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AFRICAN RHYTHM: A REASSESSMENT
Robert Kauffman
393
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394 ETHNOMUSICOLOGY, SEPTEMBER 1980
CURRENTTHEORIESOF AFRICANRHYTHM
Example la Example lb
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KAUFFMAN: AFRICAN RHYTHM 395
A. M. Jones (1959:6) does not agree with Hornbostel's ideas, and the
theory is probably difficult to prove. Furthermore, it appears to be logi-
cally exaggerated. Even though tactility is a major factor in African music
making (Kauffman 1969; Blacking 1961), the tactile feeling never occurs
separately from the actual sound. In Hornbostel's theory, however, the
accent would be felt at a time when no sound occurred, which seems to
stretch the tactility argument to absurd proportions. Nevertheless, some
aspects of Hornbostel's theory should not be dismissed too readily. John
Blacking (1955) discusses the theory in relationship to his own experi-
ences in Africa and finds that it is not necessarily wrong in its entirety. He
suggests that Hornbostel's ideas are directed not so much toward a pro-
cedure as towards attitudes in relationship to movements and the produc-
tion of musical sounds-that where Africans "think of the sounds as a
bi-product of rhythmical movement ... Westerners pay more attention
to the sounds than to the movement which causes them" (Blacking 1955:
15). Blacking also gives some specific examples of the validity of Horn-
bostel's insights. In African-influenced dances the downward movements
are directed more towards unaccented beats than towards accented ones.
He further notes that choir directors sometimes place the downward
movements in their conducting patterns upon the unaccented beats when
leading European music.
I have found that short notes are often accented more than long notes
in African drumming. One common Shona drumming pattern places a
strong accent on the short note (Example 2a). When Western students
first learn this pattern they often place the accent on the long note (Ex-
ample 2b).
These illustrations probably indicate that Western accentuation prac-
tices are different from those used in Africa, and thus they lend some
validity to Hornbostel's theory, although one must guard against applying
it too literally. Furthermore, it is probably inadequate to explain more
detailed aspects of African rhythm.
Example 2a Example 2b
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396 ETHNOMUSICOLOGY,SEPTEMBER1980
The Theory of a Common Fast Beat. One of the more widely ac-
cepted theories of African rhythm is that multi-rhythms can be reconciled
by relating them to a common fast beat. Richard Waterman (1952:211-12)
refers to such rhythm as: "structured along a theoretical framework of
beats regularly spaced in time and of cooperation in terms of overt or
inhibited motor behavior with the pulses of the metric pattern whether or
not the beats are expressed in actual melodic or percussion tones."
Waterman believes that these beats provide a "metronome sense" that
operates behind the music. Mantle Hood (1971:114) has suggested calling
the fastest regularly recurring event the "density referent," which can be
used to study and understand temporal elements that would be rendered
ambiguous by reference to more subjective concepts of beat. For ex-
ample, a beat of MM60 can also be perceived as two beats at 120. Density
referent, being faster than beat, is not subject to such ambiguities.
To illustrate how the concept of density referent can reconcile the
different parts in a multi-rhythmic ensemble, James Koetting describes
the approach that drummer Robert Ayitee uses in teaching the Adowa
rhythm of the Ghanaian Ashanti people (1967):
The following are two donno (hour-glass drums) parts extracted from the seven-
piece ensemble:
DONNO 1
7 7 7'7 7 72'
DONNO 27
7 77 7 77 7 7
RATTLE 77
The learning process for us is first to find the "beat" and then fit our part in. But
to Ayitee the two drums related only to each other. If the drummers were having
trouble learning the part it would never occur to Ayitee to bring in the rattle as an
aid for the simple reason that for him the rattle was of no help in learning the
relationship of two donno parts. This leaves nothing for the drummer to "hang
on to" except the density referent revealed in the combination of the two drum
parts.
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KAUFFMAN: AFRICAN RHYTHM 397
Example3
StandardPattern
African Hemiola Style. Rose Brandel (1969) coined the phrase "African
hemiola style" to characterize the use of both duple and triple rhythms
either simultaneously or in close proximity. She distinguishes between
vertical hemiola (the way the term is often used in Western music) where
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398 ETHNOMUSICOLOGY,SEPTEMBER1980
triple rhythms are sounding against duple accentuation or vice versa, and
horizontal hemiola where the "conductor's beat" frequently changes
from duple to triple.l In horizontal hemiola Brandel notes that sometimes
the change in conductor's beat occurs in a short time span, as in a regular
change from 6/8 to 3/4 or in frequent changes in meter: 5/8, 7/8, 8/8; at
other times the hemiola will be wide-spaced and sectional with several
measures being in 3/4 and another section being in 6/8 or other configura-
tions.
In contrast to other theories that can explain only a portion of African
rhythmic complexities, Brandel's theory has the potentiality of explaining
a wide range of rhythmic factors. The vertical-horizontal distinction, for
example, opens up the possibility of dealing with polyrhythmic relation-
ships as well as with individual patterning. Her focus upon the duple-
triple changes points to a factor that is probably central to all African
rhythm, and it could also be used in many other areas of the world's
music, including the additive rhythms of Eastern Europe and the Middle
East, as well as the divisive rhythms of the West. The weakness of her
theory is probably due to her lack of experience in African music as well
as her overriding concern to reduce African music to Western notation.
