Fig 5.

1b
Dermis simple squamous

Micrograph (b) shows a mesothelium (peritoneum) covering the surface of the appendix and
illustrates the typical appearance of simple squamous epithelium in section. The mesothelial
lining cells M are so flattened that they can only be recognised by their nuclei, which bulge on the
surface. The supporting basement membrane is thin and, in H&E stained preparations, has
similar staining properties to the underlying collagenous supporting tissue C ; hence it cannot be
seen in this micrograph. Deeper in the wall of the appendix, the smooth muscle SM of the
muscularis propria can be identified.

Fig 5.6
Keratinising stratified squamous epithelium (c) constitutes the epithelial surface of the skin
(the epidermis ) and is adapted to withstand the constant abrasion and desiccation to which the
body surface is exposed. During maturation, the epithelial cells accumulate keratin intermediate
filaments which are cross-linked with proteins such as involucrin and loricrin in a process
called keratinisation (or cornification ). This results in the formation of a tough, non-living
surface layer ( stratum corneum ) consisting of a compacted cross-linked keratin
matrix K interspersed with specialised lipids (see Ch. 9 ). The underlying granular cell
layer G consists of epithelial cells with extensive tight junctions, forming a waterproof barrier. The
nuclei of the maturing epithelial cells become progressively condensed ( pyknotic ) and
eventually disappear along with the other cellular organelles. Keratinisation may be induced in
normally non-keratinising stratified squamous epithelium such as that of the oral cavity when
exposed to excessive abrasion (e.g. poorly-fitting false teeth).

FIG. 5.19
Simple coiled tubular glands
(a) Diagram (b) H&E (LP)
Sweat glands are almost the only example of simple coiled tubular glands. Each consists of a
single tube that is tightly coiled in three dimensions; portions of the gland are thus seen in
various planes of section. Sweat glands have a terminal secretory portion S lined by simple
cuboidal epithelium, which gives way to a non-secretory ( excretory ) duct D lined by stratified
cuboidal epithelium.

FIG. 9.2
Epidermis
(a) Masson trichrome (HP) (b) H&E (HP) (c) Epoxy resin section, toluidine blue (HP)
Micrographs (a) and (b) show epidermis. The cells of the epidermis are called keratinocytes .
The basal layer of keratinocytes ( stratum basale ) B proliferates continuously with repeated
mitotic divisions. This provides cells for a progressive process of displacement towards the
surface (upward migration), with associated maturation to renew the other layers. The basal
cells are arranged as a single layer of cuboidal or low columnar cells. They are attached to the
basement membrane (not seen in these preparations) on their dermal (basal) surface. This basal
surface is irregular; the basal cells have a highly indented and folded basal cell membrane with
numerous hemi-desmosomes.
Superficially, the basal cells are attached to and mature into the cells of the stratum
spinosum S which forms the majority of the epidermis. The stratum spinosum is also known as
the prickle cell layer . It is multilayered and composed of polyhedral-shaped keratinocytes with
round-oval nuclei, prominent nucleoli and cytoplasm, forming a pavement-like pattern. These
cells synthesise cytoplasmic intermediate filaments called cytokeratins which accumulate in
aggregates called tonofibrils made up of bundles of tonofilaments . These tonofibrils bind to
the numerous desmosomes that form strong contacts between adjacent keratinocytes. In
appropriate preparations as in micrograph (c), the desmosome junctions are seen
as prickles or spines between the cells, hence the name for this layer.
The keratinocytes mature into the stratum granulosum G or granular layer . Here they acquire
dense basophilic, keratohyaline granules which contain proteins rich in sulphur-containing
amino acids (cysteine) and proteins such as involucrin which interact with the cytokeratin
tonofibrils in the final maturation. The combination of tonofibrils with keratohyaline granule
proteins produces keratin, in a process called keratinisation . Progressing towards the surface,
the cells lose their nuclei and cytoplasm, becoming flattened interconnected keratin
squames (plates/flakes of keratin) which comprise the surface coating of the skin, the stratum
corneum C .
These keratin squames connect at their edges, and in transverse sections form a folded basket-
weave pattern called orthokeratosis OK . The squames are water repellent, in part because
they are coated with lipid-containing anti-wetting agents synthesised during maturation in the
granular layer.
Micrograph (a) illustrates skin from a friction-prone area (sole of foot) where keratin production is
enhanced. The stratum spinosum has more layers, the granular layer G is thicker and more
prominent and the stratum corneum C is thick with dense compact keratin. These changes are a
non-specific response to friction.

B basal layer (stratum basale) C keratin layer (stratum corneum) E epidermis ED eccrine

duct EG eccrine gland G granular layer (stratum
granulosum) K keratin OK orthokeratosis RD reticular dermis PD papillary
dermis S prickle cell layer (stratum spinosum) SC subcutis

Fig9.1
The dermis immediately adjacent to the epidermis is called the papillary dermis PD ; it has
relatively fine collagen fibres and contains numerous small blood vessels, sensory nerve endings
and sensory structures. The reticular dermis RD is the deeper tough layer of horizontally
arranged collagen and elastin fibres with fibroblasts.

is from the dermis of the skin, with less tightly packed collagen fibres running perpendicular to
each other (longitudinal and transverse) to give strength in both directions. 

