Introduction to solar energy

Solar Constant
Irradiance and radiance
Solar Radiation
Summer solstice
Components of solar radiation
History of Solar Energy
Measuring Instruments of solar Radiation
Types of Radiation Measurement Instrument
Photovoltaics and solar thermal systems
Solar Radiation Data
Solar Radiation Geometr
Thermal Collectors and storage devices
Solar Flat plate collectors
Evacuated Tube collctors
Solar Air heating
Cylindrical parabolic concentrating collectors
Paraboloid concentrating collectors
Sensible heat storage devices

UNIT - II
Solar Energy
Introduction of Solar Energy: Sun is the basic source of energy for earth. Sun radiates energy
uniformly in all directions. Sun provides the energy needed to sustain life in our solar system. It is
a clean energy. It is inexhhaustable energy. It is abundantly available energy. It is universally
available renewable energy source. Solar energy is available in the form of electromagnetic
radiation. Sun is a large sphere of very hot gases. Heat is being generated by various fusion
reactions in it. The chemical process in sun is responsible for thermonuclear fusion. Very small
fraction of energy of sun reaches earth. The sun’s outer visible layer is called Photosphere which
has a temperature of 60000C. Solar energy is created deep within the core of sun. Above
photosphere there is a transparent layer of gases known as Chromosphere. Solar energy should
come out from the centre of the sun. The light emitted by chromospheres has short wave length.
Due to high temperature. Faculae and flares arise from the sun which are of hydrogen gases
bright filaments of sunspot regions. Finally the outer part of the sun is corona. The diameter of
sun is 1.39 X 109 m. The output of sun is 2.8. X 1023 KW/year. The energy reaching the earth
is 1.5. X 1018 KWh/year. The diameter of earth 1.27 X 10 7 m. The sun subtends an angle of 32 ’ at
earth’s surface. The mean distance between sun and earth is 1.495 X 10 11 m. The axis is inclined
at an angle of 23.50. As a result the length of days and nights keep on changing. The earth reflects
about 30% of sun light that falls on it. This is known as earth’s albedo. Albedo means white. It is
derived from latin. The structure of the sun is shown in Fig.2.1
 Fig.2.1: The structure of the sun

Solar energy is the light and radiant heat from the Sun that control Earth's climate and weather
and protect life. It is a renewable source of energy and originates with the thermonuclear process
that transfers about 650,000,000 tons of hydrogen to helium per second. This action produces lots
of heat and electromagnetic radiation. The produced heat remains in the sun and is helpful in
upholding the thermonuclear reaction and electromagnetic radiation together with visible, infrared
and ultra-violet radiation flow out into space in all directions. Solar energy is in reality nuclear
energy. Similar to all stars, the sun is a large gas sphere made up mostly of hydrogen and helium
gas. In the internal surface of sun 25% of hydrogen is fusing into helium at a rate of about 7 × 10 11
kg of hydrogen per second.

Solar Constant : The rate of energy transfer per unit area (Enegy flux) from the sun to the
outside earth’s atmosphere is constant. The rate at which energy is received from the sun per unit
area perpendicular to the sun rays of mean distance of 1.495 X 1011 m from sun to earth is
constant. Isc = 1367 W/m2 . The solar constant includes all types of solar radiations. Due to
variation in distance throughout the year from earth to sun, extraterrestrial flux also varies. It can
be calculated as
Isc = Isc(1 + 0.033Cos(360n/365)) where n = number of the day of year. 5
Irradiance and radiance: It is the amount of energy from the sun over a given time period. T he
flux of radiant energy per unit area (normal to the direction of flow of radiant energy through a
medium). The flux of radiant energy per unit area (normal to the direction of flow of radiant
energy through a medium).
In radiometry, radiance is the radiant flux emitted, reflected, transmitted or received by a given
surface, per unit solid angle per unit projected area.  The sun's radiance can be felt the strongest in
the afternoon.

Irradiance is an instantaneous measurement of solar power over some area.  Insolation is a

measurement of the cumulative energy measured over some area for a defined period of time (e.g.,
annual, monthly, daily, etc.). The common unit of insolation is kilowatt hours per square meter

In contrast, solar radiance is the instantaneous power coming from the sun. While both are
typically measured in kW/m2 , radiance is an instantaneous measure, while insolation is a
measurement over time.

During the process of nuclear fusion, the sun produces energy that in form of electronicmagnetic
waves (radiation). Solar insolation is affected by factors such as atmosphere, angle of the sun and
distance. ... Insolation is also at its highest when the sun is directly overhead in an area.

 Solar Radiation : Here an introduction to physics of solar radiation and solar insulation. The
complete concept of harnessing solar energy to generate electricity is based upon the phenomenon
of solar radiation.
It is this radiation from the sun, together with a few more factors, which is the reason why life
exists on earth. Solar radiation is electromagnetic in nature and is the radiant energy emitted from
the sun.
The total frequency spectrum of this electromagnetic solar radiation covers visible light and near
visible radiation (UV Rays, Infrared Rays, X-Rays, etc.). The visible light and heat supports life on
earth while much of the near visible harmful radiation is deflected away by the earth’s atmosphere.
Solar radiation is the source of never ending energy. Sun produces its energy by the, never-
stopping, nuclear fission reaction, which converts approximately 700 million tons of hydrogen to
helium per second.
The amount of solar radiation received per unit area by a given surface that is always held
perpendicular to the incoming rays of sun.

Summer solstice: Summer solstice, the two moments during the year when the path of the Sun in
the sky is farthest north in the Northern Hemisphere (June 20 or 21) or farthest south in the
Southern Hemisphere (December 21 or 22). In the Northern Hemisphere the summer
solstice occurs on June 20 or 21 and the winter solstice on December. The summer solstice of earth
is shown in Fig2.2
 Fig2.2: Earth at summer solstice

The journey from sun’s core to sun’s surface typically takes around 100,000 years. The journey of
sun rays from the sun’s surface to the earth’s surface takes around eight minutes (8 min.).
Components of solar radiation : The components of radiation are 1. Direct Radiation (the
radiation which comes directly from the sun)
2. Diffused Radiation (the radiation which is diffused by the sky, layers of atmosphere and other
surroundings)
3. Reflected Radiation (the radiation which is reflected back by the lake, seas and other water
bodies)
The total ground reflection is a sum of all the above three components. Although the sun’s energy
output is fairly constant, the total solar radiation falling on the earth’s surface varies and depends on
a lot of factors, including but not limited to:
1.Atmospheric Conditions (Cloud Cover, Ozone layer condition, etc.)
2. Earth’s Rotation (time of the day, solar activity, etc.)
3. Earth’s Revolution (distance between earth and sun, seasons, angle of inclination of earth’s
surface, etc.)
Insolation : During the process of nuclear fusion, the sun produces energy that in form of
electronicmagnetic waves (radiation).
Solar insolation is affected by factors such as atmosphere, angle of the sun and distance. The
thinner the atmosphere in which the sun is passing through, the more the insolation.
Insolation is also at its highest when the sun is directly overhead in an area. This is also the
shortest distance between the sun and an area. When the angle of the sun to an area increases, the
distance increases, and a lot of energy is lost through reflection.
Insolation refers to the quantity of solar radition energy received on a surface of size X m² during an
amount of time T.
A solar insolation map is a chart showing the average daily hours of solar insolation in an area.
World insolation maps show the amount of solar insolation in a given area at a given time. As can
be seen from the map, insolation is highest in equatorial regions where the sun is more likely to be
overhead, and lowest in Polar Regions where the angle of the sun to the earth is greatest.
Insolation maps are commonly used in solar system design. Solar system designers use insolation
data values to determine the solar system design in an area.
Insolation maps serve to accomplish several purposes :
The insolation of an area determines how much energy a square foot of solar panel can provide on
any given day. When the insolation rate in an area is low, more square-footage of panel is required
to maximize energy output.
As such, insolation determines how big of a solar system is needed in an area. Equatorial regions
for instance will be able to produce more power per square foot of panel than Polar Regions as there
are more sun hours in the equatorial region.

History of Solar Energy: Solar power in India. Solar power in India is a fast developing industry.
The country's solar installed capacity reached 26 GW as of 30 September 2018. India expanded
its solar-generation capacity 8 times from 2,650 MW on 26 May 2014 to over 20 GW as on 31
January 2018.
Solar technology isn’t new. Its history spans from the 7th Century B.C. to today.
One can start out sun’s heat with glass and mirrors to light fires. Today, the globe is having
everything from solar-powered buildings to solar powered vehicles. Here one can learn more
about the milestones in the historical development of solar technology, century by century, and
year by year. One can also glimpse the future. This timeline lists the milestones in the historical
development of solar technology from the 7th Century B.C. to the 1200s A.D.
7th Century B.C - Magnifying glass used to concentrate sun’s rays to make fire and to burn ants.

3rd Century B.C- Greeks and Romans use burning mirrors to light torches for religious purposes.

2nd Century B.C -. As early as 212 BC, the Greek scientist, Archimedes, used the reflective
properties of bronze shields to focus sunlight and to set fire to wooden ships from the Roman
Empire which were besieging Syracuse. (Although no proof of such a feat exists, the Greek navy
recreated the experiment in 1973 and successfully set fire to a wooden boat at a distance of 50
meters.) Chinese document use of burning mirrors to light torch

20 A.D.--Chinese document use of burning mirrors to light torches for religious purposes.
1st to 4th Century A.D. -The famous Roman bathhouses in the first to fourth centuries A.D. had
large south facing windows to let in the sun’s warmth. For an example, see information on the
Zippori in the Roman Period from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
6th Century A.D.- Sunrooms on houses and public buildings were so common that the Justinian
Code initiated “sun rights” to ensure individual access to the sun.
1200s A.D.- Ancestors of Pueblo people called Anasazi in North America live in south-facing
cliff dwellings that capture the winter sun.

1998 -The remote-controlled, solar-powered aircraft, “Pathfinder” sets an altitude record, 80,000
feet, at California.

1999 -The National Renewable Energy Laboratory achieves a new efficiency record for thin-film
photovoltaic solar cells.
2000- Sandia National Laboratories develops a new inverter. nverters convert the direct current
(DC) electrical output from solar systems into alternating current (AC).
2001- PowerLight Corporation places online in Hawaii the world’s largest hybrid system that
combines the power from both wind and solar energy.
2002- NASA successfully conducts two tests of a solar-powered, remote-controlled aircraft called
Pathfinder Plus.

2002 - The largest solar power facility in the Northwest—the 38.7-kilowatt White Bluffs Solar
Station—goes online in Richland, Washington.
2001 - Powerlight Corporation installs the largest rooftop solar power system in the United States
—a 1.18 megawatt system—at the Santa Rita Jail in Dublin,

Measuring Instruments of solar Radiation: A radiometer is used for measuring the radiant flux or
power of electromagnetic radiation. The chapter discusses such radiometers as pyrheliometer,
pyranometer, pyrgeometer, albedometer, sun shine recorder and net pyrradiometer which are used
in measuring the environmental radiation. A photometer is used for measuring light in terms of its
perceived brightness to the human eye.
Tasimeter: The tasimeter, or microtasimeter, or measurer of infinitesimal pressure, is a device
designed by Thomas Edison to measure infrared radiation. In 1878, Samuel Langley, Henry Draper,
and ot
her American scientists needed a highly sensitive instrument that could be used to measure minute
temperature changes in heat emitted from the Sun’s corona during the July 29 solar eclipse, due to
occur along the Rocky Mountains. To satisfy those needs Edison devised
a microtasimeter employing a carbon button.
Pyrometer: A pyrometer is a type of remote-sensing thermometer used to measure
the temperature of a surface. Various forms of pyrometers have historically existed. In the modern
usage, it is a device that from a distance determines the temperature of a surface from the amount of
the thermal radiation it emits, a process known as pyrometry and sometimes radiometry.
The word pyrometer comes from the Greek word for fire, "πυρ" (pyro), and meter, meaning to
measure. The word pyrometer was originally coined to denote a device capable of measuring the
temperature of an object by its incandescence, visible light emitted by a body which is at least red-
hot. Modern pyrometers or infrared thermometers also measure the temperature of cooler objects,
down to room temperature, by detecting their infrared radiation flux.

Active cavity radiometer : Active cavity radiometer - electrically self-calibrating,

cavity pyrheliometer used to measure total and spectral solar irradiance.
Actionometer: Actinometers are instruments used to measure the heating power of radiation. They
are used in meteorology to measure solar radiation as pyranometers, pyrheliometers and net
radiometers.
An actinometer is a chemical system or physical device which determines the number of photons in
a beam integrally or per unit time. This name is commonly applied to devices used in
the ultraviolet and visible wavelength ranges. For example, solutions of iron(III) oxalate can be
used as a chemical actinometer, while bolometers, thermopiles, and photodiodes are physical
devices giving a reading that can be correlated to the number of photons detected.
The actinometer was invented by John Herschel in 1825; he introduced the term actinometer, the
first of many uses of the prefix actin for scientific instruments, effects, and processes.
The actinograph is a related device for estimating the actinic power of lighting for photography.
Chemical actinometry involves measuring radiant flux via the yield from a chemical reaction. It
requires a chemical with a known quantum yield and easily analyzed reaction products.
Chemical actinometry in the visible range: Meso-diphenylhelianthrene can be used for chemical
actinometry in the visible range (400–700 nm). This chemical measures in the 475–610 nm range,
but measurements in wider spectral ranges can be done with this chemical if the emission spectrum
of the light source is known.

Pyrgeometer: A pyrgeometer is an instrument used to measure long‐wave radiation, either

terrestrial or atmospheric.

Albedometer : An albedometer is an instrument that measures both global and reflected solar
irradiance. An albedometer is an instrument used to measure the albedo (reflecting radiation) of a
surface. An albedometer is mostly used to measure the reflectance of earths surface. The
measurement of surface albedo of earths surface happens by using two pyranometers. The upfacing
pyranometer measures the incoming global solar radiation. The downward facing pyranometer
measures the reflected global solar radiation. The ratio of the reflected to the global radiation is the
solar albedo and depends on the properties of the surface and the directional distribution of the
incoming solar radiation. Typical values range from 4% for asphalt to 90% for fresh snow.

The solar radiation has several components. The global horizontal solar radiation is composed of
the diffuse horizontal solar radiation and the direct solar radiation. If the surface is tilted the third
component appears - the reflected solar radiation. The reflected solar radiation is very important for
the energy balance. A new size - albedo has to be introduced if this type of solar radiation is taken
into account. There are many definitions for the albedo in function of the reflecting surface and the
research domain: ground albedo, crop albedo, etc. In general the definition for the albedo is the ratio
between the reflected radiation of surface R and the global horizontal solar radiation G, see Eq. 1.

a = R/G (1).

The albedo is an important parameter for different research domains, such as: the atmospheric
sciences, the agriculture, the bio-geo engineering, the photovoltaic domain, climatology, the
forestry and the building energy science. Taking into account the climatic changes and not only,
albedo becomes a crucial parameter.

