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Chromosomes
x Haploid & Diploid Chromosomes
o Diploid number = 46 chromosomes
o Gametes = haploid = 23 chromosomes
o Zygote = diploid (23 from each parent)
x Autosomes & Sex Chromosomes
o 44 autosomes, 2 sex chromos (X or Y)
o Male = XY, female = XX
o Homologous chromosomes: pair of 2 chromos that are exactly alike
One chromo of each pair from mother and father
o Chromosome Structure
2 chromatids, 1 centromere (kinetochore)
Karyotyping: classification of chromos based on characteristics (ie: length)
o Significance of Chromosomes
Cells get directions from fertilized ovum to carry on all its func’ns throughout life
Genes made of DNA store all information; involved in protein synth
Proteins = enzymes, hormones, antibodies; main constituents of body
x Func’ns of cell depend on the proteins it synthesizes
x Mitosis
o Prophase
Chromatin condenses Æ Chromos are now seen distinctly; centrioles move apart
Nuclear mbrn disappears, spindle forms
o Metaphase
Chromos arranged at equator and att to spindle
o Anaphase
Centromeres split so that ea chromatid becomes an independent chromo
One chromo of each pair moves to either
o Telophase
Nuclear membranes form
Centrioles divide
Chromosomes gradually lengthen and become indistinct
o Interphase (in between cell divisions)
Chromos are in the form of extended threads
DNA of each chromo has undergone duplication
x Meiosis I
o Prophase I: 4 Phases
Leptotene: chromos visible; each has 2 chromatids – can’t distinguish
Zygotene: 2 chromos of each pair lie parallel to eo Æ “bivalent” (synapsis)
Pachytene: 2 chromatids of ea chromo become distinct
x Bivalent has 4 chromatids = “tetrad”; 2 central & 2 peripheral
x Crossing Over bt 2 central chromatids of each chromo
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Spermatogenesis
x Formation of spermatozoa during reprod period in males (from 12-16 thru old age)
x Formed in walls of seminiferous tubules of testes
x Spermatogonia (type A) or germ cells - DIPLOID
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Oogenesis
x Cortex of ovary: mainly large round cells Æ oogonia – all to be used in female life is produced
before birth and do not multiply thereafter
x Spermatogenesis vs. Oogenesis
o One primary oocyte only forms ONE OVUM
o When spermatocyte divides, its cytoplasm is equally distributed bt the 2 secondary ones
o When oocyte divides Æ almost ALL cytoplasm goes to daughter cell = 2ndary oocyte
Other daughter (1st polar body) gets ½ chromos but barely any cytoplasm
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st
1 polar body formed just to get rid of unwanted chromos
x Further Details
o Late fetal period – primary oogonia enlarge Æ primary oocytes
o At birth – all primary oocytes (~40,000) in prophase of 1st meiotic; remain in Prophase I
until they begin to mature and are ready to ovulate
o Female reproductive period bt 12 – 50 yrs
o With each menstrual cycle, few primary oocytes (~5-30) begin to mature and complete
first meiotic division shortly before ovulation
o 1st meiotic division = secondary oocyte + 1st polar body
o Secondary oocyte Æ Meiosis II
Ovulation while oocyte in metaphase; remains in meta until fertilization
Meiosis II completed only if fertilization occurs
If no fertilization degenerates about 24 hrs after ovulation
o Only 1 oocyte reaches maturity and is ovulated per cycle
o Dur entire reproductive life of female, only 400 ova discharged
x Formation of Ovarian Follicles
o Stromal cells Æ ovarian or Graafian follicles – surround ova and protect them
o Some cells of stroma become flattened and surround an oocyte Æ follicular cells
o Flattened follicular cells become columnar Æ primordial follicles
o Zona pellucida: homogeneous mbrn appears bt follicular cells & oocyte
o Follicular cells prolif to form several layers = membrana granulosa Æ granulosa cells
o A cavity (antrum) appears within the membrane Æ follicle formed
o Cavity rapidly increases in size = wall of granulosa cells becomes thin; oocyte lies
eccentrically in follicle surr by cumulus oophoricus
o Discus proligerus: cells that attach oocyte to wall of follicle
o as follicle expands, stromal cells surrounding membrane granulosa become condensed to
form theca interna – secrete oestrogen Æ “cells of thecal gland”
