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Universal Declaration of Human Rights

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Main page The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is a historic document that was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly at its third session
Universal Declaration of Human
Contents on 10 December 1948 as Resolution 217 at the Palais de Chaillot in Paris, France. Of the then 58 members of the United Nations, 48 voted in favor, none
Rights
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against, eight abstained, and two did not vote.[1]
Current events
Random article The Declaration consists of 30 articles affirming an individual's rights which, although not legally binding in themselves, have been elaborated in subsequent
Donate to Wikipedia international treaties, economic transfers, regional human rights instruments, national constitutions, and other laws. The Declaration was the first step in the
Wikipedia store process of formulating the International Bill of Human Rights, which was completed in 1966, and came into force in 1976, after a sufficient number of
Interaction countries had ratified them.

Help Some legal scholars have argued that because countries have constantly invoked the Declaration for more than 50 years, it has become binding as a part of
About Wikipedia customary international law.[2][3] However, in the United States, the Supreme Court in Sosa v. Alvarez-Machain (2004), concluded that the Declaration "does
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not of its own force impose obligations as a matter of international law."[4] Courts of other countries have also concluded that the Declaration is not in and of
Recent changes Eleanor Roosevelt with the English language
itself part of domestic law.[5] version of the Universal Declaration of Human
Contact page Rights.

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Contents [hide] Created 1948
1 Structure and content Ratified 10 December 1948
What links here
Related changes 2 History Location Palais de Chaillot, Paris
Upload file 2.1 Background Author(s) Draft Committee[a]
Special pages 2.2 Creation and drafting Purpose Human rights
Permanent link
2.3 Adoption
Page information
3 International Human Rights Day Poster
Wikidata item
Cite this page 4 Significance and legal effect
4.1 Significance
In other projects 4.2 Legal effect
Wikimedia Commons 5 Reaction
Wikinews 5.1 Praise
Wikiquote
5.2 Criticism
Wikisource
5.2.1 Islamic countries
Print/export 5.2.2 "The Right to Refuse to Kill"
Download as PDF 5.2.3 American Anthropological Association
Printable version 5.2.4 Bangkok Declaration
5.2.5 Death penalty
Languages
6 Organizations promoting the UDHR
বাংলা
6.1 International Federation for Human Rights
ગુજરાતી
6.2 Amnesty International
िह ी
The human rights adopted by the United
മലയാളം 6.3 Quaker United Nations Office and American Friends Service Committee
Nations General Assembly of its 183rd
मराठी 6.4 American Library Association meeting, held in Paris on 10 December 1948
ଓଡ଼ିଆ 6.5 Youth for Human Rights International
த ழ் 7 See also Rights
7.1 Human rights
‫اردو‬
7.2 Non-binding agreements
146 more 7.3 International human rights law
Edit links
7.4 Thinkers influencing the Declaration
7.5 Other
8 Notes Theoretical distinctions
8.1 Citations Claim rights and liberty rights ·
8.2 References Individual and group rights ·
Natural and legal rights ·
9 Further reading
Negative and positive rights
10 External links
Human rights
10.1 Audiovisual materials Civil and political ·
Economic, social and cultural ·
Three generations
Structure and content [ edit ] Rights by beneficiary
Accused · Animals · Children · Consumers ·
The underlying structure of the Universal Declaration was introduced in its second draft, which was prepared by René Cassin. Cassin worked from a first Creditors · Deaf · Disabled persons · Elders ·
draft, which was prepared by John Peters Humphrey. The structure was influenced by the Code Napoléon, including a preamble and introductory general Fetuses · Gun owners · Humans · Natives ·
Intersex · Kings · LGBT · Men · Minorities ·
principles.[6] Cassin compared the Declaration to the portico of a Greek temple, with a foundation, steps, four columns, and a pediment.
Parents (Mothers, Fathers) · Patients · Plants
The Declaration consists of a preamble and thirty articles: · Prisoners · States · Students · Victims ·
Women · Workers · Youth
The preamble sets out the historical and social causes that led to the necessity of drafting the Declaration.
Other groups of rights
Articles 1–2 established the basic concepts of dignity, liberty, and equality. Civil liberties · Digital · Linguistic · Property ·
Articles 3–5 established other individual rights, such as the right to life and the prohibition of slavery and torture. Reproductive · Self defense ·
Self-determination of people ·
Articles 6–11 refer to the fundamental legality of human rights with specific remedies cited for their defence when violated. Water and sanitation
Articles 12–17 established the rights of the individual towards the community (including such things as freedom of movement). · ·
Articles 18–21 sanctioned the so-called "constitutional liberties", and with spiritual, public, and political freedoms, such as freedom of thought, opinion,
religion and conscience, word, and peaceful association of the individual. Wikisource has original text
related to this article:
Articles 22–27 sanctioned an individual's economic, social and cultural rights, including healthcare. Article 25 states: "Everyone has the right to a standard of Universal Declaration of
living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services." It Human Rights

