Unit 2 revision checklist

Section 7: Machine-level architecture

7.1 Logic gates and Boolean algebra

 Boolean variables may have two discrete possible values, e.g. true or false, 1 or 0
 a truth table shows the result of applying a logical function to all possible input combinations
 OR function: output is true if either or both inputs are true
 AND function: the output is true if all inputs are true
 NOT function: the output is the inversion of the input
 XOR function: the output is true if either input is true but not if both are true
 NAND function: the output is true if any input is false
 NOR function: the output is true only when all inputs are false
 logic gates perform Boolean functions such as AND, OR and NOT
 output Q is expressed in terms of Boolean inputs X, Y, Z, etc., and Boolean functions
 De Morgan’s laws
 to simplify a logical expression, use a truth table to write down input combinations that make the
output 1 then use De Morgan’s laws to produce a solution in NAND or NOR
 the logic gate symbols.

7.2 Computer architecture

 the three-box model consists of a processor, main memory and I/O connected by a system bus
 a system bus is made up of a data bus, an address bus and a control bus
 a system bus is a shared bus
 an I/O controller is the interface between the system bus and an I/O device. It contains I/O ports
 secondary storage is permanent storage, e.g. a magnetic disk
 peripherals are not part of the processor and main memory
 memory locations are uniquely identified by address codes
 in the stored program concept, a program must be resident in main memory to be executed
 a program is processed by fetching machine code instructions in sequence from main memory then
decoding and executing them, one at a time, in the processor
 a processor consists of an ALU, a control unit and instruction decoder, registers, an internal clock,
internal buses and logic gates
 a system clock provides timing signals so the system can run properly
 increasing the clock frequency or the word length increases the processor speed of operation
 increasing the address bus width allows more memory to be addressed
 increasing the data bus width increases the speed of operation.

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7.3 Basic machine code operations and the fetch–execute cycle
 machine code instructions are binary codes that a machine can understand and execute
 compiled high-level languages are translated into machine code
 a machine code instruction consists of an op-code and zero or more operands
 the op-code denotes the basic machine operation, e.g. ADD
 the operand represents a single item of binary data or its address
 the mnemonic form of a machine code instruction is often used. It is called assembly language
 a fixed number of bits is allocated to op-code; this fixes the number of basic machine operations the
processor supports
 people find it easier and less error-prone to work with machine code in hexadecimal form
 a processor’s instruction set is the set of machine operations it is designed to perform
 in the fetch–execute cycle, instructions are fetched one at a time, decoded and executed
 the essential registers involved in the fetch–execute cycle are the PC, MAR, MBR and CIR.

Section 8: Computer systems

8.1 Hardware devices

 input methods and devices
 output methods and devices
 storage media: magnetic, optical, solid-state
 capacity and speed of access for various storage media.

8.2 Classification of software

 system software: operating systems, library programs, utility programs, language translators
 application software: general-purpose, special-purpose and bespoke
 assemblers translate assembly code into machine code
 a high-level language program is called source code
 a compiler translates source code into object code
 an interpreter analyses each statement of the source code as it executes the statement
 machine code, assembly languages, imperative languages and declarative languages.

Section 9: The Internet

9.1 Structure of the Internet

 the Internet is a network of networks and computers that use unique IP addresses and TCP/IP
 messages are split into packets, which are routed independently by packet switching
 routers are used because it is not practical to connect every host directly to every other host
 an intranet is a private computer network that uses Internet protocols

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 the world wide web is a system of interlinked hypertext documents accessed via the Internet
 in the client–server model, a client process requests a service from a server process
 a protocol provides agreed signals, codes and rules for data exchange between systems
 the TCP/IP protocol stack consists of four layers: application, transport, network and link
 some application protocols are HTTP, FTP, Telnet, POP3, SMTP and HTTPS
 domain names are registered in Internet registries
 domain names are organised hierarchically into a Domain Name System (DNS).
 DNS servers translate domain names into IP addresses
 a URI specifies how to access a resource on the Internet
 a URL is a URI that identifies a resource by its network location.

9.2 Web site design

 web pages are written in HTML. The HTML for a web page is called its source
 text in a web page can be content for display, or formatting that describes structure and presentation
 a hyperlink is a way to link text or graphics in a web page to another location on the web
 page structure: <html> <head> <title> . . . </title> </head> <body> . . . </body> </html>
 block-level tags: <div></div> <p></p> <hr /> <h#></h#> <ol></ol> <ul></ul> <li></li>
 use <div></div> to divide a web page into sections
 inline tags: <span></span> <strong></strong> <em></em> <br /> <a></a> <img />
 all tags should be written in lower case
 a style sheet is a collection of rules about presentation; it may be embedded or external
 a style rule is expressed like this: selector {property : value}
 there are three kinds of selector: type, class, and ID that you need to be aware of
 a selector selects the elements on an HTML page that are affected by the style rules
 CSS is a way to separate a web page’s formatting from its content
 a good rule for page layout is the rule of thirds
 three web-page colour schemes: monochromatic, analogous, complementary.

Section 10: Consequences of uses of computers

10.1 Legal and ethical issues

 there are many laws that refer to computerised data and programs
 personal data is data that relates to a living individual who can be identified from that data
 a data subject is an individual who is the subject of personal data
 cracking means illegally breaking into a computer system; it is also called hacking
 some organisations have codes of conduct that govern their members
 DRM applies control technologies to limit the use of digital media

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 the computer developments of the twentieth century are called the digital revolution
 knowledge workers are people that work extensively with information
 the digital divide is the gap between people with IT access and people without it
 a robot is a mechanical structure whose actions are controlled by computer programs
 robots are used for repetitive tasks, precision work and jobs that are too dangerous for humans
 AI researchers develop expert systems and neural networks.

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