o outside theca interna some fibrous tissue becomes condensed to form another covering
for follicle – theca externa Æ ovarian follicle fully formed
x Interdependence of Oocyte & Follicular Cells
o Both oocyte and surr follicular cell dependent on eo for further devl’t
o Follicular cells secrete meiotic inhibitory factors, which prevent primary oocytes from
maturing beyond prophase of first meiotic division Æ effect can last many years
o Inhibitory factors transmitted to oocyte via gap junctions present bt microvilli of oocytes
and of follicular cells (zona pellucida)
o Follicular cells also rsp for growth, metabo, maturation of oocytes
o Oocytes resp for proliferation & diff of follicular cells
o Factors produced in oocyte help formation & aturation of Graafian follicles
x Ovulation
o Ovum enlarges and follicle ruptures then shed from ovary
o Just before, follicle diam = 15mm, stroma & theca on this side of follicle very thin
o Stigma: avascular area appears over most convex point of follicle
o Cells in cumulus oophoricus become loosened by accum of ICF bt them
o Factors leading to ovulation:
Ĺ/+FRQF = Ĺ activity of collagenase – digests collagen fibers around follicle
Ĺ prostaglandins = contraction of smooth muscle in ovary wall
Ĺ pressure of fluid in follicular cavity
Enzymatic digestion of follicular wall is main factor responsible
x Structure of Ovum
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Clinical Correlation
x Importance of determining the Time of Ovulation and ‘Safe Period’
o Where pregnancy is not desired
x After ovulation, ovum can be fertilized within 2 days
x Sperm die within 4 days after entering vagina
x Fertilization only occurs if have sex bt 4 days before & 2 days after ovulation
o Where pregnancy is desired
x Knowledge important in cases of sterility; couple can be advised when to try
x Correlation bt Ovarian & Uterine Cycles
o Both are 28 days long
o Uterine cycle dependent on ovarian cycle
o Uterine endomet shows cyclic changes – dependent on hormones secreted by developing
ovarian follicles & corpus luteum of ovary
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Clinical Correlation
x Use of Hormones for Contraception
o Progestins: synthetic; better results when small amount of oestrogen given
o Norethisterone acetate (1 mg) + oestradiol (50 ȝJ
Pack of 28 Æ 21 = hormonal, 7 = nothing
Start 5 days after onset of menstruation
o Progesterone inhibits FSH & LH secretion Æ interferes with maturation of follicles &
ovulation
o Stopping use = withdrawal of hormones Æ menstruation
x Morula: 16 cells
x Trophoblast: outer layer of cells covering inner cell mass of morula
x Blastocyst: fluid partially separates inner cell mass from trophoblast
x Embryonic disc: formed by rearrangement & multiplication of cells of inner mass
o 2 germ layers Æ ectoderm & endoderm
o Mesoderm forms later between endo & ecto
x Amniotic cavity: formed on ectodermal & endodermal sides = yolk sac
x Extra-embryonic mesoderm: separates walls of cavity from trophoblast
x Extra-embryonic coelom: splits e-e meso into 2 layers:
o Somatopleuric Æ in contact with trophoblast
o Splanchnopleuric Æ in contact with yolk sac
x Chorion: trophoblast + somatopleuric
x Amnion: cells forming wall of amniotic cavity
x Connecting Stalk: attaches amniotic cavity to trophoblast
x Prochordal Plate: ectoderm & endoderm not separated
x Primitive Streak: embryonic disc divided into right & left
x Mesoderm: formed by cells multiplying in primitive streak Æ bt endo & ecto
x Cloacal Membrane: caudal to primitive disc Æ only endo & ecto
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Fertilization
x Occurs at the ampulla of uterine tube; only 1 sperm penetrates zona pellucida
x As soon as sperm enters ovum, meiosis II is complete
x Female pronucleus: nucleus of ovum after fertilization
x Male pronucleus: transformation of head of sperm after separates from middle piece and tail
x Pronuclei lose their nuclear membranes and chromos from each get mixed together
x Mitosis = 2-celled embryo
x Biochemical Changes Occuring during Fertilization
o Glycoprotein of zona pellucida = induction of acrosomal reaction Æ penetrate thru z.p
o Plasma mbrns of sperm & oocyte fuse at receptor sites; head & tail enter cyto of ovum