also makes additional accommodations for security in case of physical debilitation or disability, and makes special mention of care given to those in
motherhood or childhood.[7]
Articles 28–30 established the general ways of using these rights, the areas in which these rights of the individual can not be applied, and that they can not be overcome against the individual.

These articles are concerned with the duty of the individual to society and the prohibition of use of rights in contravention of the purposes of the United Nations Organisation.[8]

History [ edit ]

Background [ edit ]
Main article: History of human rights

During World War II, the Allies adopted the Four Freedoms—freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom from fear, and freedom from
State of the Union (Four Freedoms) (6
want—as their basic war aims.[9][10] The United Nations Charter "reaffirmed faith in fundamental human rights, and dignity and worth of the January 1941)
human person" and committed all member states to promote "universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental 0:00 MENU

freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion".[11] Franklin Delano Roosevelt's 6 January
1941 State of the Union address
introducing the theme of the Four
When the atrocities committed by Nazi Germany became fully apparent after World War II, the consensus within the world community was that Freedoms (starting at 32:02)
the United Nations Charter did not sufficiently define the rights to which it referred.[12][13] A universal declaration that specified the rights of
Problems playing this file? See media help.
individuals was necessary to give effect to the Charter's provisions on human rights.[14]

Creation and drafting [ edit ]

Main article: Drafting of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

In June 1946, the UN Economic and Social Council established the Commission on Human Rights, comprising 18 members from various nationalities and political backgrounds. The Commission, a
standing body of the United Nations, was constituted to undertake the work of preparing what was initially conceived as an International Bill of Rights.[15]

The Commission established a special Universal Declaration of Human Rights Drafting Committee, chaired by Eleanor Roosevelt, to write the articles of the Declaration. The Committee met in two
sessions over the course of two years.

Canadian John Peters Humphrey, Director of the Division of Human Rights within the United Nations Secretariat, was called upon by the United Nations Secretary-General to work on the project and
became the Declaration's principal drafter.[16] At the time, Humphrey was newly appointed as Director of the Division of Human Rights within the United Nations Secretariat.[17]

Other well-known members of the drafting committee included René Cassin of France, Charles Malik of Lebanon, and P. C. Chang of the Republic of China.[18] Humphrey provided the initial draft that
became the working text of the Commission.

Hansa Mehta of India suggested to add "all human beings are created equal" instead of "all men are created equal" in the declaration.

According to Allan Carlson, the Declaration's pro-family phrases were the result of the Christian Democratic movement's influence on Cassin and Malik.[19]

Once the Committee finished its work in May 1948, the draft was further discussed by the Commission on Human Rights, the Economic and Social Council, the Third Committee of the General Assembly
before being put to vote in December 1948. During these discussions many amendments and propositions were made by UN Member States.[20]

British representatives were extremely frustrated that the proposal had moral but no legal obligation.[21] (It was not until 1976 that the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights came into force,
giving a legal status to most of the Declaration.)