There are three methods to measure the albedo: from the top of the atmosphere using planes,
meteorological balloons or satellites, in the lab and in the field conditions. The first method is
suitable to measure the albedo for the large area and homogenous surfaces. This method is not
recommended for small surfaces. The influence of the atmospheric factors should be taken into
account in this case. In the lab the albedo can be measured only for small samples. In this case the
light source can be a problem. In the lab the light source must be a solar simulator to assure a very
good matching between the spectrum of the light source and the solar spectrum. The price of the
solar simulator is very high and it grows with the increase of the illuminated area. Another problem
for the lab measurement is the area of the albedometer. The area of classical pyranometers which
are used for albedometers is high and the shadow can cover the entire illuminated area. A good
solution can be using the two small photovoltaic cells. The third method is the most widely used
because the measurements are performed in the real conditions. The albedometers can be realized
using one or two back to back pyranometers. In the first case the cost is lower than in the second
when two pyranometers should be used. The measurements for the albedometer with one
pyranometer are performed step by step. The reflected radiation of the target surface is measured
first, and the global horizontal solar radiation is measured after the pyranometer rotation with 180o.
There is a big disadvantage; the two radiations are not measured simultaneously. If the level of
radiation is changed due to the clouds, the measurements are not accurate. In this case the
measurements should be performed in clear sky conditions. Using the two pyranometers positioned
back to back can eliminate the disadvantages above raising the measurements’ accuracy but the
costs become considerably higher. To reduce costs pyranometers of inferior class can be chosen if
the measurements accuracy allows it.

A new type of albedometer uses two small monocrystalline silicon photovoltaic cells with an area
of 3 cm2. The new type of albedometer assures a very good mobility and the possibility to realize
an array of albedometers at very low prices and a good accuracy. This albedometer is very suitable
to realize measurements in research domains such as agriculture, for small area and in lab
measurements.

The software program realized in LabVIEW allows performing to the corrections in function of the
temperature using the temperature coefficients of the photovoltaic cells previously determined and
for the shadow area after the measurements.

Before talking about concentration of light for practical purposes, it would be good for us to review
what kinds of natural radiation are available to us and how that radiation is characterized and
measured.
The fraction of the energy flux emitted by the sun and intercepted by the earth is characterized by
the solar constant. The solar constant is defined as essentially the measure of the solar energy flux
density perpendicular to the ray direction per unit area per unit time. It is most precisely measured
by satellites outside the earth atmosphere. The solar constant is currently estimated at 1367
W/m2 [cited from Stine and Harrigan, 1986]. This number actually varies by 3% because the orbit
of the earth is elliptical, and the distance from the sun varies over the course of the year. Some
small variation of the solar constant is also possible due to changes in Sun's luminosity. This
measured value includes all types of radiation, a substantial fraction of which is lost as the light
passes through the atmosphere.
As the solar radiation passes through the atmosphere, it gets absorbed, scattered, reflected, or
transmitted. All these processes result in reduction of the energy flux density. Actually, the solar
flux density is reduced by about 30% compared to extraterrestrial radiation flux on a sunny day and
is reduced by as much as 90% on a cloudy day. The following main losses should be noted:

1. absorbed by particles and molecules in the atmosphere - 10-30%

2. reflected and scattered back to space - 2-11%
3. scattered to earth (direct radiation becomes diffuse) - 5-26% [Stine and Harrigan, 1986]
As a result, the direct radiation reaching the earth surface (or a device installed on the earth surface)
never exceeds  83% of the original extraterrestrial energy flux. This radiation that comes directly
from the solar disk is defined as beam radiation. The scattered and reflected radiation that is sent
to the earth surface from all directions (reflected from other bodies, molecules, particles, droplets,
etc.) is defined as diffuse radiation. The sum of the beam and diffuse components is defined
as total (or global) radiation.
It is important for us to differentiate between the beam radiation and diffuse radiation when talking
about solar concentration in this lesson, because the beam radiation can be concentrated, while the
diffuse radiation, in many cases, cannot.
Short-wave radiation, in the wavelength range from 0.3 to 3 μm, comes directly from the sun. It
includes both beam and diffuse components.
Long-wave radiation, with wavelength 3 μm or longer, originates from the sources at near-ambient
temperatures - atmosphere, earth surface, light collectors, other bodies.
The solar radiation reaching the earth is highly variable and depends on the state of the atmosphere
at a specific locale. Two atmospheric processes can significantly affect the incident
irradiation: scattering and absorption.
Scattering is caused by interaction of the radiation with molecules, water, and dust particles in the
air. How much light is scattered depends on the number of particles in the atmosphere, particle size,
and the total air mass the radiation comes through.
Absorption occurs upon interaction of the radiation with certain molecules, such as ozone
(absorption of short-wave radiation - ultraviolet), water vapor and carbon dioxide (absorption of
long-wave radiation - infrared).
Due to these processes, out of the whole spectrum of solar radiation, only a small portion reaches
the earth surface. Thus most of x-rays and other short-wave radiation is absorbed by atmospheric
components in the ionosphere, ultraviolet is absorbed by ozone, and not-so abundant long-wave
radiation is absorbed by CO2. As a result, the main wavelength range to be considered for solar
applications is from 0.29 to 2.5 μm. Types of soar radiations are shown in Fig2.3

Fig2.3. Different types of radiation at the earth surface: orange - short wave; blue - long wave.

Types of Radiation Measurement Instrument: The amount of solar radiation on the earth surface
can be instrumentally measured, and precise measurements are important for providing background
solar data for solar energy conversion applications.
There are three important types of instruments to measure solar radiation: They are 1.
Pyrheliometer 2. Pyranometer 3. Sun shade recorder

Pyrheliometer: Pyrheliometer is used to measure direct beam radiation at normal incidence. There
are different types of pyrheliometers. According to Duffie and Beckman (2013) they are three. 1.
Angstrom compensation pyrheliometer 2.  Abbot silver disc pyrheliometer and 3. Eppley
Pyrheliometer. They are very important and used for primary standards.  Eppley normal incidence
pyrheliometer (NIP) is a common instrument used for practical measurements in the US, and Kipp
and Zonen actinometer is widely used in Europe. Both of these instruments are calibrated against
the primary standard methods.

1. Angstrom Pyrheliometer: Pyrheliometer is an instrument used to measure the quantity of heat

radiation and solar constant. Pyrheliometer designed by Angstrom is the simplest and most
accurate.
 
Angstrom pyrheliometer consists of two identical strips S1 and S2 of area A. One junction of a
thermocouple is connected to S1 and the other junction is connected to S 2. A sensitive galvanometer
is connected to the thermo couple.

Fig2.4: Angstrom Pyrheliometer

 
Strip S2 is connected to an external electrical circuit of Angstrom Pyrheliometer is shown in
Fig.2.4. When both the strips S1 and S2 are shielded from the solar radiation, galvanometer shows
no deflection as both the junctions are at the same temperature. Now strip S1 is exposed to the
solar radiation and S2 is shielded with a cover M. As strip S1 receives heat radiations from the sun,
its temperature rises and hence the galvanometer shows deflection. Now current is allowed to pass
through the strip S2 and it is adjusted so that galvanometer shows no deflection. Now, the strips
S1 and S2 are again at the same temperature.
 
If the quantity of heat radiation that is incident on unit area in unit time on strip S 1 is Q and a its
absorption co-efficient, then the amount of heat radiations absorbed by the strip S 1 in unit time is
QAa.
 
Also, heat produced in unit time in the strip S 2 is given by VI, where V is the potential difference
and I is the current flowing through it.
As heat absorbed = heat produced
QAa = VI   (or)
Q=VI/Aa
Knowing the values of V, I, A and a, Q can be calculated.

Based on their design, the above listed instrument measure the beam radiation coming from the sun
and a small portion of the sky around the sun. Based on the experimental studies involving various
pyrheliometer design, the contribution of the circumsolar sky to the beam is relatively negligible on
a sunny day with clear skies. However, a hazy sky or a uniform thin cloud cover redistributes the
radiation so that contribution of the circumsolar sky to the measurement may become more
significant.

Pyrheliometers are used to measure Direct Normal Irradiance or DNI, which is the component of
solar energy used in concentrating solar energy systems. The user should assess the feasibility of
Concentrating Solar Power(CSP) systems by calculating the total wattage requirement of the
proposed system and assessing the feasibility by finding out the total irradiance in a specific area
and multiplying with the area of the proposed system

2.  Abbot silver disc pyrheliometer: It consists blackened silver disk positioned at lower end of a
tube with diaphragms to limit the whole aperture to 5.7 0. A mercury in a glass thermometer is used
to the temperature at the disk. A shutter is made of three polished leaves is provided at the upper
end of the tube to allow solar radiation to fall on the disk at regular intervals and corresponding
changes in temperature of disk are measured. The thermometer stem is bent through 90 0 so that it
lies along the tube to minimize its exposure to the sun. The instrument must of course calibrated
against a primry standard, but their stability has been found to be very good and they are widely
used for calibrating pyranometers. The abbot silver disc pyrheliometer is shown in Fig2.5

Fig2.5: Abbot Silver Disc Pyrheliometer

3. Eppley Pyrheliometer : It is a stable instrument. It measures direct beam radiation falling on a

surface normal to suns rays. The sensitive element in an . Eppley Pyrheliometer is a temperature
compensated 15 junction bismuth silver thermopile mounted at the base of a brass tube, limiting
diaphragms of which subtend an angle of 5.70. A thermopile is basically a series of thermocouples
are used to develop a much greater voltage than is possible using only one. The tube is filled with
dry air and is sealed with a crystal quartz window which is removable. A filter wheel is standard. It
is found wide acceptance within USA and many other parts of world.

Pyranometer : It measures total or global radiation over a hemispherical field of view. If shading
ring is attached , the beam radiation is prevented from falling on the instrument sesor and then
measures only the diffuse radiation. In most of the pyranometers, the suns radiation is allowed to
fall on black surface to which thermopile hot junction is attached. The cold junctions of
thermopile are located at which there is no radiation at all. As a result , an emf proportional to the
solar radiation is generated. This e m f is equal to 0 to 10 mV can be read. Eppley Pyranometer is
shown in Fig2.6.

Fig2.6: Eppley Pyranometer

Types pyranometer : They are 1. Eppley Pyranometer 2. Yellot Solarimeter3. Moll- Gorezyheski
solarimeter 4. Bimetallic action graph 5. Velochme pyranometer 6 thermoelectric pyranometer.
Out of six first two will be discussed

Eppley Pyranometer: It is based on above principle as stated that there is a difference between
temperature of black body surface and white surface. The detection of temperature difference is
achieved by thermopile It uses concentric silver rings 0.25 mm thick, appropriate coated black and
white, with either 10 or 50 thermocouple junctions to detect temperature differences between
coated rings. Later models use wedges arranged in circular pattern with alternate black and white
coatings. The edges are enclosed in a hemispherical glass cover. These instruments are very in
Europe under name Kpp. Eppley pyranometers are calibrated in horizontal position. These
instruments will vary some degree from inclined to horizontal.

Yellot Pyranometer: It is photovpltaic solar cell. Silicon cells are most common for solar energy.
Silicon solar cells have the property that their light current in linear function of the incident solar
radiation. The disadvantage of this is spectral response is not linear. And calibration is a function
of the spectral distribution of incident radiation.

Sunshine Recorder : The duration of bright sunshine in a day is measured by means sunshine
recorder. The sun rays are focussed by a glass sphere to point on a card strip held in groove in a
spherical bowl mounted concentrically with the sphere. Whenever there is a bright sunshine the
image formed is intense enough to burn a spot on the card strip. As the sun moves across the sky,
the image moves along the strip. Thus a burnt space whose whose length is proportional to the
duration of sun shine is obtained on the strip. Sun shine recorder is shown in Fig2.7.

Fig2.7: sunshine Recorder

In addition, a portion of the incoming solar radiation is absorbed, reflected and reemitted by the
atmosphere and the earth. The following figure illustrates this concept.

The following image shows the solar spectral intensity distribution at the top of the Earth’s
atmosphere and at the Earth’s surface. The solar irradiance received at the top of the Earth’s
atmosphere is about 1367 W/m2; this number is normally termed the “solar constant”. Solar
spectral intensity distribution is shown in Fig2.8.
    
Fig2.8: Solar spectral intensity distribution

Near the equator, on the Earth's surface on a sunny day at solar noon, when the sun is most nearly
directly overhead, a maximum of approximately 1000 W/m 2 of global radiation is received. This
number is commonly called "Standard Solar Radiation" and is the standard that many photovoltaic
solar cells are tested to.
A graph indicating the power ouput from a PV module based on different irradiance levels is given
below.

Solar irradiance, is measured in terms of power per unit at a particular time. The units can be W/m 2,
kW/m2. This, measurement, is instantaneous and is only valid for a particular point in time. A more
useful measurement is the amount of solar energy received per unit area over a given time frame.
This is called irradiation or solar insolation. Typical units for this are Wh/m 2, kWh/m2 or MJ/m2.

The irradiation can be found by integrating or performing a numerical “Riemann” sum of the
irradiance over time. Standard values that can be found are the average daily insolation, the average
monthly insolation, and the average yearly insolation. Average values are very important to gather,
as solar radiation can change dramatically over the short term, but are reliable when averaged over
the relevant longer time frame. A proper assessment of the energy collected is essential to
determining the type of solar energy technology and the capacity installed.
DNI is the "DIRECT NORMAL" radiation measured on a tilted plane. This is the direct radiation
used by converters such as flat plate and parabolic collectors to convert the direct normal solar
component to heat which can be transfered to the HTF (heat transfer fluid). The DNI can be related
to the Direct Horizontal component by a cosine of the angle of the tilted plane. The Global
Horizontal component is measured by summing up the Direct Horizontal and Diffuse Horizontal
components, to be measured in the pyranometer experiment, coming next. The absorber or receiver
of a collector is to have very high absorptance in the 300-2000 nm range, to make maximum
conversion use of the DNI.
DNI is normally measured with a pyrheliometer. An image of the pyrheliometer used in this
experiment is below.

A standard pyrheliometer has about a 5 degree cone of acceptance. Practically, this means that the
pyrheliometer must always be pointed nearly directly at the sun for it to measure the intensity of the
radiation coming directly from the sun. Therefore, the pyrheliometer is attached to a tracking device
to make it always point at the sun. 

In order to point the pyrheliometer directly at the sun regardless of the time of day or time of year,
the tracking device must have at least two degrees of freedom. The tracking unit we use for this
experiment can rotate about the azimuth and altitude angles. The altitude is the angular distance of
the sun above the horizon. The altitude angle is also called the elevation angle. It is complemented
by the zenith angle, such that altitude angle + zenith angle = 90 degrees. When the sun is setting or
rising, the altitude angle is zero. When the sun is directly overhead, the altitude angle is 90 degrees. 
The azimuth angle is the angle of the projection of the sun on the Earth's surface, when referenced
from North or South. The Fig2.9 below illustrates these concepts.
 