o Changes in PM of oocyte & z.p ensure that no other sperm can enter oocyte
o Zona reaction: z.p altered due to release of lysosomal enzy by PM of oocyte
o As soon as sperm enters ovum – Meiosis II complete & 2nd polar body formed
o Entry of sperm = metabolic changes within ovum Æ devlp into embryo
o Before mitosis, each pronuclei undergoes DNA replication to form 2nd chromatid
o Mitosis = 2 cells with 46 chromos (from sperm AND ovum)
o As a result of fertilization
Diploid number restored
Determination of sex
Fertilized ovum undergoes cleavage (divides into many cells)
o 2 daughter cells are still surrounded by zona pellucida
o Each daughter cell is much smaller than ovum
o As embryo divides more and more, cells become smaller and smaller
x Test Tube Babies
o In vitro fertilization
o Gonadotroins admin’d to woman to stimulate growth of follicles in ovary
o Ovum removed by an aspirator just before ovulation then added with sperm in a medium
o Fertilization and early devl’t of embryo take place in medium
o Embryo moved to uterus when reaches 8-cell stage
Sex Determination
x Girl Æ sperm is X-bearing, zygote = 44 + X + X
x Boy Æ sperm is Y-bearing, zygote = 44 + X + Y
x Determined at fertilization
Cleavage
x One cell divides at a time
x Morula: 16-cell stage, still surrounded by z.p
o Inner cell mass Æ “embryoblast”
o Outer layer Æ trophoblast – help provide nutrition to embryo
x Fluid from uterine cavity separates layers of morula; as fluid increases Æ cyst
x Blastocyst: cells of trophoblast flattened & inner mass att on one side of trophoblast
o Blastocoele: cavity of blastocyst
o Embryonic/animal pole: side that is att to inner cell mass
o Abembryonic pole: opposite side
x Function of Zona Pellucida
o Trophoblast can stick to epithelium and its cells can ‘eat up’ other cells
Can invade and burrow into tissues which it contacts
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Z.p prevents it from sticking as it moves down tube; receives substances stored
within ovum (yolk) & by diffusions from uterine secretions
blastocyst needs additional sources of nutrition Æ sticks to uterine endometrium
o z.p disappears after morula reaches uterine lumen
o z.p prevents implantation of blastocyst at an abnormal site
o z.p acts as barrier that separates embryonic & maternal tissues to prevent
immunological reactions
when z.p disappears, various immunosuppressive cytokinase and proteins are
produced by implanting embryo – blocks mother from thinking its foreign
Timetable of Events
x Pre-organogenesis period: devl’t from fertilization Æ formation of bilaminar disc (14 days)
o Teratogens introduced dur this period = death
x Gastrulation: primitive streak, intra-embryonic meso (begins in 3rd week)
x Embryonic period: from 3rd week; teratogens introduced here Æ congenital anomalies
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Connecting Stalk
x embryo & amniotic cavity & yolk sac remain in tact to trophoblast by e-e meso Æ conn. Stalk
x only connecting link bt embryo and placenta
x as embryo grows, area of attachment of stalk becomes smaller; only seen at caudal end
o att moves with tail end to ventral aspect of embryo & attached in area of umb opening
x blood vessels in embryo comm. with BVs in placenta thru connecting stalk
o first there are 2 arteries, 2 veins; later right vein disappears
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o amnion has circular att to margins of umbilical opening Æ wide tube for:
Vitello-intestinal duct & remnants of yolk sac
E-e meso of stalk; converted into Wharton’s jelly – protects BV in umbilical cord
BVs from embryo Æ placenta
Small part of extra-embryonic coelom
x Umbilical cord: progressively lengthens so embryo can move w/in amniotic cavity
o at birth: umbilical cord ~0.5 m long, ~2cm diam
o umbilical cord that is too short or too long = problems during delivery
Allantoic Diverticulum
x arises from yolk sac before tail fold; caudal end of embryonic disc
x after tail fold, part of diverticulum absorbed into hindgut into connecting stalk
x leads to devl’t of urinary bladder
Additional Points
x In later life, remnants of primitive streak Æ tumors that have tissues from all 3 germ layers;
mostly seen in sacral region – sacrococcygeal tumors
x Formation of neural tube induced by notochord