Adoption [ edit ]

The Universal Declaration was adopted by the General Assembly as Resolution 217 on 10 December 1948 in Palais de Chaillot, Paris, as the third United Nations General Assembly was held there.[22] Of
the then 58 members[23] of the United Nations, 48 voted in favour, none against, eight abstained[24][25] and Honduras and Yemen failed to vote or abstain.[26]

The meeting record[27] provides firsthand insight into the debate. South Africa's position can be seen as an attempt to protect its system of apartheid, which clearly violated several articles in the
Declaration.[24] The Saudi Arabian delegation's abstention was prompted primarily by two of the Declaration's articles: Article 18, which states that everyone has the right "to change his religion or belief";
and Article 16, on equal marriage rights.[24] The six communist countries abstentions centred around the view that the Declaration did not go far enough in condemning fascism and Nazism.[28] Eleanor
Roosevelt attributed the abstention of Soviet bloc countries to Article 13, which provided the right of citizens to leave their countries.[29]

The 48 countries that voted in favour of the Declaration are:[30]

Afghanistan Egypt New Zealand

Argentina El Salvador Nicaragua
Australia Ethiopia Norway
Belgium France Pakistan
Voting in the plenary session:
Bolivia Greece Panama Green countries: voted in favour;
Brazil Guatemala Paraguay Orange countries: abstained;
Black countries: failed to abstain or
Burma Haiti Peru vote;
Canada[a] Iceland Philippines Grey countries: were not part of the UN
at time of voting
Chile India Siam
Republic of China Iran Sweden
Colombia Iraq Syria
Costa Rica Lebanon Turkey
Cuba Liberia United Kingdom
Denmark Luxembourg United States
Dominican Republic Mexico Uruguay
Ecuador Netherlands Venezuela
a. ^ Despite the central role played by the Canadian John Peters Humphrey, the Canadian Government at first abstained from voting on the Declaration's draft, but later voted in favour of the final draft in the General Assembly.[31]

Eight countries abstained:[30]

Czechoslovakia Saudi Arabia Byelorussian SSR South Africa

Poland Soviet Union Ukrainian SSR Yugoslavia

Two countries did not vote:

Honduras
Yemen

Other countries only gained sovereignty and joined the United Nations later,[32] which explains the relatively small number of states entitled to the historical vote.

International Human Rights Day [ edit ]

Main article: Human Rights Day

The Declaration of Human Rights Day is commemorated every year on December 10, the anniversary of the adoption of the Universal Declaration, and is known as Human Rights Day or International
Human Rights Day. The commemoration is observed by individuals, community and religious groups, human rights organizations, parliaments, governments, and the United Nations. Decadal
commemorations are often accompanied by campaigns to promote awareness of the Declaration and human rights. 2008 marked the 60th anniversary of the Declaration, and was accompanied by year-
long activities around the theme "Dignity and justice for all of us".[33]

Significance and legal effect [ edit ]

Significance [ edit ]

In 1948, the UN Resolution A/RES/217(III)[A] adopted the Declaration on a bilingual document in English and French, and official translations in Chinese, Russian
and Spanish.[34] In 2009, the Guinness Book of Records described the Declaration as the world's "Most Translated Document" (370 different languages and
dialects).[35][36] The Unicode Consortium stores 431[37] of the 503[38] official translations available at the OHCHR (as of June 2017).

In its preamble, governments commit themselves and their people to progressive measures that secure the universal and effective recognition and observance of the
human rights set out in the Declaration. Eleanor Roosevelt supported the adoption of the Declaration as a declaration rather than as a treaty because she believed
that it would have the same kind of influence on global society as the United States Declaration of Independence had within the United States.[39] Even though it is
not legally binding, the Declaration has been adopted in or has influenced most national constitutions since 1948. It has also served as the foundation for a growing
number of national laws, international laws, and treaties, as well as for a growing number of regional, sub national, and national institutions protecting and promoting
human rights.