FIG. 16.25
Transitional epithelium bladder
H&E (HP)
Transitional epithelium , also called urothelium , is found only within the conducting passages
of the urinary system, for which it is especially adapted. The epithelium is stratified, comprising
three to six layers of cells, the number of layers being greatest when the epithelium is least
distended at the time of fixation.
The cells of the basal layer are compact and cuboidal in form, while those of the intermediate
layers are more columnar, with their nuclei orientated at right angles to the basement membrane.
The surface cells are called umbrella Um or dome cells and have unique features that allow
them to maintain the impermeability of the epithelium to urine, even when at full stretch. This
permeability barrier also prevents water from being drawn through the epithelium into hypertonic
urine. The umbrella cells are large and ovoid with round nuclei and plentiful eosinophilic
cytoplasm; some surface cells are binucleate (not illustrated). The surface outline has a
characteristic scalloped appearance and the superficial cytoplasm is fuzzy, indistinct and more
intensely stained than the rest of the cytoplasm.
Ultrastructural studies have revealed that much of the surface plasma membrane consists of
thickened inflexible plaques , often called asymmetrical unit membrane , interspersed with
narrow zones of normal membrane. These normal areas act as ‘hinges’, allowing sections of the
membrane to fold inwards somewhat like a concertina, forming deep clefts and stacks of
flattened plasma membrane segments, inappropriately called fusiform vesicles . This structure
allows the umbrella cells to expand greatly and quickly when the bladder is distended and the
epithelium is at full stretch. Plentiful junctional complexes between the cells maintain the
cohesion of adjacent cells. These features of the urothelium allow it to store chemically toxic
urine in considerable volumes for quite long periods of time without damage to the tissues.
Urinary epithelium rests on a basement membrane that is often too thin to be resolved by light
microscopy. The loose lamina propria LP is seen underlying the epithelium.

Fig 14.22c

Small intes
T lymphocytes Ly are scattered among the enterocytes. Plasma cells P in the villous core
secrete IgA into the intestinal lumen by transcytosis across epithelial cells.
The cores of the villi are extensions of the lamina propria and consist of loose supporting tissue.
Capillaries C lie immediately beneath the basement membrane and transport most digestive
products to the hepatic portal vein. Tiny lymphatic vessels drain into a single larger vessel called
a lacteal L at the centre of the villus

FIG. 14.29
Colon
(a) H&E (LP) (b) H&E (MP) (c) Alcian blue/van Gieson (MP) (d) Alcian blue/van Gieson (HP)
(e) H&E (HP)
The principal functions of the large intestine are the recovery of water and salt from faeces and
the propulsion of increasingly solid faeces to the rectum prior to defaecation.

Fig 14.29b
Consistent with its functions of water absorption and faecal lubrication, the mucosa consists of
cells of two types: absorptive cells and mucus-secreting goblet cells . As seen in micrograph
(b), these are arranged in closely packed straight tubular glands or crypts , which extend down
to sit on to the muscularis mucosae MM . As faeces pass along the large intestine and become
progressively dehydrated, the mucus becomes increasingly important in protecting the mucosa
from trauma. 

FIG. 5.5
Pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium
(a) Diagram (b) H&E (MP)
Another variant of simple columnar epithelium is described in which the majority of cells are also
usually ciliated C . The term pseudostratified is derived from the appearance of this epithelium
in section, which conveys the erroneous impression that there is more than one layer of cells. In
fact, this is a true simple epithelium, since all the cells rest on the basement membrane. The
nuclei of these cells, however, are disposed at different levels, thus creating the illusion of
cellular stratification. Scattered stem cells (see Ch. 2 ) are found throughout the epithelium; these
generally are devoid of cilia (i.e. less differentiated) and do not extend to the luminal surface.
Pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium may be distinguished from true stratified epithelia
by two characteristics. Firstly, the individual cells of the pseudostratified epithelium exhibit
polarity, with nuclei being mainly confined to the basal two-thirds of the epithelium. Secondly,
cilia are never present on true stratified epithelia.
Pseudostratified epithelium is almost exclusively confined to the airways of the respiratory
system in mammals and is therefore often referred to as respiratory epithelium . Micrograph
(b) illustrates the lining of a bronchus. In the respiratory tract, the cilia propel a surface layer of
mucus containing entrapped particles towards the pharynx in what is often described as
the mucociliary escalator . The mucus is secreted by nonciliated goblet cells found amongst
the ciliated cells
 which shows the tip of an intestinal villus. The microvilli can only be seen as a magenta-stained
band on the surface of the epithelium. Note also the scattered goblet cells containing magenta-
stained mucus which fills the apical part of the cel