1. Pyranometer is used to measure total hemispherical radiation - beam plus diffuse - on a
horizontal surface. If shaded, a pyranometer measures diffuse radiation. Most of solar resource
data come from pyranometers. The total irradiance (W/m2) measured on a horizontal surface by
a pyranometer is expressed as follows:
I tot = I beam cosθ+ I diffuse
where θ is the zenith angle (i.e., angle between the incident ray and the normal to the horizontal
instrument plane.
 Examples of pyranometers are Eppley 180o or Eppley black-and-white pyranometers in the US
and Moll-Gorczynsky pyranometer in Europe. These instruments are usually calibrated against
standard pyrheliometers. There are pyranometers with thermocouple detectors and with
photovoltaic detectors. The detectors ideally should be independent on the wavelength of the
solar spectrum and angle of incidence. Pyranometers are also used to measure solar radiation on
inclined surfaces, which is important for estimating input to collectors. Calibration of
pyranometers depends on the inclination angle, so experimental data are needed to interpret the
measurements.
2. Photoelectric sunshine recorder. The natural solar radiation is notoriously intermittent and
varying in intensity. The most potent radiation that creates the highest potential for
concentration and conversion is the bright sunshine, which has a large beam component. The
duration of the bright sunshine at a locale is measured, for example, by a photoelectric sunshine
recorder. The device has two selenium photovoltaic cells, one of which is shaded, and the other
is exposed to the available solar radiation. When there is no beam radiation, the signal output
from both cells is similar, while in bright sunshine, signal difference between the two cells is
maximized. This technique can be used to monitor the bright sunshine hours.

Fig2.10 : Different types of solar radiation data.

Solar radiation data supplied via pyrheliometric and pyranometric measurements may
representtime resolved information: e.g. irradiance (instantaneous measurements of solar energy
flux), irraidation (integrated energy flux over time), or averaged irradiation. Depending on
measurement setup, the data can be for horizontal or inclined surface. The Data can characterize
different types of radiation: beam, diffuse, or total.
Segarcone: These triangular pyramids about 3 inches high are used by potters to determine
thehighest temperature reached during a firing of a kiln. The cones are made in a series with
differing compositions, so that they melt at different temperatures. Segar cone  are pyramid
shapes. The size of standard segarcone is of sqare pyramid of 19 mm base side and axis height of
38 mm. The refractoriness is determined by observing the behavior test one with comparison of
standard segarcone towards heat. Both standard and test cone are made standard size. They are
also called pyrometric cones. A test cone is prepared from a refractory, for which the softening
temperature to be determined as same dimensions of segar cones.
The objectives of Segar cone test are: (a) To find out the fusion temperature of a new refractory
material, (b) To classify the refractories, (c) To determine the  purity of refractory..
Segarcone Fusion temperature Table

S No Segar Cone Number Fusion Temperature

0
C
1 1 1110
2 5 1180
3 10 1300
4 15 1435
5 20 1530
6 30 1670
7 35 1870
8 38 1850
.
The refractories are classified based on fusion temperature by segarcone.
The refractories which do not deform not more than 10% at 1350 0C high duty refractories
The refractories which do not deform not more than 10% at 1300 0C medium duty refractories
The refractories which do not deform not more than 10% at 1110 0C low duty refractories
Thermopile: A thermopile is an electronic device that converts thermal energy into electrical
energy. It is composed of several thermocouples connected usually in series or, less commonly, in
parallel. Adding more thermocouple pairs in series increases the magnitude of the voltage output.

Bolometer: A bolometer is a device for measuring the power of incident electromagnetic radiation
via the heating of a material with a temperature-dependent electrical resistance. It  is a highly
sensitive instrument used for detecting heat or electromagnetic radiation. a bolometer is a device
for measuring the power of incident electromagnetic radiation.  It was invented by Samuel Pierpont
Lang.
Photovoltaics and solar thermal systems: Direct solar energy source consist of solar rays
reaching the atmosphere. They can be collected by two different technologies: solar
photovoltaics (also known as solar PV) and solar thermal systems. Let’s see how they work and
what are the differences between them.

S No Photovoltaics Solar thermal energy(STE)

1  Solar PV is based on the photovoltaic
effect, by which a photon (the basic unit
of light) impacting a surface made of a
special material generates the release of
an electron.  fluid)
The applications of solar cells
is to convert sunlight directly
into the electricity. he photovoltaic
effect only takes place in a reduced
number of materials, called
semiconductors (such as silicon
-monocrystalline, polycrystalline and
amorphous- and cadmium telluride),
that, after specific chemical procedures ,
allow the generation of an electric
current when exposed to light. Those
semiconductors are shaped into thin
layers that conform the core element of
solar cells, the basic element of a solar
PV system, that produce a direct current
2 The PV cells are assembled,
these form a PV module.
3 The installation of panels is
called PV array
4 Solar cells are often made of
wafers of silicon semi
conductor material slices.
These are also known as
silicon crystals.
5 The world dominating
leaders are Genermany, USA,
Spain
6 In the case of photovoltaic power
stations, the capacity of the largest ones
is above 500 MW. Both types are
experiencing a rapid growth in many
parts of the world, with many are under
construction and more planned.
Solar thermal, on the other hand,
uses sunlight to heat a fluid
(depending on the particular
application, it can be water or other
Solar thermal energy
technology used to produce
thermal energy like heat
These are low, medium and
high temperature solar
thermal collectors
The first two types are flat
plates, generally used to heat
water.
High temperature collectors
concentrate sun light with
mirrors or lenses and they are
mostly used to produce
electricity
The concentrated solar power
can we generated by using
various concentrating
techniques, they may be solar
trough, parabolic dish and
solar power tower.
whereas that of the largest thermal
power stations is lower than 400
MW. Both types are experiencing a
rapid growth in many parts of the
world, with many are under
construction and more planned.
Solar Radiation Data: Solar radiation data are availablein many forms. Whether they are
instantaneous measurements or over a period of time may be hourly basis or daily basis.
2.time or time period of measurement.
3. Whether the measurements are of beam, diffused, total radiation and instruments used.
4. The receiving orientation surface may be inclined at fixsd slope or nomal.
5. The monthly average of solar radiation.
The most of the solar radiation data received on the earth surface is measured by
solarimeter. The rate of energy received per unit area per unit time over a whole day gives
Langley of radiation received on a horizontal surface. Generally solar radiations are
reported in Langleys per hour per day . The units of Langley is cal/cm 2 . The sprectrum
distribution of sun is studied by Samuel Langley. In honour of Samuel Langley , Langley
unit is adapted. The solar radiation maps and charts of India are prepared by Mani and
Chacho. The maps show record of beam, diffused and total radiations all the days. They
may be clean, cloudy and rainy day. The Figs. 2.10a, 2.10b, 2.10c show clean, cloudy day
and rainy day radiations

Fig. 2.10a: radiations on clean day

Fig. 2.10b: radiations on cloudy day

Fig. 2.10c: radiations on rainy day

Solar Radiation Geometry: Solar radiation geometry is the determining factor of heat gain,
Shading and the potential of day light penetration. Direction of beam radiation is useful in
establishing geometric relationship between a plane and incoming beam solar radiation.
Direction of beam radiation can be described in terms of several angles.Angles useful in solar
radiation analysis
(a) Basic solar angles:
I. Declination angle (δ)
II. Latitude angle (ф)
III.Hour angle(ω)
(b) Derived solar angles:
I. Altitude angle(α)
II. Zenith angle(θz)
III. Solar azimuth angle (γs)
(c)  Surface angles:
I. Surface azimuth angle(γ)
II. Slope (β)
III.Incidence(θ)

Declination angle (δ) : The Earth’s daily rotation about the axis through its two celestial poles
(North and South) is perpendicular to the equator, but it is not perpendicular to the plane of the
Earth’s orbit. In fact, the measure of tilt or obliquity of the Earth’s axis to a line perpendicular to the
plane of its orbit is currently about 23.5°. We call the plane parallel to the Earth’s celestial equator
and through the center of the sun the plane of the Sun. The Earth passes alternately above and
below this plane making one complete elliptic cycle every year.
The declination angle varies from a maximum value of + 23.5° on june 21 to a minimum value
of -- 23.5° on Dec21. The declination, in degrees, for any given day is approximately calculated
by equation of Cooper δ = 23.5° Sin[360/360(284+ n)] where n is number days in the year.
 Fig: 2. 11

Latitude angle (ф):  “Angle made by radial line joining the projection of that line on
equatorial plane”. It varies from 0° at equator to 90° at poles (north positive).

Hour angle (ω): The angle through which earth must turn to bring the meridian of point
directly in line with suns rays. It is the angular displacement of sun east or west of
local meridian , due to rotation of earth on its axis at an angle of 1 5° per hour.

Altitude Angle(α) : It is the vertical angle

made between sun rays and its projection on horizontal plane on earths surface. It is maximum at
solar noon.

Zenith angle (θz) :Complementary angle of solar altitude angle.Vertical angle between sun rays and
a line perpendicular to a horizontal plane through the point.
Solar azimuth angle (Az) : It is the horizontal angle measured from north to horizontal projection
of suns rays. It is considered to be positive to west side. It can be defined as solar angle in degrees
alond the horizon east or west of north.
I . Surface azimuth angle(γ) : For tilted surfaces the surface azimuth angle is of deviation of the
normal to the surface from the local meridian. It is angle between the normal to the surface
and earth. For south facing surface , it is zero. For west- facing surface , it is 90 0. For
eastward positive and westward negative.
 Fig: 2. 12

II. Slope (β) : Angle made by the plane surface with horizontal. It is positive with for surfaces
slopping towards south. It is negative with for surfaces slopping towards north.

III. Incidence(θ): Angle between sun rays and normal to the surface under consideration.

Fig: 2. 13
Thermal Collectors and storage devices: Solar energy option is more promising alternative
energy source for the future. In this case, nature of source, characteristics of source and solar
energy collecting and storage devices will be discussed. After this various thermal applications
will be discussed. First of all, any collection device should be exposed to solar radiation so that the
radiation must be absorbed. The absorbed energy or radiation can be collected by various devices.
The devices may be 1. Solar Flat plate collectors 2. Evacuated tube collectors 3. Solar air heaters 4
Cylindrical parabolic concentrating collectors 5 Paraboloid concentrating collectors 6. Sesible heat
storage devices.

1. Solar Flat plate collectors: The flat plate collecting device should be exposed to solar radiation
and radiation must be absorbed. A part of absorbed radiation is transferred to a fluids like air or
water. The absorbed radiation partly transferred to The flat-plate solar collectors are probably
the most fundamental and most studied technology for solar-powered domestic hot water systems.
The overall idea behind this technology is pretty simple. The Sun heats a dark flat surface, which
collect as much energy as possible, and then the energy is transferred to water, air, or other fluid for
further use. 
These are the main components of a typical flat-plate solar collector:

1. Black surface  - absorbent of the incident solar energy

2. Glazing cover - a transparent layer that transmits radiation to the absorber, but prevents
radiative and convective heat loss from the surface
3. Tubes containing heating fluid to transfer the heat from the collector
4. Support structure to protect the components and hold them in place
5. Insulation covering sides and bottom of the collector to reduce heat losses

Fig: 2. 14 Solar Liquid flat plate collectors

The solar radiation is absorded by black plata. It transfers heat to the fluid in the tubes.
Thermal insulation prevents the heat loss during the fluid traqansfer. The transparent screens
reduce heat loss due to convection and radiation to the atmosphere.

The flat-plate systems normally operate and reach the maximum efficiency within the temperature
range from 30 to 80 oC (Kalogirou, 2009), however, some new types of collectors that employ
vacuum insulation can achieve higher temperatures (up to 100 oC). Due to the introduction of
selective coatings, the stagnant fluid temperature in flat-plate collectors has been shown to reach
200 oC.

Advantages of the flat-plate collectors:

1. 2Easy to manufacture
3. Low cost
4. Collect both beam and diffuse radiation
5. Permanently fixed (no sophisticated positioning or tracking equipment is required)
6. Little maintenance

Transport fluid options

The flat plate collectors can involve liquid or air heat transport. 
Water is one of the common options as liquid fluid due to its accessibility and good thermal
properties:
1. It has a relatively high volumetric heat capacity
2. It is incompressible (or almost incompressible)
3. It has a high mass density (which allows using small tubes and pipes for transport)

One disadvantage of water is that it freezes during winter, which can damage the collector or piping
system. This can be managed by draining down the collector at low solar inputs (below a critical
insolation threshold). Drain down sensors are often employed to monitor the system and to ensure
complete draining, as pocket water freezing can cause damage. Refilling the system with water on
the next morning also is not perfect. Possible air pockets in the collector can be a problem, blocking
water flow and decreasing system efficiency. . 

Antifreeze mixtures can be used instead of pure water to alleviate the above-said problems. The
common antifreeze components are ethylene glycol or propylene glycol. Those chemicals are mixed
with water require closed-loop systems and proper disposal due to toxicity. Nominal antifreeze
service like is about 5 years, after which it needs to be replaced.

Air can be used as transport fluid in some designs of flat -plate collectors. This option is better
suited to space heating applications or crop drying. A fan is usually required to facilitate air flow in
the system and efficient heat transport. Certain designs can provide passive (no fan) movement of
air due to thermal buoyancy.  

Phase-change liquids can also be used with flat-plate collectors. Some refrigerants are included in
this group of fluids. They do not freeze, which eliminates troubles explained above for water, and,
due to their low boiling point can change from liquid to gas as temperature increases. Those fluids
can be practical in settings where quick response to rapid temperature fluctuation is needed.

Collector construction
The key considerations in flat plate collector design are maximizing absorption, minimizing
reflection and radiation losses, and effective heat transfer from the collector plate to the fluids. One
of the important issues is obtaining a good thermal bond between the absorber plate and changes
(tubes or ducts containing the heat-transfer fluids). Different construction designs (shown below)
try to address this issue. 
 Fig: 2. 15 : Various designs of flat-plate collector assembly.
Color codes: light blue - glass cover, dark blue - fluid channels, black - absorber
material, gray - insulation. Some constructions (b, c) include fluid channels in the
absorber plate structure to maximize thermal conductance between the components.
Other modifications (a, d) include tubes and channels soldered or cemented to the
plate. 
The plate - channel assembly may use a variety of methods of component attachment - thermal
cement, solder, clips, clamps, brazing, mechanical pressure applicators. One of the considerations in
choosing the assembly method is cost of labor and materials.

2. Evacuated Tube collctors : In heat pipe evacuated tube collectors, a sealed heat pipe, usually
made of copper to increase the collectors efficiency in cold temperatures, is attached to a heat
absorbing reflector plate within the vacuum sealed tube. The hollow copper heat pipe within the
tube is evacuated of air but contains a small quantity of a low pressure alcohol/water liquid plus
some additional additives to prevent corrosion or oxidation.