For the first time in international law, the term "the rule of law" was used in the preamble of the Declaration. The third paragraph of the preamble of the Declaration
reads as follows: "Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression, that human
rights should be protected by the rule of law."[40]

Legal effect [ edit ]

While not a treaty itself, the Declaration was explicitly adopted for the purpose of defining the meaning of the words "fundamental freedoms" and "human rights"
appearing in the United Nations Charter, which is binding on all member states. For this reason, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights is a fundamental
constitutive document of the United Nations. In addition, many international lawyers[41][42][43][44] believe that the Declaration forms part of customary international
law[45] and is a powerful tool in applying diplomatic and moral pressure to governments that violate any of its articles. The 1968 United Nations International In miniature book
Conference on Human Rights advised that the Declaration "constitutes an obligation for the members of the international community" to all persons. The Declaration
has served as the foundation for two binding UN human rights covenants: the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and the International Covenant on
Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. The principles of the Declaration are elaborated in international treaties such as the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination,
the International Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women, the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child, the United Nations Convention Against Torture, and many
more. The Declaration continues to be widely cited by governments, academics, advocates, and constitutional courts, and by individuals who appeal to its principles for the protection of their recognised
human rights.

Reaction [ edit ]

Praise [ edit ]

The Universal Declaration has received praise from a number of notable people. The Lebanese philosopher and diplomat Charles Malik called it "an international document of the first order of
importance",[46] while Eleanor Roosevelt—first chairwoman of the Commission on Human Rights (CHR) that drafted the Declaration—stated that it "may well become the international Magna Carta of all
men everywhere."[47] In a speech on 5 October 1995, Pope John Paul II called the Declaration "one of the highest expressions of the human conscience of our time" but the Vatican never adopted the
Declaration.[48] In a statement on 10 December 2003 on behalf of the European Union, Marcello Spatafora said that the Declaration "placed human rights at the centre of the framework of principles and
obligations shaping relations within the international community."[49]

Criticism [ edit ]

Islamic countries [ edit ]

See also: Cairo Declaration of Human Rights in Islam

Turkey, a secular state with an overwhelmingly Muslim population, signed the Declaration in 1948.[50] However, the same year, Saudi Arabia abstained from the ratification vote on the Declaration,
claiming that it violated Sharia law.[51] Pakistan—which had signed the declaration—disagreed and critiqued the Saudi position.[52] Pakistani minister Muhammad Zafarullah Khan strongly argued in favor
of including freedom of religion.[53] In 1982, the Iranian representative to the United Nations, Said Rajaie-Khorassani, said that the Declaration was "a secular understanding of the Judeo-Christian
tradition", which could not be implemented by Muslims without conflict with Sharia.[54] On 30 June 2000, members of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (now the Organisation of Islamic
Cooperation) officially resolved to support the Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam,[55] an alternative document that says people have "freedom and right to a dignified life in accordance with the
Islamic Shari'ah", without any discrimination on grounds of "race, colour, language, sex, religious belief, political affiliation, social status or other considerations".

Some Muslim diplomats would go on later to help draft other UN human rights treaties. For example, Iraqi diplomat Bedia Afnan's insistence on wording that recognized gender equality resulted in Article
3 within the ICCPR and ICESCR. Pakistani diplomat Shaista Suhrawardy Ikramullah also spoke in favor of recognizing women's rights.[53]

A number of scholars in different fields have expressed concerns with the Declaration's alleged Western bias. These include Irene Oh, Abdulaziz Sachedina, Riffat Hassan, and Faisal Kutty. Hassan has
argued:

What needs to be pointed out to those who uphold the Universal Declaration of Human Rights to be the highest, or sole, model, of a charter of equality and liberty for all human beings, is that
given the Western origin and orientation of this Declaration, the "universality" of the assumptions on which it is based is – at the very least – problematic and subject to questioning.
Furthermore, the alleged incompatibility between the concept of human rights and religion in general, or particular religions such as Islam, needs to be examined in an unbiased way.[56]

Irene Oh argues that one solution is to approach the issue from the perspective of comparative (descriptive) ethics.[57]

Kutty writes: "A strong argument can be made that the current formulation of international human rights constitutes a cultural structure in which western society finds itself easily at home ... It is important
to acknowledge and appreciate that other societies may have equally valid alternative conceptions of human rights."[58]

"The Right to Refuse to Kill" [ edit ]