We noted earlier that A. M. Jones also seems to be overly concerned with
notational procedures. Both scholars seem compelled to use frequent bar
lines and to place Western time signatures after every bar that changes
accentuation. It also appears that Brandel is at least somewhat influenced
in her views on African music by the rhythmic practice of such early
20th-century composers as Stravinsky. This factor leads her to notate
African rhythm in rather complex unnatural scoring. This notational
complexity along with her particular writing style tends to obscure the
naturalness of African rhythms. Her exclusive reliance upon recordings
rather than field experience for her work is also a cause for skepticism.
The sounds perceived on a recording may be different from the sounds
produced or perceived by those involved in an actual performance situa-
tion. When more than one drum is used in an ensemble, how can a
recording indicate what each drummer is playing? Even though Brandel's
theory has potentialities for a total explanation of the gestalt of African
rhythm, its realization seems to be inadequate.
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KAUFFMAN: AFRICAN RHYTHM 399
Drum strokes of drum two da da ba din, din kun da . da ba din . din kun
Example 4
Mandinka Drumming Syllables
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400 ETHNOMUSICOLOGY,SEPTEMBER1980
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KAUFFMAN: AFRICAN RHYTHM 401
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402 ETHNOMUSICOLOGY,SEPTEMBER1980
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KAUFFMAN: AFRICAN RHYTHM 403
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404 ETHNOMUSICOLOGY, SEPTEMBER 1980
-210 Fine
D.C.
ILL
aI - I -
P-Fit - -u ao-sde
n%
-c u-ku-ya
u--n za-no a-ne za-no- ne
n
_--a-f-
Example5a
Leader-dominatedRelationship
Shona GrindingSong
wo ye -wa-na wo re re s-wa-
Wa-a - e
41 wa fa li. ha to-i 1-ku-se-nde-re wa-ta
Fine
e -wa-fa
: i - ye -
Example5b
Group-dominatedRelationship
Shona FuneralSong for a Chief
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KAUFFMAN: AFRICAN RHYTHM 405
h-252
Wo hie-re re-re - re
arv~enyjama ye-ku-go cha
W hie-re - re-re
S Wo hie-re re-re - I
nyama ye-k-go - cha
Y•ave Ka-ndama-pfu-mo .
? f?
Example5c
AlternatingRelationship
Shona Praise Song for a Chief
360
,
J Pa-mu-tu-nhu mu-sii-t'e-je-?r P'-no s a-rz-pa chi-m'e-r'a mu-ngu-mi-ra
He ha He
I
rLI!r
,
Example5d
SimultaneousRelationship
Shona ThreshingSong
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406 ETHNOMUSICOLOGY,SEPTEMBER1980
?o252
ID
ITO iye iye iye Go-ma-na ri-si-na m-ndIaIT liye iye iye Hi - 0a hi-ya
"lou-
r r
A A
? -, u ut.,v
Example 6
Shona Threshing Song
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KAUFFMAN: AFRICAN RHYTHM 407
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408 ETHNOMUSICOLOGY, SEPTEMBER 1980
I,
I~~ t\
-
sI~f *-
' - -
Example7a
Shona Praise Song for a Chief
Western MetricalOrganization
AV _
.. , , •e. . i 'or
! . J i
• I
- , -.. ?
Example7b
Shona MetricalOrganization
there are two different ways to perform the rhythm shown in Example 7.
A Western musician would normally notate this pattern in 4/4. However,
when a Shona musician adds a drum beat to the song as shown in Ex-
ample 7b, the rhythm clearly displays a 3+3+2 organization. In actual
performance the drum is not used, since work songs such as this are
usually not accompanied by any instruments. Nevertheless, Shona musi-
cians insist that the singers must feel the implied rhythmic structure of the
drum pattern in order to sing the part correctly. Shona musicians here use
the more dynamic tactile term, "feeling," to express what Western musi-
cians more abstractly call "meter." Thus, it would seem that meter in
African music involves both patterning plus the determinative and organi-
zing basis of the rhythm.
In addition to the "standard pattern" identified by Jones, other
common patterns are found in African music. Some of these are illus-
trated in Table 1. It is not clear at this time how many of these are
Pan-African, but many are found in more than one area. Due to the cyclic
nature of these patterns, the starting point of each pattern is arbitrary.