Fig: 2. 16 Evacuated tube collectors

This vacuum enables the liquid to vapourise at very lower temperatures than it would normally at
atmospheric pressure. When sunlight in the form of solar radiation hits the surface of the absorber
plate inside the tube, the liquid in the heat pipe quickly turns into a hot vapour type gas due to
presence of the vacuum. As this gas vapour is now lighter, it rises up to the top portion of the pipe
heating it up to a very high temperature.
The top part of the heat pipe, and therefore the evacuated tube is connected to a copper heat
exchanger called the “manifold”. When the hot vapours still inside the sealed heat tube enters the
manifold, the heat energy of the vapour is transferred to the water or glycol fluid flowing through
the connecting manifold. As the hot vapour looses energy and cools, it condenses back from a gas
to a liquid flowing back down the heat pipe to be reheated.
3. Solar Air heating: The solar flat plate collector for air heating is commonly referred as solar
air heater. The construction of such collector is similar to liquid flat plate collector. In this heater
air flows. The passages are made larger in order to keep the pressure drop across the collector
within the limits. It is shown in Fig. The air passage is parallel plate air duct.

Fig: 2. 17 Solar Air Heating

4. Cylindrical parabolic concentrating collectors: For higher temperature concentration of

radiation is required. It is achieved by focussingor concentrating collectors. The focusing of
concentrating collectors are shown in Fig. The collector consists of a concentrator and a receiver.
The concentrator shown is a mirror reflector having the shape of cylindrical parabola. It focuses the
sunlight on to its axis, where it is absorbed on the surface of the absorber tube and transferred to
thefluid flowing through it. A concentric glass cover around the absorber tube helps in reducing
the convective and radiative losses to the surroundings. The suns rays should be focused on to the
absorber tube, and concentrator has to be rotated. This movement is called trcking. In the case of
cylindrical parabolic concentrators rotation about a single axis is required. With the help of this
one can go up to 400o C.
 Fig: 2. 18 Cylindrical parabolic concentrating collectors

5. Paraboloid concentrating collectors: For more than 400oC cylindrical paraboloid reflectors
are required. These are shown in Fig. These are having poit focus. These require two axis tracking.
So that the sun is in line with the focus and the vertex of the paraboloid.
Fig. 2.19 Paraboloid concentrating collectors

The efficiency of flat plate collectors, evacuated tube collectors, parabolic collectors, and
paraboloid concentrating collectors are shown in Fig.

.
6. Sensible heat storage devices: The major problem with utilization of solar energy is its
availability and its storage. Hence there is a requirement of some storage devices. These devices
store the energy when it is excess and the stored energy is supplied at the inadequate time. The
energy can be in the forms of thermal, electrical, mechanical and chemical. Thermal can be stored
in the form of sensible or latent heat. Sensible heat storage will be done by insulated container
with liquid or porous solid in the form of pebbles or rocks. The first type is preferred with liquid
collectors. The second type is compatible with air heaters. In the case of latent heat storage, heat is
stored in a substance when it melts and extracted when it freezes. Sensible heat storage systems
operate over a range temperatures. But latent heat storage systems operate at the temperature at
which phase change takes place. The two forms of heat storage devices are shown in Fig.

Thermal applications : There are many thermal applications. They are:

1.water heating,
2. Space heating,
3. Space heating and refrigeration,
4. Power generation,
5. Distillation,
6. Drying and
7. Cooking.
1.Water Heating : Solar water heating is one of the most attractive thermal applications from
an economic point. In many countries of the wourld, it is already competing on equal terms
 with systems using other energy sources. In India, a large number of systems have been
installed. Most of the systems use flat plate collectors. In India the installed capacity is 1.5
X 106m2 till June 2006. The hot water is used for domestic or industrial and commercial
establishments.
The solar water heating systems can be classified into two types: 1. Natural circulation.
2.Forced circulation systems.
1. Natural circulation: Small capacity natural circulations are used for domestic purposes. It is
shown in Fig. The two main components of the system are liquid flat plate collector and and
the storage tank. The tank is located above the level of collector. As the water is heated by the
solar energy, it flows automatically to the top of the water tank. It is replaced by cold water
from the bottom of the tank. Hot water for use is withdrawn from the top of the tank. When
it is done, cold water automatically enters at the bottom. On cloudy days some heating
systems are provided. The usage of solar water heating systems has been increasing steadily
in India. Most of the system have 100 to 200 litres per day. They use only 2 or 3 flat plate
collectors only. They deliver only 50 to 70 0C.

Forced circulation Systems :When large amount of hot water is required for suppliying
process heat in industry the natural circulation system is not sufficient. Large arrays of flat
plate collectors are used and forced circulation is maintained with a water pump. The
restriction of keeping of storage tank at higher level is removed. The schematic diagram of
closed loop system is shown in Fig. Water from a storage tank is pumped through through a
collector array, then heated and flows back into the storage tank Cold makeup is kept after
withdrawing of hot water through ball float control shown . Forced circulation is maintained
by an on-off controller. It senses the difference of temperatures of water at the exit and
suitable location inside the storage tank. The pump switched on whenever this difference
exceeds certain value and off when it falls below a certain value. Axiliary immersion heater
 is located in storade tank. The forced solar water circulation system is shown is suitable for
factories, hotels, offices and hostels.

2. Space Heating : Space heating is suitable for cold countries. In India, north and north
eastern regions in winter seasos only. They are classified as 1. Active space heating and 2.
Passive space heating.

Active heating: In active systems, solar collectors are used to convert sun’s energy into useful heat
for hot water, space heating or industrial processes. Flat-plate collectors are typically used for this
purpose. These most often use light-absorbing plates made of dark coloured material such as metal,
rubber or plastic that are covered with glass. The plates transfer the heat to a fluid, usually air or
water flowing below them and the fluid is used for immediate heating or stored for later use. There
are two basic types of liquid based active systems- open loop and closed loop. An open loop system
circulates potable water itself, through the collector. In closed loop systems, the circulating fluid is
kept separate from the system used for potable water supply. This system is mainly used to prevent
the freezing of water within the collector system. However, there is no need to go in for such a
system in India, as freezing of water is not a possibility. Also closed loop systems are less efficient
as the heat exchanger used in the system causes a loss of upto 10 degrees in the temperature of
water, at the same time, one has to reckon with the extra cost of the heat exchanger as well as the
circulating pumps. Compared to these, thermosiphon systems are more convenient and simple.

Passive heating: Heating the building through the use of solar energy involves the absorption and
storage of incoming solar radiation, which is then used to meet the heating requirements of the
space. Incoming solar radiation is typically stored in thermal mass such as concrete, brick, rock,
water or a material that changes phase according to temperature. Incoming sunlight is regulated by
the use of overhangs and shades while insulating materials can help to reduce heat loss during the
night or in the cold season. Vents and dampers are typically used to distribute warm or cool air
from the system to the areas where it is needed. The three most common solar passive systems are
direct gain, indirect gain and isolated gain. A direct gain system allows sunlight to windows into on
occupied space where it is absorbed by the floor and walls. In the indirect gain system, a medium of
heat storage such as wall, in one part of the building absorbs and stores heat, which is then
transferred to the rest of the building by conduction, convection or radiation. In an isolated gain
system, solar energy is absorbed in a separate area such as greenhouse or solarium, and distributed
to the living space by ducts. The incorporation of insulation in passive systems can be effective in
conserving additional energy.

3. Space Heating and Refrigeration : The interesting thermal application is space cooling. Space
cooling provide comfortable living conditions and keeping the food products cold(refrigeration).
Passive solar space heating takes advantage of warmth from the sun through design features, such
as large south-facing windows, and materials in the floors or walls that absorb warmth during the
day and release that warmth at night when it is needed most. A sunspace or greenhouse is a good
example of a passive system for solar space heating.
Passive solar design systems usually have one of three designs:
Direct gain (the simplest system) stores and slowly releases heat energy collected from the sun
shining directly into the building and warming materials such as tile or concrete. Care must be taken
to avoid overheating the space.
Indirect gain (similar to direct gain) uses materials that hold, store, and release heat; the material is
located between the sun and living space (typically the wall).
Isolated gain collects solar energy remote from the location of the primary living area. For example,
a sunroom attached to a house collects warmer air that flows naturally to the rest of the house. For
more information about passive solar space heating, visit the EERE Passive Solar Heating, Cooling,
and Daylighting page.

Active Solar Space Heating

Active solar space-heating systems consist of collectors that collect and absorb solar radiation
combined with electric fans or pumps to transfer and distribute that solar heat. Active systems also
generally have an energy-storage system to provide heat when the sun is not shining. The two basic
types of active solar space-heating systems use either liquid or air as the heat-transfer medium in
their solar energy collectors.
Liquid-based systems heat water or an antifreeze solution in a hydronic collector. Air-based
systems heat air in an air collector. Air-based solar heating systems usually employ an air-to-water
heat exchanger to supply heat to the domestic hot water system, making the system useful in the
summertime. Both of these systems collect and absorb solar radiation, then transfer the solar heat
directly to the interior space or to a storage system, from which the heat is distributed. An auxiliary
or backup system provides heat when storage is discharged. Liquid systems are more often used
when storage is included.
Here is a summary of the many different types of active solar space-heating systems:
Medium-temperature solar collectors are generally used for solar space heating. Solar space heating
systems operate in much the same way as indirect solar water-heating systems, but they have a
larger collector area, larger storage units, and more complex control systems. They are also usually
configured to provide solar water heating and typically provide 30% to 70% of the residential
heating, or combined heating and hot water, requirements. Active solar space-heating systems
require more sophisticated design, installation, and maintenance techniques.
A very economical, but specialized space heating system is based upon use of transpired air
collectors, mounted as an exterior cladding on a south-facing wall. These systems are used for
ventilation preheating. This system heats only outdoor air. These collectors are unglazed, and a
blower or fan is used to draw air through perforations in the wall to deliver ventilation air into the
building. Solar ventilation air preheating systems are generally used in commercial and industrial
applications that require large quantities of ventilation air, including: a) buildings that require much
outdoor ventilation, such as warehouses, large manufacturing plants, and airplane maintenance
hangars; b) crop drying; and c) pre-heatingof boiler combustion air.
4. Power Generation : Electrical power generation is the most important applications of
energy souce. Solar thermal power generation is important. Solar thermal cycles
classified as 1. Low temperature power generation
2. Medium Temperature Power Generation
3. High temperature power generation

1. Low temperature power generation: Low temperature cycles wok at 100oC . It uses solar
flat plate collectors. Hot water with above 100 oC is collected in air insulated tank. It flows
through a heat exchanger. The heat exchanger will have a working fluid which may be either
methyl chloride or butane with boiling temperature of 90 oC . Vapours are formed a Rankine
cycle by flowing through the turbine. Finally the organic fluid is pumped back to the
evaporator to the cycle. To reduce the cost solar ponds are used instead of flat plate
collectors. Such plants are available with a capacity of 150 KW in Israel for last 25 years.

2. Medium temperature power generation: Medium temperature cycles wok at maximum

temperatures of 400oC. It uses Parabolic collector for heating a synthetic oil flowing
absorbing tube. The schematic diagram is shown in Fig.2.2. A suitable parabolic sun
tracking system is fabricated to focus more radiation on absorbing pipeline. Preheater and
superheater are used to increase the inlet steam temperature for the high pressure turbine.
Reheaters are used to raise the temperature for low pressure turbine. The system generates
the system generates superheated high pressure steam to operate a Rankine cycle with
maximum efficiency. Such plants are well established with capacity of 80KW, in Erope and
USA.
Fig.2.2 : Medium temperature solar power plant

3. High temperature power generation: High temperature cycles wok temperatures

above 400oC. For efficient conversion of solar energy into electrical energy working fluids
to be delivered into turbine at high temperature. It is possible by central receiver system.

In central receiver system, the solar radiations are reflected from arrays of mirrors are installed
around the central tower The arrays of mirrors are also known as heliostats. Reflected
radiations are concentrated on central receiver.The array is provided with a tracking control
system. It focuses beam radiations towards receiver as shown in Fig. 2.2. The receiver may
be used to heat a molten salt and this fluid is allowed to flow through a heat exchanger where
steam is generated to run the turbine.
 One of the biggest such power plants installed in 1982 which is known as Solar One at
Barastow, USW of capacity of 10 MW.

5. Distillation : There is a great need to find ways to supply water for the Earth’s population.
Many countries are facing water shortages and/or have residents who use and drink contaminated
water. Finding different ways to use our renewable resources (for example, solar power) has
become an interest. Solar water distillation is the process of using energy from the sunlight to
separate freshwater from salts or other contaminants. The untreated water absorbs heat, slowly
reaching high temperatures. The heat causes the water to evaporate, cool, and condense into vapour,
leaving the contaminants behind. Solar stills can be used for low capacity and self-reliant water
supplying systems.

HOW IT WORKS

Solar water distillers or solar stills are usually used in remote areas where there is limited access to
freshwater. The basic principles of solar water distillation are simple, yet effective, as distillation
replicates the way nature makes rain. A solar still works on two scientific principles: evaporation
and condensation. The salts and minerals do not evaporate with the water. For example, table salt
does not turn into vapour until it gets to a temperature over 1400ºC. However, it still does take a
certain amount of energy for water to turn into water vapour. While a certain amount of energy is
needed to raise the temperature of a kilogram of water from 0ºC to 100ºC, it takes five and one-half
times that much to change it from water at 100ºC to water vapour at 100ºC. Practically all this
energy, however, is given back when the water vapour condenses. Sol;ar distillations are efficient
way of supplying drinking water tosmall communities. The principle of solar distillation is very
simple. It is explained with following Fig. 2. 2

Fig. 2. 2: Solar distillation.

It is a conventional basin. The still consists of a shallow air tight basin lined with black, impervious
material which contains the saline water. A sloping transparent cover is provided at the top. Solar
radiation is transmitted through the cover and absorbed in the black lining. It thus heats up the
water about 20o - 30o and causes it to evapourate. The resulting vapour rises, condenses as pure
water on the underside of the cover and flows into condensate collection channels on the sides. An
output of about 3litre/m2 withan efficiency of 30 to 35 % ia small still on a sunny day.

Small basin type still plants are in operation in Africa and West Indies.

Most stills are simple black bottomed vessels filled with water and topped with clear glass or
plastic. Sunlight that is absorbed by the black material speeds the rate of evaporation. The
evaporation is then trapped by the clear topping and funneled away. Most pollutants do not
evaporate, so they are left behind. Most stills need to be about six square meters in size to produce
enough water for a single person for a day.  Multiple solar distillation systems are required to
produce a large quantity of distilled water.