Groups such as Amnesty International[59] and War Resisters International[60] have advocated for "The Right to Refuse to Kill" to be added to the Universal Declaration. War Resisters International has
stated that the right to conscientious objection to military service is primarily derived from—but not yet explicit in—Article 18 of the UDHR: the right to freedom of thought, conscience, and religion.[60]

Steps have been taken within the United Nations to make this right more explicit, but—to date (2017)—those steps have been limited to less significant United Nations documents. Sean MacBride—
Assistant Secretary-General of the United Nations and Nobel Peace Prize laureate—has said: "To the rights enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights one more might, with relevance, be
added. It is 'The Right to Refuse to Kill'."[61]

American Anthropological Association [ edit ]

The American Anthropological Association criticized the UDHR while it was in its drafting process. The AAA warned that the document would be defining universal rights from a Western paradigm which
would be unfair to countries outside of that scope. They further argued that the West's history of colonialism and evangelism made them a problematic moral representative for the rest of the world. They
proposed three notes for consideration with underlying themes of cultural relativism: "1. The individual realizes his personality through his culture, hence respect for individual differences entails a respect
for cultural differences", "2. Respect for differences between cultures is validated by the scientific fact that no technique of qualitatively evaluating cultures has been discovered", and "3. Standards and
values are relative to the culture from which they derive so that any attempt to formulate postulates that grow out of the beliefs or moral codes of one culture must to that extent detract from the
applicability of any Declaration of Human Rights to mankind as a whole."[62]

Bangkok Declaration [ edit ]

During the lead up to the World Conference on Human Rights held in 1993, ministers from Asian states adopted the Bangkok Declaration, reaffirming their governments' commitment to the principles of
the United Nations Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. They stated their view of the interdependence and indivisibility of human rights and stressed the need for universality,
objectivity, and non-selectivity of human rights. However, at the same time, they emphasized the principles of sovereignty and non-interference, calling for greater emphasis on economic, social, and
cultural rights—in particular, the right to economic development over civil and political rights. The Bangkok Declaration is considered to be a landmark expression of the Asian values perspective, which
offers an extended critique of human rights universalism.[63]

Death penalty [ edit ]

The declaration does not take an explicit stance on the death penalty. Article 5 states that: "No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment."

Organizations promoting the UDHR [ edit ]

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International Federation for Human Rights [ edit ]

The International Federation for Human Rights (FIDH) is nonpartisan, nonsectarian, and independent of any government, and its core mandate is to promote respect for all the rights set out in the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.[64][65]

Amnesty International [ edit ]

In 1988, director Stephen R. Johnson and 41 international animators, musicians, and producers created a 20-minute video for Amnesty International to celebrate the 40th Anniversary of the Universal
Declaration. The video's subject was the Declaration's 30 articles.[66]

Amnesty International celebrated Human Rights Day and the 60th anniversary of the Universal Declaration all over the world by organizing the "Fire Up!" event.[67]

Quaker United Nations Office and American Friends Service Committee [ edit ]

The Quaker United Nations Office and the American Friends Service Committee work on many human rights issues, including improving education on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. They
have developed a curriculum to help introduce High School students to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.[68][69]

American Library Association [ edit ]

In 1997, the council of the American Library Association (ALA) endorsed Article 19 from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.[70] Along with Article 19, Article 18 and 20 are also fundamentally tied
to the ALA Universal Right to Free Expression and the Library Bill of Rights.[71] Censorship, the invasion of privacy, and interference of opinions are human rights violations according to the ALA.

In response to violations of human rights, the ALA asserts the following principles:

The American Library Association opposes any use of governmental prerogative that leads to intimidation of individuals that prevents them from exercising their rights to hold opinions without
interference, and to seek, receive, and impart information and ideas. We urge libraries and librarians everywhere to resist such abuse of governmental power, and to support those against
whom such governmental power has been employed.

The American Library Association condemns any governmental effort to involve libraries and librarians in restrictions on the right of any individual to hold opinions without interference, and to
seek, receive, and impart information and ideas. Such restrictions, whether enforced by statutes or regulations, contractual stipulations, or voluntary agreements, pervert the function of the
library and violate the professional responsibilities of librarians.