Patterns 1 and 2 are similar to divisive meters in Western music; all the
others are additive. However, in terms of the total number of pulses all
the patterns could potentially be divisive: their lengths (8, 9, 12, and 16)
can all be divided evenly. By contrast additive rhythms in Eastern Europe
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KAUFFMAN: AFRICAN RHYTHM 409
1 2+2+2+2-8 x x' x x: I
2 x
3+3+3+3-12
_
Ix x x
3 3+3+2-8 x x -x
L (2+2+2)+(3+3)-12 x x x x
_x
5 Standard Pattern (2+3)+(2+2+3)-12 x x I x x x
6 (2+2+2+3)+(2+2+3)-16 x x x x x x
7 2+*22+3 -9 x x x x
8 x x x Ixx I I
Ix[
3+3+"+2+4-16
Table 1
CommonAfricanMetricalPatterns
are often cast in lengths that can only be derivedby addition:5, 7, 11, or
13. Thus, African "additiveness" in contrast to some non-Africanaddi-
tive structures is determinedexclusively by internalorganizationrather
than by total length. This could be one of the reasons that African
rhythms are so often considered syncopated. In other words, there is a
temptationto view the Africanadditivenessin relationshipto the Western
divisiveness. The alignmentof the rhythmsin Table I shows the relation-
ship between some of the patterns. Thus a nine-pulse pattern can be
considered as one part of a longer 16-pulsepattern.
3. Basic Patterns-In Shona music one drummerwithin a drum-
dance ensemble is assigned a basic pattern,and his role is to outline the
basic rhythmicfeeling of the particulardance:this appearsto be the same
role assigned to the bell player in many West Africanensembles. Nketia
calls this genre-identifyingpatternthe time line. A very delicate but im-
portant distinction can be made between this basic patternor time line
and meter. Table 2 shows differentbasic patternsrecognizedby Shona
musicians, but all based on the same meter. This distinction between
basic pattern and meter seems to be no differentthan in Westernmusic
where minuet, waltz, and bolero are all in 3/4 meter, yet each has distinc-
tive rhythmic/accentualcharacteristics.
4. Cross patterns-After the basic patternhas been soundedandthe
dance form has thus been identified, in Shona music a second drummer
comes in with a cross pattern.This appearsto be an essential, but highly
flexible role. It can be performedby a second drumin a two-drumgroup,
by woodblocks, by handclapping,or it can be the combinedfunctionof
any or all of the instruments.A performanceof Shona music can never
exist with only the basic patternpresent, but it can occur in simpleformif
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410 ETHNOMUSICOLOGY, SEPTEMBER 1980
Hi
Threshing
Song
H xx
Lo x x x x x x x
3 3 2 3 3 2
Hunting
Song Hi x x xE i
Lo xx x x x
3 3 2 3 2
Grinding Hi x x
SongO1
Table 2
Shona Basic Patterns
That Share the Same Meter
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KAUFFMAN: AFRICAN RHYTHM 411
Toke I x x x x x x
Toke II x x x x x
Rattle I x x x x
Rattle II D D U D D D U D
GongoI LI H H L _ L H H
Gongo I H L H L H H
Gongo I IL L L L L L L L
Gongo IV IL L H L L L H
Sogo 0 D 0 10 D 0
_
...
Kaganu xx xx x x Ix x
_
Asiwui D 0 0 0 1 ID 0 0 D
Example 8
The Ewe Dance, Sohu
Rattle II: D is down, U is up
Gongo: L is low, H is high
Drums: D is damped, O is open
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412 ETHNOMUSICOLOGY,SEPTEMBER1980
A x x x
B x x x
C x Ix
D x-x x x
E xx x x
Example9
AbbreviatedScore of Sohu
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KAUFFMAN: AFRICAN RHYTHM 413
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414 ETHNOMUSICOLOGY,SEPTEMBER1980
NOTES
1. Since vertical and horizontal are visual/spatial terms, perhaps simultaneous and
successive could more appropriately be used to describe the two different types of hemiola.
2. Fela Sowande (1966) has, for example, found 24 different hierarchically arranged
rhythmic parts in a Yoruba ensemble.
3. See Koetting (1970) and Ladzekpo and Pantaleoni (1970) for examples of such
studies.
4. Oral Communication, October, 1971.
REFERENCES CITED
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KAUFFMAN: AFRICAN RHYTHM 415
Kauffman, Robert
1969 "Some Aspects of Aesthetics in the Shona Music of Rhodesia," Ethnomusicology
13(3):507-11.
1972 "Shona Urban Music and the Problem of Acculturation," Yearbook of the Interna-
tional Folk Music Council 4:47-56.
King, Anthony
1960 "Employments of the 'Standard Pattern' in Yoruba Music," African Music 2(3):
51-54.
Knight, Roderic
1974 "Mandinka Drumming," African Arts 7(4):24-35.
Koetting, James
1967 Paper read in ethnomusicology seminar, U.C.L.A. Oct. 13.
1970 "Analysis and Notation of West African Drum Ensemble Music," Selected Re-
ports 1(3):115-46.
Kubik, Gerhard
1962 "The Phenomenon of Inherent Rhythms in East and Central African Instrumental
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Ladzekpo, S. Kobla and Hewitt Pantaleoni
1970 "Takada Drumming," African Music 4(4):6-31.
Merriam, Alan
1951 "Flathead Indian Instruments and Their Music," Musical Quarterly 37(3):368-75.
Nketia, J. H. Kwabena
1962 "The Hocket-Technique in African Music," Journal of the International Folk
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1974 The Music of Africa. New York: Norton
Senghor, Leopold
1956 "African-Negro Aesthetics," Diogenes 16:23-38.
Sowande, Fela
1966 "Nigerian Music and Musicians: Then and Now," Composer 19:25-34.
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