Advantages:

1. It is a relatively cheap and low-maintenance system.

2. It can be used at the household level and scaled up through programmatic approaches.
3. There are climate change adaptation and mitigation benefits.
4. There are no energy costs.
5. There are no moving parts.

Disadvantages:

1. Rate of distillation is usually very slow (6 litres of water per sunny day).
2. It is not suitable for larger consumptive needs.
3. The materials required for the distiller may be difficult to obtain in some areas.
4. If not correctly disposed of, the distillation process waste stream can be a potential source of
environmental pollution (high concentrations of salts and pollutants).
5. Solar energy is only available during the day.

TYPES OF SOLAR WATER DISTILLERS

Solar distillation systems can be classified as passive and active. Solar radiation is the input energy
of the passive solar stills, but the efficiency of the system is low. Attempts have been made to
increase the efficiency and productivity by preheating the saline water in solar stills. This method is
called active solar distillation. In the case of active solar distillation, an additional source of thermal
energy is required for faster evaporation inside the same passive solar still. The additional source
may be a solar-energy-based system or thermal energy contained in hot water which is discharged
by other industries. There are many different ways to make a solar still and different materials that
can be used. A crucial design challenge is making sure that the stills are airtight. If they are not
airtight, efficiency drops severely. Listed are the different types of passive solar water distillers.

1. Single-effect Stills: These are the most common and simplest stills. Only one interface is
necessary to convey the energy and collect the condensate.
2. Multi-effect Stills: They require double the effort in regards to ensuring tight seals and can be
more difficult to clean, but they can significantly increase the production of distilled water.
3. Basin-type Stills: They contain the water in an impervious material that is a component of the
entire enclosure and these are the most common type.
4. Wick Stills: Use cloth-like materials that use capillary action to propagate the water through the
system.
5. Multi-wick Stills: These stills, like wick and multi-effect stills, greatly increase the productivity
by increasing the influenced surface area exponentially.
6. Diffusion Stills: They use the ideas introduced by the multi-effect and wick stills and are a
further advancement of both. They consist of a series of closely space parallel partitions in
contact with saline-soaked wicks and they have great potential because of their high productivity
and simplicity.

Different stills require different materials, some have simple materials and other stills can have
more sophisticated materials. Here is an example of a type of wick still and the details regarding
how it works.

The solar radiation falling on the glass cover is transmitted to the wick surface. A portion of the
energy is used for heating the water flowing through the wick due to capillary action.

The heat transfers in the distillation system are governed by external and internal modes. The
external heat transfer mode occurs due to convection and radiation, which are independent from
each other and occur outside the still. The heat transfer within the solar distillation unit is referred to
as the internal heat transfer mode, which occurs due to radiation, convection, and evaporation. In
internal heat transfer mode, the mass transfer is accompanied by radiation and convective heat.
Water flowing through the wick surface gets heated and evaporated into vapour. The saturated
vapour condenses in the lower surface of the glass cover after releasing the latent heat of
vapourization. The condensed water droplets trickle down due to gravity and are collected in the
drainage channel. The more wicks, the more heat can be transferred to the salt water and more
product can be made. A plastic net can also catch salt water before it falls into the container and
give it more time to heat up and separate into brine and water. Glass’ absorption of heat is
negligible compared to that of plastic at higher temperatures.
The main part of the still is the basin, this is where the water you are going to distill is poured. Side
walls are what give the still structure. The material used should be able to resist heat transfer to the
area surrounding the still. The more heat trapped, the more efficient the water system. It should also
be able to support the cover and prevent the water from spilling. The top cover is what is used to
collect the condensed vapour from the distillation process, and the only way for heat to get into the
still. The cover should be transparent, resistant to water absorption, easily cleaned, and very
smooth. The distilled water is collected into a trough or passage, which then trickles out into a
channel.

Distilled water from a solar water distiller can be used for washing clothes and bathing, cooking,
and emergencies. For it to be safe to drink, softened water or salt water should be used.

6. Drying : Solar thermal energy can be useful for drying wood for construction and wood fuels
such as wood chips for combustion. Solar is also used for food products such as fruits, grains, and
fish. Crop drying by solar means is environmentally friendly as well as cost effective while
improving the quality. The less money it takes to make a product, the less it can be sold for,
pleasing both the buyers and the sellers. Technologies in solar drying include ultra low cost
pumped transpired plate air collectors based on black fabrics. Solar thermal energy is helpful in the
process of drying products such as wood chips and other forms of biomass by raising the heat
while allowing air to pass through and get rid of the moisture.

7. Cooking: In the year 1767, the basic concept of cooking of food in solar cookers started by a
“Swiss scientist”. Nevertheless the solar cooker was designed in the year 1950. To know about
what is a solar cooker and its working, let’s have a look into how to make a solar cooker,
various advantages and disadvantages of a solar cooker. Solar energy is the most essential
renewable energy which we can get from the sun. Solar energy is available with free of cost and it
is used for many purposes like residential, commercial, etc.

Solar Cooker
One of the applications of solar energy is solar cooker that is used to heat and cook the food. This
solar cooker directly uses the solar energy from the sun to cook the food just like the plants use
sun’s energy to prepare their food. Solar cookers don’t use fuel and very cheap, so many developed
countries make use of it. Solar cookers are mainly used in outdoor places and it reduces the
pollution and deforestation.
How to Make a Solar Cooker
Solar cooker making can be done using a cardboard box with less cost in a few hours. This solar
cooker works very well. Solar cookers are classified into three types such as solar panel cooker,
solar parabolic cooker and solar box cooker. From these three kinds of cookers, parabolic cooker is
most used advanced cooker and it is more efficient to use.

The Required Supplies

1. Two cardboard boxes (one bigger and one smaller) and the dimensions of the smaller box
must be 38cmX38cm whereas bigger box must be 1.5cm bigger than the smaller one. These
two boxes can be adjusted by cutting & gluing it. But, the distance between these two boxes
shouldn’t be equal.
2. 4 to 8cms cardboard sheet one for the lid, that should be larger all the way than the outer
box.
3. A reflective external to trap such as a mirror, one aluminium foil roll, white gum, box knife
and scissors.
4. One can of flat black spray paint used as a nontoxic when it gets dry.
5. Plastic bag to seal the closing or opening the cooker from all sides
6. A newspaper for proper insulation inside the cardboard box
Required Supplies of a Solar Cooker
Steps To Make a Solar Cooker
Step-1
Fold the top pads closed on the larger box and place the inner box on top and drop a line
everywhere it onto the top of the larger box. Remove the smaller box & cut end to end to make a
hole in the top of the larger box. Maintain I inch space between these two boxes.

Arrange the Card Board Boxes

Step-2
Using a scissor or knife, cut the corners of the inner box(small box down to that height. Fold every
side of the box down to form extended flaps. Folding is simple, if you first draw a fixed line from
the one cut end to another.

Cut The Corners of the Inner Box

Step-3
Some twists of creased newspaper into the external box so that when you fix the smaller box down
inside the hole in the external box, the pads on the inner box touches the top of the external box.
Paste these pads onto the top of the external box and cut the extra pad’s length to be even with the
edge of the outer box.
 Attach the Small Box into the Outer Box
Lastly, to make the drip pan, cut a part of cardboard similar to the bottom of the inner of the oven
and apply foil to one side. Paint black spray paint at foiled side and let it dry. Place this in the oven
so that it rests on the end of the small box, and place your containers on it when cooking. Now the
base of the cooker is completed.

Building the Solar Cooker Lid

Step-4
Reflector pad of the cardboard box can be designed by drawing a line on the lid. Making a
rectangular cut three sides around the box and fold the resulting pad up to make a reflector. To
design a 30cm prop bend part of hanger wire as specified in the diagram, then it can be injected into
the corrugations as shown.

Lay the Pencil Against the Side of the Box To Make The
Lid Fit
Finally, turn the lid from upside to down & attach the bag in the place, that makes a double plastic
layer These two layers tend to detach from each other to form an airspace as the oven cooks.
 Turn the Lid Upside-Down &
Attach The Oven Bag
Solar Cooker Working
A solar cooker is a device that works with solar energy for heating and cooking food. The solar
cooker works mainly on three principles such as retention, absorption and concentration. A solar
cooker consists of a mirror, that helps in allowing the ultra violet rays of the sun and converts it into
IR light rays. The IR rays have the power to make the protein & water molecules present in the food
to shake forcefully to heat up the food. Actually, the sun’s energy doesn’t heat the food, but the rays
which comes from the sun changes into heat energy to cook the food. A lid is used to protect the
food kept inside a bowl so that the heat doesn’t escape. Thus, the solar cooker helps in cooking the
food using UV rays from the sun.

Solar Cooker Working

Advantages of Solar Cooker
1. Solar cookers are generally used in places where there is no electricity and people those who
cannot  buy the electrical cookers to prepare their daily food. This type of solar cooker is used
in many developed countries to conserve energy as well as to cook their food.
2. Solar cookers help in protecting the forests and it doesn’t cause any pollution to the
environment.
3. These cookers doesn’t need any electricity for its working, decreases the global warming
and cost less
4. Solar cookers doesn’t produce smoke while cooking food

Disadvantages of Solar Cooker

1. These types of cookers only used only in the day time and cannot be used in the cloudy time.
2. They cannot maintain heat for a long period of time.
 3. If the device is not built properly, it may not work properly and burns.
5. When the UV rays of the sunlight get reflected in your eyes, your eyesight can destroy.
6. It takes more time to cook

Advanced Solar Ponds

Introduction to advanced Solar Ponds : Advanced Solar ponds are also known as Advanced
storage Devices: The advances storage devices are simply known as Solar Ponds. These are 1.
Convective . Salt gradient solar pond 2. Non convective solar ponds, 3. Solar Gel ponds, 4.
Equilibrium solar Pond.

The sun is the largest source of renewable energy and this energy is abundantly available in all
parts of the earth. It is in fact one of the best alternatives to the non-renewable sources of energy.
It is a novel device which combines the functions of both collection and storage is the solar
pond. A solar pond is a pool of saltwater which collects and stores solar thermal energy. The
saltwater naturally forms a vertical salinity gradient also known as a halocline", in which low-
salinity water floats on top of high-salinity water. The layers of salt solutions increase in
concentration (and therefore density) with depth. Below a certain depth, the solution has a
uniformly high salt concentration.

The working of solar pond can be explained from Fig.2.24. Consider pond depth L having salts
dissolved in the water. We assume that the concentration at the top C 1 is less than that at the
bottom C2 and that a concentration gradient exists from top to bottom. The variation of density
with temperature can be shown with a curve.
Let T1 and ρ1 be the temperature and density of top and T 2 and ρ2 be the temperature and density
of bottom layer.
A solar pond is, simply, a pool of saltwater which collects and stores solar thermal energy. When
water at the bottom of the pool is heated, it becomes less dense than the cooler water above it, and
convection begins. Solar ponds heat water by impeding this convection.

When the sun's rays contact the bottom of a shallow pool, they heat the water adjacent to the
bottom. Salt is added to the water until the lower layers of water become completely saturated.
High-salinity water at the bottom of the pond does not mix readily with the low-salinity water
above it, so when the bottom layer of water is heated, convection occurs separately in the bottom
and top layers, with only mild mixing between the two. This greatly reduces heat loss, and allows
for the high-salinity water to get up to 90 °C while maintaining 30 °C low-salinity water. This hot,
salty water can then be pumped away for use in electricity generation, through a turbine or as a
source of thermal energy.

Working Principle: One way to tap solar energy is through the use of solar ponds. Solar ponds are
large-scale energy collectors with integral heat storage for supplying thermal energy. It can be use
for various applications, such as process heating, water desalination, refrigeration, drying and
power generation.

The solar pond works on a very simple principle. It is well-known that water or air is heated they
become lighter and rise upward e.g. a hot air balloon. Similarly, in an ordinary pond, the sun’s rays
heat the water and the heated water from within the pond rises and reaches the top but loses the heat
into the atmosphere. The net result is that the pond water remains at the atmospheric temperature.
The solar pond restricts this tendency by dissolving salt in the bottom layer of the pond making it
too heavy to rise.
The diagram of solar pond is shown in Fig. 2. 25. It combines the heat collection with long term
storage and can provide sufficient heat for entire year. It has 2 to 3 m deep deep and lined with
thick durable plastic liner at bottom. The material may be LDPE and HDPE woven polyster yarn
and hypalon reinforced nylon mesh. Salts like magnesium chloride, sodium chloride or sodium
nitrate are dissolved in the water, concentrations varying from 20 to 30 % at the bottom to almost
zero at the top. The salt concentration gradient will disappear over a period of time because of
upward diffusion of the salt. In order to maintain it , fresh water is added at the top of the pond,
while slightly saline water is run off. At the same time, concentrated brine is added at the bottom of
the pond. The amount of the salt required for this purpose is 50 g/m 2-day. It is a large quantity on
annual basis. For this reason is to recycle the salt by evaporating the saline water run off from the
surface in an evaporation pond.

In order to extract the energy stored, the hot water is removed continuously from the bottom,
passed through a heat exchanger and returned to bottom. Alternatively heat is extracted by water
flowing through a heat exchanger coil submerged at the bottom. Because of movement and mixing
of the fluid both at the top and bottom, solar pond is characterized by three zones. They are:

The top zone is the surface convective zone SCZ - I or Upper Convective Zone, Non Convective
concentration gradient zone NCZ – II and Lower convective zone LCZ III. The surface convective
zone LCZ - I has a small thickness around 10 to 20 cm. It has a low, uniform concentration
which is close to zero, and uniform temperature which is close to ambient air temperature.

The non covective zone NCZ – II is much thicker and occupies more than half of the depth of the
pond. NCZ – II has the highest depth compared to other two zones. Both concentration and
temperature increases with depth in this zone. It serves as an insulating layer and reduces heat
losses in the upward direction. Some of the heat collection takes place in this zone and acts as the
thermal storage.
The Lower convective zone – III is a bottom zone of the pond. Both the temperature and
concentration are constant in this zone.
It serves as the main heat collection and thermal storage medium.
It is also known as the storage zone. The trapped (solar) energy is then withdrawn from the pond in
the form of hot brine from the storage zone.
 bottom zone is very hot, 70°– 85° C, and is very salty. It is this zone that collects and stores
solar energy in the form of heat, and is, therefore, known as the storage zone or LCZ (Lower
Convective Zone). Separating these two zones is the important gradient zone or NCZ (Non-
Convective Zone). Here the salt content increases as depth increases, thereby creating a salinity or
density gradient. If we consider a particular layer in this zone, water of that layer cannot rise, as the
layer of water above has less salt content and is, therefore, lighter. Similarly, the water from this
layer cannot fall as the water layer below has a higher salt content and is, therefore, heavier. This
gradient zone acts as a transparent insulator permitting sunlight to reach the bottom zone but also
entrapping it there.

The temperature in the lower convective zone well designed solar pond of India might fluctuate
cyclically between a maximum value of 85oC to 95oC in summer and of 50oC to 60oC in winter.

