bottom of the tube. ine to a ‘the test tube is placed in a beaker containing gly depth of about 2", Glycerine is obtainable at drug stores aud is useful for transferring temperatures of up to 200°C to the specimen.’ Water is usable up to 100°C, but in order to observe the large changes in conductivity produced by intrinsic carrier generation, somewhat higher temperatures are required, The beaker of glycerine is heated on a small electric hot plate. A resistance about 100 times that of the specimen should be placed in series with it to assure constant current. ‘The curent should not be so large that clectrical heating of the spe: imen takes - place, and should be such that the voltage across the specimen falls conveniently near the center of the scale on the voltmeter. In the experiment described here the current was about 1 ma and che room on a 250 willivolt seale, temperature reading was about 170 millivolts The scale was such that 1 mv changes could be estimated. Carc£ul measurements of voltage are required, since at room temperature the Escaneado con CamScannerhange o£ resistance with perabiice bs y small, + the heating of the sample should not be wore than a few degregs centigrade per minute, to allow the germanium to ba fa thermal equidtbrdem sith the surroundiny 55. LE thme permits, a cooling curve should be taken in addition to a heating curve. Points below room temperature can be obtained hy replacing the glycerine by water, and adding ice cubes. Dry ice and Acetone [eenyt (rubbing or antifreeze) alcohol, or even Iso- propyl, (rubbing) alcohol + 1 also a] may be used to get anothe: temperature (-78°C), x e 1.4. Results Thé resistance of the specimen is proportional to the voltage V, since the current is held constant. A quantity which is mare useful to deal with theoretically is the conductance, which is the xeciprocal of the resistance. A plot of the conductance, normalized to its value at 300°K, versus temperature for the p-type sample is shown in Fig. 1.1, From these results can be obtained the thermal energy gap'and the variation of hole mobility with temperature. The ( interpretation of the data is based’ upon the following theory. The conductivity of a semiconductor sample can be written as mB Gy where: , p is the hole concentration “a is the hole mobility nis the conduction electron concentration Escaneado con CamScannerForm of Exper: versus 'T dal ‘o Units Artibrary Oy. t ~~ eee! 20 40 60 80 LOO 120 140 160 180 200 we Escaneado con CamScanner¢,, is the conduction « ectron mobility. AG room Cemperature in reasonably extrinsic samples only one of these forms is of any significance, In the present case, ig is the £ term, However, at higher temperatures the second term becomes ime eventually mt, and because of the higher mobility of electrons i becomes the larger term, In general, at equilibrium (1.2, ( where n, is the intrinsic carrier concentr, And for most cases vf practical interest poMtn (4.3) where Ny is the acceptor impurity concentration. These lead to the expression ref (1.4) ! ( Z one region of interest, 0 PYM to } (1.5) i AT j ny l i Actually, even for 7* as large as % this expression is only about i A 1 a y ihe 3% in error. : n, vor a >> 1, another region of interest, A ' i Escaneado con CamScannert i £1.6) I. . ; 1 tebe 3» this oxpression i erect within ant 1.6 can be merged ak the value igh: Tempe: Region At sufficiently high temperatures ny >> Ny and both p and a md tolthe value n,, : i ‘the conductivity in th case is given by 7 aM, tay) Now ‘where B,. is the energy gap extrapolated to 0°K (th mexey sctuclly decreases linearly with temperature over quite al tehpératuze xange, but sot all the way to O°K), the primary ve ation ef nm, with temperature is by. the exposential ters. Ta addicion,sigee is: Larges than 2 spoon Ab 38 Lange: AG, yleG yy ghl2 LD ‘variation, A plot tera is in de fect removed by chy motihiny of log o against + should