The American Library Association rejects censorship in any form. Any action that denies the inalienable human rights of individuals only damages the will to resist oppression, strengthens the
hand of the oppressor, and undermines the cause of justice.

The American Library Association will not abrogate these principles. We believe that censorship corrupts the cause of justice, and contributes to the demise of freedom.[72]

Youth for Human Rights International [ edit ]

Youth for Human Rights International (YHRI) is a non-profit organization founded in 2001 by Mary Shuttleworth, an educator born and raised in apartheid South Africa, where she witnessed firsthand the
effects of discrimination and the lack of basic human rights. The purpose of YHRI is to teach youth about human rights, specifically the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and inspire
them to become advocates for tolerance and peace. YHRI has now grown into a global movement, including hundreds of groups, clubs and chapters around the world.[73]

See also [ edit ]

Human rights [ edit ] Politics portal

History of human rights Freedom of speech

portal
Yogyakarta Principles

Non-binding agreements [ edit ]

Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam (1990)

Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action (1993)
United Nations Millennium Declaration (2000)

International human rights law [ edit ]

Fourth Geneva Convention (1949) International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1976)
European Convention on Human Rights (1952) Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (1981)
Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees (1954) Convention on the Rights of the Child (1990)
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1969) Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (2000)
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1976) Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2007)

Thinkers influencing the Declaration [ edit ]

Jacques Maritain
Tommy Douglas
John Sankey, 1st Viscount Sankey

Other [ edit ]

Slavery in the United States LGBT rights at the United Nations Declaration on Great Apes, an as- "Consent of the governed" List of literary works by number of
Slavery in Russia Command responsibility yet unsuccessful effort to extend Racial equality proposal (1919) translations
Slavery in international law Moral universalism some human rights to other great The Farewell Sermon (632 CE) Monica Ross
Slave Trade Acts apes Youth for Human Rights Right to education
Human rights in China (PRC) United Nations Prize in the Field of International
Human Rights

Notes [ edit ]

a. ^ Included John Peters Humphrey (Canada), René Cassin (France), P. C. Chang (Republic of China), Charles Malik (Lebanon), Hansa Mehta (India) and Eleanor Roosevelt (United States); see Creation and drafting
section above.

Citations [ edit ]
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Context: Law, Politics, Morals, (2nd ed), Oxford University Press, Assembly Session" . Retrieved 2015-02-25. 51. ^ Nisrine Abiad (2008). Sharia, Muslim states and international
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References [ edit ]
Brown, Gordon (2016). The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Hashmi, Sohail H. (2002). Islamic political ethics: civil society, Price, Daniel E. (1999). Islamic political culture, democracy, and
the 21st Century: A Living Document in a Changing World . Open pluralism, and conflict . Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0- human rights: a comparative study . Greenwood Publishing Group.
Book Publishers. ISBN 978-1-783-74218-9. 691-11310-4. ISBN 978-0-275-96187-9.
Glendon, Mary Ann (2002). A world made new: Eleanor Roosevelt Morsink, Johannes (1999). The Universal Declaration of Human Williams, Paul (1981). The International bill of human rights . United
and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights . Random House. Rights: origins, drafting, and intent . University of Pennsylvania Nations General Assembly. Entwhistle Books. ISBN 978-0-934558-
ISBN 978-0-375-76046-4. Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-1747-6. 07-5.

Further reading [ edit ]

Feldman, Jean-Philippe (December 1999). "Hayek's Critique of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights pages at Columbia University Introductory note by Antônio Augusto Cançado Trindade and
Universal Declaration of Human Rights". Journal des Economistes et (Centre for the Study of Human Rights), including article by article procedural history on the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in
des Etudes Humaines. 9 (4). doi:10.2202/1145-6396.1172 . commentary, video interviews, discussion of meaning, drafting and the Historic Archives of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of
Nurser, John. "For All Peoples and All Nations. Christian Churches history. International Law
and Human Rights.". (Geneva: WCC Publications, 2005).

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