Though solar ponds can be constructed anywhere, it is economical to construct them at places
where there is low cost salt and bittern, good supply of sea water or water for filling and flushing,
high solar radiation, and availability of land at low cost. Coastal areas in Tamil Nadu, Gujarat,
Andhra Pradesh, and Orissa are ideally suited for such solar ponds.
Solar Pond at Bhuj

The Bhuj Solar Pond is a research, development, and demonstration project. The construction of the
6000 m2 pond started in 1987 at Kutch Dairy, Bhuj as a collaborative effort between Gujarat Energy
Development Agency, Gujarat Dairy Development Corporation Limited, and TERI under the
National Solar Pond programme of the Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources. TERI
carried out execution, operation, and maintenance of the Bhuj Solar Pond.

The solar pond is 100 m long and 60 m wide and has a depth of 3.5 m. To prevent seepage of saline
water, a specially developed lining scheme, comprising locally available material, has been
adopted. The pond was then filled with water and 4000 tonnes of common salt was dissolved in it to
make dense brine. A salinity gradient was established and wave suppression nets, a sampling
platform, diffuses for suction and discharge of hot brine, etc. were also installed. This pond has
been successfully supplying processed heat to the dairy since September 1993, and is, at present,
the largest operating solar pond in the world.

Historyof solar Pond: Solar pond was discovered as a natural phenomena around the turn of the
last century in the Medve Lake in Transylvania in Hungary. Solar pond is artificially constructed.
To prevent convection, salt water is used in the pond. Those ponds are called “salt gradient solar
pond”.

In 1960, in Israel constructed first Solar pond by Tabor and his co workers.

Since then many solarponds were built and used for both for process heating and generating
power.

The largest pond of 2,50,000 m2 area was built at Beit Ha aravah in Israel.

The heat collected in this pond was used to generate electrical power by using Rankine Cycle.

In 1985, EI Paso, Texas USA, constructed a solar pond of 3,240 m2 area with a depth of 3.2 m.

Another Solar Pond was constructed, Pyramid Hill in Australia used to supply heat to dry air
which is used to produce salt.
In India, the largest Solar pond 6, 000 m2 area was built at Bhuj in Gujarat used for running dairy.

Types of Solar Ponds

A solar pond is a shallow body of water which acts as a solar collector with integral heat storage
for supplying thermal energy. Solar ponds are many types based on the convection, depth of the
pond, equilibrium formation, and type of gel. Convective solar ponds and non-convective solar
ponds. The shallow solar pond and the deep saltless pond are the examples of convective type.
The Solar Ponds may be classified as 1. Convective type, 2. non convective Solar pond 3. Gel
type solar pond 4. Equilibrium solar pond.

Convecting Solar pond: It is a shallow depth pond. This pond consists of pure water enclosed
in a large bag that allows convection but hinders evaporation.
The bag has a blackened bottom has a foam insulation below, and two types of glazing sheets of
plastic or glass on top. The sun heats the water in the bag during the day. At night the hot water
pumped into a large heat storage tank to minimize the heat loss. Excessive heat loss when
pumping the hot water to the storage tank has limited the development of the shallow Solar ponds.

2. Non convecting Solar Pond:The main types of nonconvecting ponds is salt gradient pond.
The salt gradient pond has three distinct layers of brine which is a mixture of salt and water
varying concentrations. Because the density of the brine increases with salt concentration, the
most concentrated layer forms at the bottom. The least concentrated layer forms at the top
surface. The salts commonly used are sodium chlorides and magnesium Chloride. The dark
coloured material usually butyl rubber lines the pond.

The sun light enters the pond, the water and lining absorb the solar radiation. As a result, the
water near the bottom of the pond becomes warm upto 93.3 0 C. Even it becomes warm, the
bottom layer remains denser than the upper layers, thus inhibiting convection. Pumping the brine
throughan external heat exchanger or an evaporator removes the heat from this bottom layer.
Another method of heat removal is to extract heat with a heat transfer fluid as it is pumped
through a heat exchanger placed on the bottom of the pond.

3. Gel type solar pond: Viscous polymeric gels that act as a thermal insulator and produce high
energy collection and storage efficiencies were developed. These polymer gels were tested in a
small-scale solar pond. The highest bottom temperature was achieved with the bottom layer filled
with a salt solution and covered with a top layer of 16 cm polymer gel. By covering the gel layer
with a thin layer of water, dirt and debris falling onto the pond can be skimmed, and evaporation
can be retarded. The highest bottom temperature and satisfactory efficiency (72%) were obtained
with the addition of a gel layer 16 cm thick as an insulation on the top of the saline.

The gel pond concept is a unique modification of the conventional salt gradient solar pond. It
replaces the salinity gradient zone by a transparent polymer gel and thereby eliminates all problems
of instability associated with the former. A framework for the preliminary design of a gel pond to
serve different purposes.

Heat extraction at constant pond storage zone temperatures of 40°–80°C at storage zone depths of
2–5 m has been considered and optimum pond dimensions have been predicted depending upon
maximum and minimum heat load constraints. The computer simulations are carried out with the
meteorological conditions for Albuquerque, New Mexico. For example, the simulations show that
the gel pond can provide an average heat load of 107 W/m 2, a typical domestic water heating
requirement, at a constant pond temperature of 40°C with a storage zone depth of 4.0 m and gel
thickness of 0.6 m. For the case of power generation, the pond can provide a minimum of 32
W/m2 at a constant pond temperature of 80°C with a storage zone depth of 4 m and gel thickness of
0.6 m. These factors combined with the easy operation and maintenance of the gel pond seem to
make it a better alternative compared with the conventional salt gradient pond

4. Equilibrium type solar pond: Salts, whose solubility in water increases strongly with
temperature, can be utilized as a solute in the equilibrium solar pond. In solutions of such salts, a
temperature gradient usually gives rise to thermal diffusion of salt from lower to higher temperature
zones in the fluid (negative Soret effect). If the direction of this molecular cross flux is opposite to
that of the regular molecular salt flux (down its own gradient), the two fluxes can balance so that
the net salt flux is zero and the system is in equilibrium. In the equilibrium solar pond suggested
here, the insulating non-convective fluid layer is stratified by a stable concentration graident and a
destabilizing temperature profile, distributed in such a way that the regular and cross-diffusion
fluxes of salt are exactly balanced and the net salt flux is zero. An experimental study was carried
out to investigate such a double-diffusive system. A simple method is suggested to build up the
concentration and temperature gradients: a two-layer stratified fluid consisting of KNO 3 solution
and contained within a large tank is heated at its bottom up to a prescribed temperature above the
ambient, while the upper free surface is exposed to steady room conditions. The resulting double
diffusive system is found to be highly stable; observations and measurements indicate that the net
salt flux is zero, and as long as the temperature gradient across the layer is maintained, the system is
at equilibrium and basically remains unchanged (for a period of at least one week). The concept of
the equilibrium solar pond is considered as a generalization of the saturated solar pond. Futher
laboratory studies on practical aspects associated with the equilibrium solar pond are needed before
the above ideas can be applied to a real solar pond.

Gel Type solar pond Equilibrium type Solar Pond

In the non convecting zone of the pond
extracting heat from the bottom of pond.
In this pond gel floats on lower convective
zone and acts as non convective zone.
The gel has good optical and thermal
insulating properties.
The pond has 400 m2 area and 5 m deep
Maintenance requirements are reduced
because salt gradients are not required.
The gel may be 98.3% water and 1.7 %
Polyarylamid. It is kept in Tedlar transparent
Equilibrium type Solar Pond is a special
type of salt gradient pond.
It uses salts whose solubility in water
increases with temperature
In such salt solutions, thermal diffusion
occurs from lower to higher temperature
zones in the fluids. It is called as negative
Soret effect.
In this pond, the thermal direction of
movement is downward and opposite to that
of mass diffusion occurring in upward
direction due to concentration gradient.
In equilibrium pond, the two mass fluxes
balance each other so that net flux is zero.
Regular operational procedure for
maintaining salt concentration gradient is
eliminated.
In this pond Potassium nitrate KNO3 is
used.
 bags which floats on the salt solution.
The gel pond produces 1 GJ per day at a
temperarature of 70 oC.
Evaporation losses are eliminated. Heat losses
are less.
Salt water is used to float the gel.
Enivironmental hazards are eliminated.

Advantages of Solar Ponds:

1. The approach is particularly attractive for rural areas in developing countries. Very large area

collectors can be set up for just the cost of the clay or plastic pond liner.

2. The accumulating salt crystals have to be removed and can be a valuable by-product and a

maintenance expense.

3. No need for a separate collector.

4. The extremely-large thermal mass means power is generated night and day.

5. Relatively low-temperature operation means solar energy conversion is typically less than 2%.

6. Due to evaporation, non-saline water is constantly required to maintain salinity gradients.

Disadvantages of Solar Ponds: A solar pond is often brought up as an example of a power source
that developing countries can easily operate. Solar ponds are cheap to build, requiring only land,
pond liner and saltwater. But several important disadvantages to solar ponds may render them
unworkable as a useful method of storing the sun's energy.
Solar Pond: A solar pond consists of a large pool filled with saltwater that's covered at the
bottom with a reflective lining. The heat from the sun will become trapped in the lowest layer of
the water, which contains the highest saline density. In this setup, the heat cannot escape through
the top of the pool by means of a convection current, as would happen with fresh water. The
trapped heat can be used to do useful work, such as powering a Stirling engine, which operates
through compression and expansion of air, or be used directly for heating.

Efficiency Problems: Although solar ponds are simple to construct, they are costly in terms of
energy efficiency. The maximum theoretical efficiency of a solar pond is 17 %, assuming that
0 0
the hottest saltwater has a temperature of 80 C and the coolest water is 20 C. Compare this to
0
a power plant that can generate heat reaching 800 C -- the power plant has an efficiency of 73
%. This means that the solar pond is significantly less heat-efficient than the power plant .
Maintenance: To make use of the stored thermal energy in a solar pool, the hot saltwater at the
bottom of the pool must be pumped out. This depletes the amount of water in the pool, so new
saltwater must be added to the pool regularly. Furthermore, salt crystals, which can accumulate in
the water, must be removed to prevent buildup.

Land Area: Solar ponds require a significant amount of land to function properly. Like solar
panel arrays, the ability of solar ponds to capture energy is related to their surface area. If this
land could be used for other, more efficient energy sources, a solar pond might be a wasted
investment -- one pond in Israel took up 210,000 square meters for an electrical output of 5
MW. For comparison, this would power fewer than 5,000 American homes.
Development: Further research is aimed at addressing the problems, such as the development of
membrane ponds. These use a thin permeable membrane to separate the layers without allowing salt
to pass through.
Various Locations: The largest operating solar pond for electricity generation was the Beit
HaArava pond built in Israel and operated up until 1988. It had an area of 210,000 m² and gave an
electrical output of 5 MW.
India was the first Asian country to have established a solar pond in Bhuj, in Gujarat. The project
was sanctioned under the National Solar Pond Programme by the Ministry of Non-Conventional
Energy Sources in 1987 and completed in 1993 after a sustained collaborative effort by TERI, the
Gujarat Energy Development Agency, and the GDDC (Gujarat Dairy Development Corporation
Ltd). The solar pond successfully demonstrated the expediency of the technology by supplying
80,000 litres of hot water daily to the plant. It is designed to supply about 22,000,000 kWh
of Thermal Energy annually . The Energy and Resources Institute provided all technical inputs and
took up the complete execution of research, development, and demonstration. TERI operated and
maintained this facility until 1996 before handing it over to the GDDC. The solar pond functioned
effortlessly till the year 2000 when severe financial losses crippled GDDC. Subsequently, the Bhuj
earthquake left the Kutch Dairy non-functional.
The 0.8-acre (3,200 m2) solar pond powering 20% of Bruce Foods Corporation's operations in El
Paso, Texas is the second largest in the U.S. It is also the first ever salt-gradient solar pond in the
U.S.
Applications of Solar Pond:
1. Heating and Cooling of Buildings: Because of the large heat storage capability in the lower
convection zone of the solar pond, it has ideal use for heating even at high latitude stations and for
several cloudy days.
2. Production of Power: A solar pond can be used to generate electricity by driving a thermo-
electric device or an organic Rankine cycle engine - a turbine powered by evaporating an organic
fluid with great promise in those areas where there is sufficient insulation and terrain, and soil
conditions allow for construction and operation of large area solar ponds necessary to generate
meanings quantities of electrical energy.

3.Industrial Process Heat: Industrial process heat is the thermal energy used directly in the
preparation and of treatment of materials and goods manufactured by industry. Several scientists
have determined the economics of solar pond for supply of process heat in industries. The heat
from solar pond is highly competitive with oils and natural gas.

4. Desalination: The low cost thermal energy can used to desalt or otherwise purify water for
drinking or irrigation. The multiflash desalination plant below 100ºC which can well be achieved
by a solar pond. This system will be suitable at places where portable water is in short supply and
brackish water is available. It has been estimated that about 4700 m3/day distilled water can be
obtained from a pond of 0.31km2 area with a multi-effort distillation unit.
 5. Heating animal housing and drying crops on farms: Low grade heat can be used in many
ways on farms, which have enough land for solar ponds. Sever small demonstration ponds in Ohio,
Iowa and Illinois have been used to heat green houses and hogbarns.

6. Heat for biomass conversion: Site built solar could provide heat to convert biomass to alcohol
or methane. While no solar ponds have been used for this purpose, it is an ideal coupling of two
renewable-energy technologies.
Problems of Solar Pond: The main problems encountered in operating salt gradient solar ponds in
the Arabian Gulf region, characterized by hot, windy, and dusty environment. These problems are:
1. Excessive erosion of the gradient zone,
2. The formation of sizeable localized convective zones.
3. The deterioration of pond water clarity
4. High rates of surface evaporation.
5. An excessive increase in salt consumption. Experience is a problem.

These weather-related problems severely impair the pond operation, as they lead to a serious drop
in its collection and storage efficiency.

MCQs
1. The function of a solar collector is to convert.......