therefore give a 4 -E, L : i vstraight Line with slope ~s8@ in this temperature ranges ALL the above argument: assun n= ny. it this is se, since even! at 165°C the intrinsic carrier Escaneado con CamScannerae soneentratlon Ls only about 4 times the acceptor density. A phvi of log o cannot hope to indicate the true value of these circumstances. We have two courses open: to go to cousidexably higher temperatures; or to apply a correction to the results to allow for the conductivity due to ‘the normal acceptor density. such a correction has been derived by the method shown in the Appendix. It would be difficult to justify the validity of this correction rigorously without going into a detailed study of the ication of the wrrection is approximations wade. The best justi: i to treat it as an empirical oxpression and see how it fits the d exactly L facts. ‘To do this, the conductivity was first calcula The for different values of nj; that is, different temperat! results are shown in terms ofS cwhere a, is the conductivity n, (i at 300°K, and the ratio y*- In order to fix the absolute value of A n,, and hence detemnine the temperature, Ny was chosen te be 1.1 x 10! per ce, corresponding to the measured 3-obm-cm p-type ger anium me at voom temperature. The resulting conductivity and tempers “experimental dita" in order to calculate back were then regarded as a ing the derived approximate correction. Agreement, betweca io us A this value and the original chosen value then indicates the validity of using the correction. Escaneado con CamScanner[Cp ‘table 1.3, Validation of Approximation for a ie Calculated by the Approximation Assumed Caleulat o00 Ge oe T n Accurately re ae r ' ea oa o ; _ H My . 0.50 1,01 oR | 0.53 | 1.00 1.65 394°K 1.00 “| 1.405 0 2.20 400° =} 200-8 fe g.an 415°K “| 2.50 3.80 422° 2.52 3.40 | 4.95 433°K j 4.00 5.7L 439°K 4.12 i n This shows chat the values of =! éaleulated from the "espe imental,” Vidata -agrée with the correct ee over a wide range, even includiny: the éase wcee 0.5 and the intrinsic carrier gen is contributing a fairly small amount to the total conduction. ‘) ‘the approximation equation derived in the Appendix, and used “ito obtain the vdlues in the fourth column of Table l.l, is Escaneado con CamScanner-10- (8) o AN o is the measured conductivity at T o, is the measured conductivity at 300°K is the mobility of holes at 300°K —“(, is the mobility of holes at 1 A, A graph of the value of a versus I is included in Fig. 1.2, ho 2.3 assuming the relation 4. ~ T often found experimentally. Since this is in effect included in a correction term, the results not critically dependent on the power of the temperature variation. KX more convenient figure than n,/N, for our purposes is the value of ¢/.n,, Since, as shown before, the only significant tempera- tuce dependence of this quantity lis in the exponential term. Evalu- ag this by the same means as the previous expression we obtain 4] 0, An| d! 6 ie | ao; {a 2 A 141.75 27? cleh Vso? “ino, Zaha) a) i Adi 96 Ath fa tS oe ae 50 2 1.4 + 0.7005 Escaneado con CamScannerA -10a- Escaneado con CamScannerWe should 4 plot o£ Log Caen.) agaty 4 The following table of resulta was actually obtained. An Ay Ao), | GH, +60 1.08 0.36 “O.USL +56 Lag Ll? | 54 1.73 1.49 "52 2.16 L.72 50 2,89 { +48 3.46 2.58 +46 4.95 3.75 | 44 5.77 4.30 i +42 6.93 a straight A plot of log (4,9,) against tin Fig. 3 g within experimental error, fox the region From 110°C ups ‘the slope of this Line indicates an extrapol nergy £0,836 ev, compared with the published vai:1e of 0.785 ev. Escaneado con CamScanner2 ~ Lae oN \ vig. 1.3 Gcaph for the Determination Escaneado con CamScanner126 ement is veasonable, but could uo doubt be impzoved by being wre careful Co ensure that the system was in thermal equilibria, wis vequixes a slower heating rate, Conductivity Mi the minimum in conductivity oceurs for an intrinsie carvier soncentration small compared