   A.Solar Energy into Electricity

   B.Solar Energy radiation
   C.Solar Energy thermal energy
   D.Solar Energy mechanical energy

C.Solar Energy thermal energy

2. Most of the solar radiation received on earth surface lies within the range of........
   A.0.2 to 0.4 microns
   B.0.38 to 0.78 microns
   C.0 to 0.38 microns
   D.0.5 to 0.8 microns
A.0.2 to 0.4 microns

3. For satellite the source of energy is........

   A.Cryogenic storage
   B.Battery
   C.Solar cell
   D.Any of the above

C.Solar cell

4. Reflecting mirrors used for exploiting solar energy are called........

   A.Mantle
   B.Ponds
   C.Diffusers
   D.Heliostats
D.Heliostats

5. The output of solar cell is of the order of........

   A.1 W
   B.5 W
   C.10 W
   D.20 W
A.1 W

6. Flat plate collector absorbs.......

   A.Direct radiation only

   B.Diffuse radiation only
   C.Direct and diffuse both
   D.All of the above
C.Direct and diffuse both

7. A pyranometer is used for mesurement of........

   A.Direct radiation only
   B.Diffuse radiation only
   C.Direct as well as diffuse radiation
   D.All of the above

C.Direct as well as diffuse radiation

8. Most widely used solar material is........

   A.Arsenic
   B.Cadmium
   C.Silicon
   D.Steel

C.Silicon

9. Photovoltaic cell or solar cell converts........

 A.Thermal energy into electricity

   B.Electromagnetic radiation directly into electricity
   C.Solar radiation into thermal energy
   D.Solar radiation into kinetic energy

B.Electromagnetic radiation directly into electricity

10. Temperature attained by a flat-plate collector is of the........

   A.Order of about 900C

   B.Range of 1000C to 1500C
   C.Above 1500C
   D.None of the above

A.Order of about 900C

11. The voltage of a single solar cell is.......

   A.0.2 v
   B.0.5 v
   C.1.0 v
   D.2.0 v

B.0.5 v

12. Solar cells,for power generation,entail the following major disadvantages........

   A.Variable power
   B.High cost
   C.Lack of availability
   D.Large area requirement

B.High cost

13. Thermionic converterutilizes........

   A.Thermionic emission effect

   B.Peltier effect
   C.Seebeck effect
   D.None of the above
 A.Thermionic emission effect
14. Largest geothermal plant in operation is in........

   A.Maxico
   B.Italy
   C.Russia
   D.California

B.Italy

15. Bulb turbines are........turbines

   A.Low head
   B.High head
   C.High speed
   D.High pressure

A.Low head

16). What would be suns irradiance on the earth surface on a sunny day?
(a) 1367 W/m2 (b) 900 W/m2 (a) 450 W/m2
Ans: (b) 900 W/m2
17). The beam radiation that comes to earth directly from the sun is :
(a) Short wave radiation (b) Long wave radiation (a) Combination of long and Short wave
radiation
Ans: (a) Short wave radiation

18). Scattered radiation reflected from the ground is:

(a) Short wave radiation (b) Long wave radiation (a) Combination of long and Short wave
radiation
Ans: (b) Long wave radiation

19) .What is solar constant ? what is its meaning?

Ans: The solar constant is 1367+3%. This value is the measure of the extraterrestrial solar flux
density intercepted by the earth outside the atmosphere.
20) How to estimate the beam radiation intensity on the earth surface based on the solar constant
and transmittance of the atmosphere of 0.5 at certain location
Ans: Beam radiation = Solar constant is multiplied by transmittance of atmosphere =1367x.5 =
683.5 W/m2 –sec.
Calculate diffused radiation and reflected radiations when the inclination angle with sky and earth is
120 and reflectivity = .2.
Ans: Diffused radiation Rd = (1+Cosβ)/2 = (1+Cos12)/2 = 0.989
Reflected radiation Rr = ρ (1- Cosβ)/2 = 0.2 (1- Cos12)/2 = 0.0022

MCQs
1. The amount of energy received in unit time on a unit area perpendicular to the sun’s
direction at the mean distance of the earth from the sun is called ________
a) Solar radiation
b) Solar constant
c) Intensity of solar radiation
d) Air Mass
Answer: b The amount of energy received in unit time on a unit area perpendicular to the
sun’s direction at the mean distance of the earth from the sun is called solar radiation. It is
defined as the solar energy receiving at the top of the atmosphere, denoted by Isc.

2. What is ‘n’ in the following solar intensity formula?

I = Isc {1 + 0.033cos (360n/365)}
a) Day of the year
b) Month of the year
c) The year
d) Week of the year
Answer: a: The following ‘n’ denotes day of the year in the formula. Since the distance
between sun and earth varies, extra-terrestrial flux also varies. Earth is closest to the sun in
the summer and farthest away in the winter.
3. When the sun is directly on the top of head, it as referred to _________
a) Zenith
b) Azimuth
c) Declination
d) Hour angle
Answer: a : When the sun is directly on the top of the head, it is referred to as sun at zenith.
The zenith is an imaginary point directly “above” a particular location, on the imaginary
celestial sphere. The zenith is the “highest” point on the celestial sphere.
4. Path length of radiation through the atmosphere to the length of path when the sun is at
zenith is called ___________
a) Declination
b) Air mass
c) Azimuth
d) Solar Constant
Answer: b : Path length of radiation through the atmosphere to the length of path when the
sun is at zenith is called Air mass.
Air mass, m = Cos (altitude angle), except for very low solar altitude angles.
m = 1; When the sun is at the zenith
m = 2; When zenith angle is 60o
m = 3; sec (θz) for m>3.
5. Radiation intensity ‘I’ normal to the surface is given by __________
a) ICosθ
b) Itanθ
c) ICotθ
d) Isinθ
Answer: a: I = ICosθ, Let θ = Angle between an incident beam radiation I and the normal to
the plane surface. And the θ is referred to as incident angle. And further by this formula
latitude angle, declination, hour angle, zenith angle and solar azimuth angles are found out.
6. Angle made by radial line joining the location to the centre of the earth with the projection
of the line on the equatorial plane is called _________
a) Latitude
b) Zenith angle
c) Hour angle
d) Declination
Answer: a: Angle made by radial line joining the location to the centre of the earth
with the projection of the line on the equatorial plane is called latitude. And it is
denoted by φl. It is also given by the angular distance north or
7. Angular distance of sun’s rays north or south of the equator is called _______
a) Declination
b) Hour angle
c) Latitude
d) Air mass
Answer: a : Declination is the angular distance of sun’s rays north or south of the equator. It
is the angle between the line extending from the centre of the sun to the centre of the earth
and the projection of this line upon earth’s equatorial plane.
8. By which of the following symbol is solar Declination denoted by ____________
a) δ
b) ρ
c) Δ
d) γ
Answer: a : Solar declination is denoted by Greek letter δ (DELTA). Solar declination is the
angle between the earth-sun line and the equatorial plane. Solar declination varies throughout
the year. And is given by Cooper equation,
δ = 23.45sin [(360/365) (284+n)] ∵n is day of the year.

9. The angle through which the earth must turn to bring the meridian of a point directly in
sun’s rays is called __________
a) Hour angle
b) Declination
c) Latitude
d) Air mass
Answer: a : The angle through which the earth must turn to bring the meridian of a point
directly in sun’s rays is called Hour angle. And it is denoted by Greek letter ω (OMEGA). It
is measured from noon based on the solar local time (LST).
10. Solar Altitude is also called as ________
a) Declination
 b) Altitude angle
c) Zenith angle
d) Azimuth angle
Answer: b : The vertical angle between the projection of the sun’s rays on the horizontal
plane and the direction of sun’s rays passing through the point s called solar altitude and is
also referred to altitude angle and is denoted by Greek letter α (ALPHA).
11. The angle between the sun’s rays and a line perpendicular to the horizontal plane through
angle the beam of the sun and vertical is called __________
a) Solar Azimuth angle
b) Zenith angle
c) Altitude angle
d) Declination
Answer: b : The angle between the sun’s rays and a line perpendicular to the horizontal plane
through angle measured from the north to the horizontal projection of rays is called zenith
angle. And it is denoted by θz.
12. The solar angle in degrees along the horizon east or west of north or it is the horizontal
angle measured from north to the horizontal projection of sun’s rays is called ___________
a) Solar azimuth angle
b) Zenith angle
c) Altitude angle
d) Declination
Answer: a: The solar angle in degrees along the horizon east or west of north or it is the
horizontal angle measured from north to the horizontal projection of sun’s rays is called solar
azimuth angle. And it is denoted by Greek letter γs (GAMMA).
13. Angle made by plane surface with horizontal is called ________
a)Slope
b)Altitude angle
c)Zenith angle
d)Hour Angle
Answer:a: The slope is the angle made by the plane surfaces with the horizontal. It is
considered positive for surfaces slopping towards the south and negative for surface slopping
towards the north. Different types of measurements are calculated by slopes.
14. The angle of deviation of the normal to the surface from the local meridian is called as
a)Surface azimuthangle
b)Solar azimuthangle
c)Solar altitude
d)Hour angle
Answer:a: Surface azimuth angle is the angle of deviation of the normal to the surface from
the local meridian, the zero point being south, east positive and west negative. And surface
azimuth is different where it is an angle on a horizontal plane between the normal to a
vertical surface and the north-south direction line.
15. The angle being measured from a plane and which is equal to angle between the beam of
rays and normal to the plane is called __________
a)Incident angle
b)Azimuth angle
c)Hour angle
d)Declination
Answer:a: The angle being measured from a plane and which is equal to angle between the
beam of rays and normal to the plane is called as incident angle. And it is denoted by Greek
letter θ (Theta). The angle of incidence (θ) is the angle between the sun’s rays irradiated on a
surface and the line normal to this surface.
16. The vector sum of the components along the line normal of the titled surface in a direction
normal to the tilted surface is called as__________
a)Solar intensity
b)Declination
c)Incident angle
d)Hour angle
Answer:a : The solar intensity at a direction normal to the tilted surface is the vector sum of
the components along the line normal of the tilted surface. And is given by formula,
IΣ = IDN cosθΣ
Where IDN = solar intensity irradiated on a surface normal to the sun’s rays.
16.The time from sunrise to sunset is termed as _______________
a)Slope
b)Day length
c) Local solar time
d) Solar intensity

Answer:b: The time from sunrise to sunset is termed as day length. On earth, daytime is
roughly the period of the day during which any given point in the world experiences natural
illumination from especially direct sunlight. Daytime occurs when the sun appears above the
local horizon, that is, anywhere on the globe’s hemisphere facing the Sun. During daytime, an
observer sees indirect sunlight while in the shade, which includes cloud cover.
17.LST stands for __________
a) Local standard time
b) Local solar temperature
c) Low surface temperature
d) Land surface temperature
Answer:b : Local solar time is also known as local apparent time which is the time used for
 calculating the hour angle. The local solar time is obtained from the standard time observed
on a clock by making two corrections. First, is taking different longitudes between the
locations and second is correction due to small perturbations of earth’s orbit and rate of
rotation.
18. How much would be the angle of declination on DECEMBER 21 at 0900 h (LAT). The
collector s located in New Delhi (28o35’N, 77o12’E) and is tilted at an angle of 36o with the
horizontal and is pointing south?
a) -44.28 o
b) -28.92 o
c) -23.45o
d) -42.22 o
Answer:c :
In the case γ= 0o, on December 21, n=355
Answer: b

19. What is angle of declination on 305th day of year and what day is it?
a) -23.26o, November 2
b) -15.06o, November 1
c) -18.96o, November 2
d) -10.52o, November 1

Answer: b

20. What is the angle of declination on 60th day of the leap year?
a) -8.29
b) 8.29
c) 4.82
d) 12.44
Answer: a

Explanation:

21. Which of the following energy has the greatest potential among all the sources of
renewable energy?
a) Solar energy
b) Wind Energy
c) Thermal energy
d) Hydro-electrical energy
Answer: a: Solar energy has the greatest potential of all the sources of renewable energy
which comes to the earth from sun. This energy keeps the temperature of the earth above that
in colder space, causes wind currents in the ocean and the atmosphere, causes water cycle and
generates photosynthesis in plants.
22. What is the rate of solar energy reaching the earth surface?
a) 1016W
b) 865W
c) 2854W
d) 1912W
Answer: a : The solar energy reaching the surface of the earth is about 1016W whereas the
worldwide power demand is 1013W. That means solar energy gives us 1000 times more
energy than our requirement.
23. What is total amount of solar energy received by earth and atmosphere?
a) 3.8 X 1024 J/year
b) 9.2 X 1024 J/year
c) 5.4 X 1024 J/year
d) 2.1 X 1024 J/year
Answer: a: Even if we use 5% of this energy, it is more than 50 times our requirement. The
total solar radiation absorbed by the earth and its atmosphere is 3.8 X 1024 Joules/year.
Except that it is distributed over the area of earth.
24. Which is most common source of energy from which electricity is produced?
a) Hydroelectricity
b) Wind energy
c) Coal
d) Solar energy
Answer: c: Coal is the most common source of energy that is being used since
industrialization. Modern steam boilers can burn coal in any of its form as a primary fuel.
Different ranks of coal available are peat, lignite, bituminous and anthracite.
25. Oil is estimated to last for ________ more.
a) 100 years
b) 500 years
c) A decade
d) 800 years
Answer: a: Almost 40% of energy needs is met by oil alone. With present consumption and a
resource of 250,000 million tonnes of oil, it is estimated to be last for only 100 years, unless
more oil is discovered. Major chunk of oil comes from petroleum.
26. Complete the following reaction.
H2O + CO2 → _______
a) CH2O + O2
b) CO2 + O2
c) H + CO2 + O2
d) CH2O + H2O + O2
Answer:a : H2O + CO2 → CH2O + O2 ∵under solar energy CH2O is stable at low temperature
but breaks at higher temperature releasing heat equal to 469 Kj/mole.
27. In what form is solar energy is radiated from the sun?
a) Ultraviolet Radiation
b) Infrared radiation
c) Electromagnetic waves
d) Transverse waves
Answer:c: Solar energy is radiated from the sun in the form of electromagnetic waves of
shorter wavelength of 0.2 to 0.4 micrometers. Out of all the solar energy radiations reaching
the earth’s atmosphere, 8% is ultraviolet radiation, 40% is visible range light and 46% is by
infrared radiation.
28. What does MHD stands for in the energy field?
a) Magneto Hydro Dynamic
b) Metal Hydrogen Detox
c) Micro Hybrid Drive
d) Metering Head Differential

29. Solar radiation which reaches the surface without scattering or absorbed is called
a) Beam Radiation
b) Infrared radiation
c) Ultraviolet radiation
d) Diffuse radiation
Answer:a: Solar radiation that has not been absorbed or scattered and reaches the ground
from the sun is called direct radiation or beam radiation. It is the radiation which produces a
shadow when interrupted by an opaque object.
30. The scattered solar radiation is called ____________
a) Direct Radiation
b) Beam Radiation
c) Diffuse radiation
d) Infrared Radiation
Answer:c: Diffuse radiation received from the sun after its direction has been changed by
reflection and scattering by the atmosphere. Since the solar radiation is scattered in all
direction in the atmosphere, diffuse radiation comes to the earth from all parts of the sky.
31.Solar radiation received at any point of earth is called ______________
a) Insolation
b) Beam Radiation
c) Diffuse Radiation
d) Infrared rays
Answer: a : Insolation is the total solar radiation received at any point on any point on the
earth’s surface. In other words insolation is the sum of the direct and diffuse radiation. More
specifically insolation is defined as the total solar radiation energy received on a horizontal
surface of unit area on the ground in unit time.

32-Direct Solar energy is used for

(A) Water heating (D)
(B) Distillation
(C) Drying
(D) All of the above
 
33.The power from the sun intercepted by the earth is approximately (A)
(A) 1.8 x 108 MW
(B) 1.8 x 1011 MW
(C) 1.8 x 1014 MW
(D) 1.8 x 1017 MW
 
34-The following is indirect method of Solar energy utilization (D)
(A) Wind energy
(B) Biomass energy
(C) Wave energy
(D) All of the above
 
35-A liquid flat plate collector is usually held tilted in a fixed position, facing _____ if
located in the northern hemisphere. (B)
(A) North
(B) South
(C) East
(D) West
 
36-The collection efficiency of Flat plate collector can be improved by (C)
(A) putting a selective coating on the plate
(B) evacuating the space above the absorber plate
(C) both (A) and (B)
(D) None of the above
 
37-The efficiency of various types of collectors ______ with _______ temperature.
(B)
(A) increases, decreasing
(B) decreases, increasing
(C) remains same, increasing
(D) depends upon type of collector
 
38-Maximum efficiency is obtained in (D)
(A) Flat plate collector
(B) Evacuated tube collector
(C) Line focussing collector
(D) Paraboloid dish collector
 
39-The following type of energy is stored as latent heat (A)
(A) Thermal energy
(B) Chemical energy
(C) Electrical energy
(D) Mechanical energy
 
 40-Which of the following type of collector is used for low temperature systems?
(A)
(A) Flat plate collector
(B) Line focussing parabolic collector
(C) Paraboloid dish collector
(D) All of the above
 
41-In the paraboloid dish concept, the concentrator tracks the sun by rotating about
(B)
(A) One axes
(B) Two axes
(C) Three axes
(D) None of the above
 
42-The sun subtends an angle of _____ minutes at the earth’s surface. (B)
(A) 22
(B) 32
(C) 42
(D) 52
 
43-The value of Solar Constant is (C)
2
(A) 1347 W/m
(B) 1357 W/m2
(C) 1367 W/m2
(D) 1377 W/m2
 
44-The extraterrestrial radiation flux varies by ____ % over a year. (C)
(A) ± 1.1
(B) ± 2.2
(C) ± 3.3
(D) ± 4.4
 
45-The following is (are) laws of black body radiation. (C)
(A) Plank’s law
(B) Stefan-Boltzmann law
(C) both (A) and (B)
(D) None of the above
 
46-Absorption of Solar radiations at earth’s surface occur due to presence of  (D)
(A) Ozone
(B) Water vapours
(C) Carbon di-oxide
(D) All of the above
 
47-Global radiation = (B)
(A) Direct radiation – Diffuse Radiation
(B) Direct radiation + Diffuse Radiation
(C) Direct radiation / Diffuse Radiation
(D) Diffuse Radiation / Direct radiation
 
48-The zenith angle is the angle made by the sun’s rays with the ____ to a ______
surface. (A)
(A) normal, horizontal
(B) tangent, horizontal
(C) normal, vertical
(D) tangent, vertical
 
49-Solar radiation flux is usually measured with the help of a (B)
(A) Anemometer
(B) Pyranometer
(C) Sunshine recorder
(D) All of the above
 
50-Beam radiations are measured with (B)
(A) Anemometer
(B) Pyrheliometer
(C) Sunshine recorder
(D) All of the above
 
51-The angle made by the plane surface with the horizontal is known as (B)
(A) Latitude
(B) Slope
(C) Surface azimuth angle
(D) Declination
 
52-The angle made in the horizontal plane between the horizontal line due south and the
projection of the normal to the surface on the horizontal plane is (C)
(A) Hour angle
(B) Declination
(C) Surface azimuth angle
(D) Solar altitude angle
 
53-Surface azimuth angle varies from (D)
(A) 0 to 90°
(B) -90 to 90°
(C) 0 to 180°
(D) -180° to 180°
 
54-The hour angle is equivalent to (B)
(A) 10° per hour
(B) 15° per hour
(C) 20° per hour
(D) 25° per hour
 
55-The complement of zenith angle is (A)
(A) Solar altitude angle
 (B) Surface azimuth angle
(C) Solar azimuth angle
(D) Slope
 
56-The correction has a magnitude of ___ minutes for every degree difference in
longitude. (C)
(A) 2
(B) 4
(C) 6
(D) 8
 
57-The global radiation reaching a horizontal surface on the earth is given by (A)
(A) Hourly beam radiation + Hourly diffuse radiation 
(B) Hourly beam radiation – Hourly diffuse radiation 
(C) Hourly beam radiation / Hourly diffuse radiation 
(D) Hourly diffuse radiation / Hourly beam radiation
 
58-The ratio of the beam radiation flux falling on a tilted surface to that falling on a
horizontal surface is called the (B)
(A) Radiation shape factor
(B) Tilt factor
(C) Slope
(D) None of the above
 
Answers:
1-(D), 2-(B), 3-(D), 4-(B), 5-(C), 6-(B), 7-(D), 8-(A), 9-(A), 10-(B), 11-(B), 12-(C), 13-(C),
14-(C), 15-(D), 16-(B), 17-(A), 18-(B), 19-(B), 20-(B), 21-(C), 22-(D), 23-(B), 24-(A), 25-
(C), 26-(A), 27-(B)

Question 1. What Is A Residential Solar Electric System?

Answer : We offer comprehensive, code-compliant systems that allow you to generate your own
electricity at home. Designed to interconnect with your existing utility service, they feature solar
modules, plug-and-play wiring, power electronics and our patented mounting kits. Our installer
network provides system installation and service.
Question 2. How Does A Residential Solar Electric System Work?
Answer :Solar cells in the modules mounted on your roof convert sunlight directly into DC
power. A component called an inverter converts this DC power into AC power that can be used in
your home. The system is interconnected with your utility. During the day, if your solar system
produces more electricity than your home is using, your utility may allow net metering or the
crediting of your utility account for the excess power generated being returned to the grid. Your
utility would provide power as usual at night and during the day when your electricity demand
exceeds that produced by your solar system. Systems are also available with a battery backup. Part
of the power produced by your solar system during the day is used to charge the batteries, which
provide power for your critical loads in the event of a power outage.
Question 3. Will My System Work At Night?
Answer : No. Sunlight must be present for your solar modules to produce power. At night, you
draw power from your utility.
Question 4. Will My System Work On Cloudy Days?
Answer : Yes, though they produce less electricity. Under a light overcast sky, panels might
produce about half as much as under full sun.
Question 5. What Happens During A Power Outage?
Answer : We offer two types of solar residential systems. One type of system powers your home
during daylight hours but does not provide power in an outage, even on a sunny day. Another type
of system powers your home during daylight hours but also has a battery backup designed to
provide power to your home's critical loads during an outage, day or night.
Question 6. Does Your Solar System Make Hot Water?
Answer : No. People often confuse our products with solar thermal panels that involve water
circulating through tubes to be heated by the sun for swimming pool water heating. Our solar
modules convert sunlight into electric current to operate appliances, motors, pumps and other
devices.
Question 7. How Can I Tell A Water-heating Panel From A Solar Electric Module?
Answer : Solar electric modules are typically one to two inches (2.5 to 5 cm) thick with 32 or
more three to four inch (7.5 to 10 cm) blue or black solar cells on the back of the cover glass.
Solar water heating panels are generally much thicker and may have tubes connected to a flat
black plate under the glass, or a black tank inside the collector panel.
Question 8. Can I Generate Heat For My Home With A Residential Solar Electric System?
Answer : No. Our solar power systems are designed to provide electricity to run your lights,
appliances and other electric devices in your home. Other solar technologies are designed to turn
the sun's light into heat instead of electricity.
Question 9. What Do The Terms On-grid, Grid-connected, Grid-tied And Off-grid Mean?
Answer : On-grid, grid-connected or grid-tied means connected to the utility electrical grid. Our
solar electric systems are designed as on-grid systems, meaning that they interconnect with your
existing utility service. Off-grid refers to systems that are not connected to the utility electrical
grid. Our solar electric packaged systems are not designed for off-grid applications. An off-grid
system must be custom designed by a solar power expert.
Question 10. How Do I Know If A Residential Solar Electric System Would Work On My
Home?
Answer : Solar electric power works for most homes. Our systems are engineered to work with
most roofing materials, in most locations where direct sunlight is available, in almost every region
of the United States. You need a sunny place on your roof about 120 square feet or 11 square
meters (10 by 12 feet or 3 by 3.67 meters) for our smaller systems, and up to 1,000 square feet (93
square meters) for our largest systems. Shading from trees or other obstructions can reduce the
practicality of a specific installation. A south-facing roof area is optimal, but solar electric panels
can be mounted on west- or east- facing roofs and still produce better than 90 percent of the power
of a true south roof mounting.
Question 11. Why Does It Require At Least 120 Square Feet (11 Square Meters) Of Roof
Space?
Answer :Each solar module is approximately 5 feet (1.5 meters) long and 2-1/2 feet (0.75 meters)
wide. The modules are always grouped in a set of four, and the minimum number of modules for
our smallest system is twelve modules. This requires an area of at least 120 square feet (11 square
meters).
Question 12. Why Is Shade A Problem?
Answer :Because of the wiring design of a solar module, all of the individual solar cells on a
module must receive full sunlight for the module to work properly. If any portion of the module is
shaded, the entire module power output-even those sections still exposed to sunlight-is lowered.
Question 13. What If I Need A New Roof Or Am Building A New House?
Answer :This is the ideal situation for installing solar. Before laying the roof, you can install
flashable mounting brackets that provide the highest level of protection from leakage.
Question 14. Can I Add Reflectors Or Mirrors Around The Solar Panels To Increase The
Power They Generate?
Answer :No. Our solar panels designed for use in direct sunlight only.
Question 15. How Many Solar Panels Do I Need To Produce Enough Electricity To Run My
House?
Answer :The array size you need depends on your average electrical usage, climate, roof angle,
shading problems and many other factors. To approximate the array size you need, multiply your
average daily electrical demand in kilowatt-hours by 0.25. The result is the approximate size of
solar array, in kilowatts, needed to meet your electrical demand.
Question 16. Will A System Produce Enough Energy To Cover All My Electricity Needs?
Answer :It is important to understand that a solar electric system does not need to provide all of
the electricity you need to be of great value. A small system that displaces an average of one-
quarter to one-half of your average demand reduces your electric bill. With battery backup, it can
deliver uninterrupted power to critical loads during utility outages for days or weeks. We are
happy to provide you with a system that supplies 100 percent of your energy needs, but cutting
your electricity by 40 to 50 percent is typically the most cost-efficient approach for home solar
power.
Question 17. What Other Options Do I Have If The System Cannot Be Mounted On My
Roof?
Answer :If a roof-mounted system proves impractical, a ground-mount, trellis or pergola
application may be an option.
Question 18. If I Rent A Home Or Apartment, Can I Still Get A System?
Answer :No. Solar electric systems are available only to property owners. The installation of a
solar electric system involves the property owner entering a contractual agreement that includes a
potential property lien (called a mechanic's lien).
Question 19. What Is Net Metering?
Answer :Net metering measures the difference between the electricity you buy from your utility
and the electricity you produce with your solar energy system. Under net metering, any excess
electricity produced by your solar energy system is delivered back into the utility grid, effectively
spinning your meter backwards. Your meter spins forward when your solar energy system is not
producing all of the electricity you are currently using. Your electric meter keeps track of this net
difference as you generate electricity and take electricity from the utility grid.
Question 20. Do All States Require Utilities To Offer Net Metering?
Answer : Many, but not all, states require utilities to offer net metering, but the size and
technology requirements vary. If your state does not provide for net metering, you can still use the
electricity in your house and enjoy the benefits of clean reliable power from the sun. However,
you must purchase a second meter to measure the amount of electricity your system produces and
make special arrangements with the utility to receive credit for excess electricity produced by your
solar electric system.
Question 21. Are Government Incentives Available To Reduce The Price?
Answer : Yes. State agencies and municipal utilities offer rebate and incentive programs for
homeowners and small businesses to promote the installation of renewable energy equipment such
as ours. Incentives can cut the cost of your system in half, saving you thousands of dollars. Your
dealer can tell you more about the incentives available in your area.
Question 22. How Much Power Will A Residential System Produce?
Answer : The amount of power produced by a system varies depending on the size of the system,
your geographic location and climate and whether the system has a battery backup.
Question 23. Can The Modules Withstand High Winds And Hail?
Answer : The panels are supported by our roofer-designed mounting system that has been tested
to withstand 125 mph (200 kph) winds and can work on almost every type of roofing material.
Our modules can withstand one-inch (2.5 cm) hailstones at 50 mph (80.5 kph).
Question 24. How Long Will My Solar Power System Last?
Answer : With no moving parts and made of very inert materials, our solar modules are tough.
Most of the related system components should also last for many years without problems. The
batteries in our residential system may need replacement in five to 10 years.
Question 25. How Can I Tell How My System Is Performing?
Answer : We provide a power meter with the system. Located in your home, your power meter
tells you exactly how much electricity you generate and use, and when you send power back to the
utility grid. You will be able to manage your household usage like never before.
Question 26. What Maintenance Does The System Require?
Answer : You should go years without problems. The batteries in our residential system may need
replacement every five to 10 years. We recommend that the installer do a system check once a
year, just to make sure everything is performing, as it should. If it is convenient, you can hose off
the modules two or three times a year.
Question 27. Do I Have To Buy A Service Contract?
Answer : No. We do not offer an annual service contract. Your dealer may offer a service
contract for regularly scheduled checks of the system output and wiring.
Question 28. How Much Does The Maintenance Cost?
Answer : Since the maintenance required is very low, your cost should be minimal. Most of the
related system components should last for many years without problems. The batteries in the
residential system may need replacement every five to 10 years.
Question 29. Do I Need A Building Permit?
Answer : Yes. Your dealer and installer know how to obtain the necessary permits from your
local government.
Question 30. Do I Need Permission From The Local Utility To Connect My Solar System To
The Grid?
Answer : Yes. The local utility has rules and procedures that must be followed to connect any
generator to the grid safely and legally. These rules are generally based on national standards with
which our systems comply. Your dealer will help you with the documentation and procedures.
Question 31. Do I Need Approval From My Homeowners' Association?
Answer : Some homeowners' associations have rules regarding the installation of anything on
your roof or grounds. If you belong to a homeowners' association, consult your covenants for
details. Many states prohibit homeowners' associations from restricting solar devices.
Question 32. Can I Have A Solar Electric System On My House And Still Be Connected To
City Power?
Answer : Yes. In fact, our systems are designed as on-grid systems, meaning they are designed to
interconnect with utility power.
Question 33. Can I Be Totally Independent From The Utility?
Answer :Our solar electric systems are designed to interconnect with existing utility service. Off-
grid systems must be custom designed by a solar power expert.