with: the acceptor density. ‘There- e, Grom Eq. 1.5, we have 2 Bd (1.10) Pam ty | 5 at A Ny | | aus izom Eqs. 1/1 and 1.2 The second term itself is small so 2 g nh a a eat Mn tO Gaus Mow 2 - wth Ae UG A) ‘A dt Ny aT « important’ terms are dae Me yy, MeV an q drt “a dt i Ny : Escaneado con CamScannerThis i. co vhen (1.13) How i | dn i A nv (Ld) a ex? 5 and LE 44,01, as if often true] 15) (1.16) 1/2 5 (at the con- A ductivity minimum) E : d | (1.17) ‘This defines the temperature at which the conductivicy is a mini- ium, Although both sides are a fumction of temperature, n, varies mate values much the most rapidly, ‘therefore, only rough appr Ineed be inserted on the right-hanl side, Guessing T= 350°K, wo have Escaneado con CamScanner= Vie knowing this, Tecan be Lound to be 345°K, of 72°C. ‘the exper t- mental results show a rather broad minimum centered arouad 75°C. the conductivity at che minimum is obtained ficom iy. 1.11, by substituting into it the above value of nj. ‘the result is 6, : o, a min alee 0 Ah. ale aS = NM 1+ Sst ey) “x i (1.18) At 345°K, min (1.19) % the observed value is 0.82. 1.5.3 Low-Temperature Region Ja this region the conductivity is again given by Eq. 1.11. \ a, ae tot a eh ; At low enough temperatures (j*)” is negligible, and the variation A of o with T is simply that of A do Na i Bao i ar 7 Tt ) n> G4. tA) Gi? kr ‘ (1.20) | As shown in Bq. 1.16 of the last section, the terms in’ brackets are equal at 72°C, Since n, decreases by about an order of magnitude | every 32°C, the second term will) be about 1% of the first at 40°C, i Readings taken below 40°C are therefore determined only by the - | | Escaneado con CamScannerco yer sone signi tte Elor of Af. Above this temp wiil.be introduced, i A plot of loz o against log if for a 3.0 obm-em p-typs somple ig. 1.4, this‘has a slope of -1.76, dif ng very warkodly from the published value of «2.3. This difference is wall outside the experimental error and is umexplained. Two possibili- ties are: some impurity scattering becomes important (because of compensation, possibly), and this scattering has a positive cempera- e- carrier ture coefficient for the mobility; or some variation of fre Bi ‘concentration with temperature t s place, due to deep-lying impurticy Jevels with high activation energy. A Hall-cffect study on these {sawples mtight be helpful to resolve the issue. Escaneado con CamScannerf -Ua~ + 1.4 For the Determination of the \, Mobility 4, an a Function of ‘Temperature Escaneado con CamScanner‘the derivation of the correction terw, Ka. 1.8 of tiow 1.5.1, fs given here. Virst, using the proximation in ly. 1.6, and even dropping ird term, write the approximation made for p is obviously jus values of nj, it is surprising at first th a. uot introdueed at values of 7 around 1 or less. The reason is ‘A that the expression for conductivity is insensitive 1 at large erzors are So small errors im y, since a small value of p gives too large a valuesof na and versa, on account of the pn-product relation. vie vhus, ‘ion term, we ceplace-n, in 27)! i i i i term by Whe . This is equivalent to assuming that, to t approximation at high temperatures, 4 Escaneado con CamScannerEscaneado con CamScannerAccordingly, = Na Ce) is now used, giving ww AG os 1 Ay ho at h _ oH.) ho : i ‘She forms given in the text follow by algebraic manipulation “and by setting b = 2.5 independent e, This last point i } is avreasonably valid approximation in the temperature range of of temperaty interest, hére, as shown in Fig. 1.5. Escaneado con CamScanner~ an 460 | i 440 420 Fig. 1.5 Variation of "ph" with Temperature According to Published Results: 400 “ 253 bet iw fh 3a0 7 360 340 + 320 i i | 300 ! — ce DF : 3.0 2.5 2.0 Escaneado con CamScannerEscaneado con CamScannereps rin rey Ws S.e wt a 198 OC (stove carn iis») TH20 CD KF BBOSUE ie venlre einer THRO) + eI Re a G . 27 ied Mb PEI td fate pal fest Ef i Escaneado con CamScanner