x Somitomeres are not confined to region of somits; in head, somitomeres Æ mesenchyme
x Wharton’s jelly rich in proteoglycans
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Decidua
x when morula reaches uterus, endometrium in secretory phase, these features stay once
implantation occurs to support zygote
x decidual reaction: stromal cells enlarge, become vacuolated to store glycogen & lipids
x decidua basalis: aka decidual plate; portion of decidua where placenta will form
o contains large decidual cells that store lipids & glycogen Æ nutrition to embryo
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x Syncytiotrophoblast
o All interchanges of oxygen, nutrition & waste take place here
o Total area ~ 4-14 sq m Æ greater surface area = more effective exchanges
o Efficiency increased in later part of pregnancy when cytotropho layer disappears and CT
thins so that thickness of mbrn goes from 0.025 mm thick Æ 0.002 mm
o Towards end of pregnancy, fibrinoid deposit appears which reduces efficiency
x Functions of Placenta
o Transport of O2, water, electrolytes, carbs, lipids, polypeptides, AAs & vitamins from
maternal Æ fetal blood; full term fetus takes upto 25 mL O2/min
o Excretion of CO2, urea & other waste products from fetus Æ maternal blood
o Maternal Abs (IgG) = immunity against some infections (ie: diphtheria & measles)
o Prevents bacteria and other harmful substances from reaching fetus; but viruses and
bacteria & drugs can pass through Æ congenital malformations
o Maternal hormones don’t reach fetus, but synthesis of progestins & synthetic
oestrogens (ie:: diethylstilbestrol) easily cross placenta and can have adverse effects
on fetus (even carcinoma in later life)
o Keeps blood streams separate Æ prevents antigenic reactions between them
o Synthesizes hormones in syncytiotrophoblast
x Progesterone Æ maint of pregnancy after 4th month (when corpus luteum degens)
x Oestrogens (estriol) Æ maternal blood; promote uterine growth and development
of mammary gland
o Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) produced by placenta; similar to LH;
Gonadotropins excreted through maternal urine Æ used to detect pregnancy
o Somatomammotropin (hCS) has an anti-insulin effect on mother = increased plasma
levels of glucose and AAs in maternal circulation; increases availability of these
materials for fetus; enhances glucose utilization by the fetus
o Circulation of Blood through Placenta
x Blood flow thru lacunar spaces in syncytiotropho begins at 9th day
x Blood enters intervillous space through maternal arteries that open into it;
pressure of blood drives it right to the chorionic plate
x Blood in spaces is drained by veins that also open into these spaces
x In fully formed placenta, intervillous spaces contain ~150 mL of blood which can
be replaced in 15-20 seconds (3-4x/min)
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Amniotic Fluid
x Support for delicate tissues of growing embryo
x Allows for free movement & protection from external injury
x Avoids adhesion of fetus to amnion
x Full term = 1 L of amniotic fluid
x Hydramnios: too much amniotic fluid (over 1500 mL)
o Sometimes associated with atresia of esophagus – fetus can’t swallow amniotic fluid
x Oligamnios: too little fluid
o Sometimes assoc with renal agenesis Æ no urine added to amniotic fluid
x Both conditions cause complications during delivery and may cause abnormalities in fetus
x Constant exchange of water bt amniotic fluid & maternal blood Æ water replaced every 3 hrs
x 5th month Æ fetus begins to swallow fluid, absorbed thru gut Æ fetal blood Æ mother
x when fetal kidneys start working , passes urine into amniotic fluid
Timetable of Events in this Chapter
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Epithelial Tissue: cells arranged like cont’s sheets; line external & internal surfaces of body & cavities
x Derived from ectoderm, endoderm or mesoderm
o Ectoderm Æ epithelia on external surfaces of body & terminal openings to outside
skin, hair follicles, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, mammary glands
epith over cornea & conjunctiva, ext aud meatus, outer tympanic mbrn
epith of some parts of mouth, lower anal canal, terminal parts of male urethra,
parts of female external genitalia
o Endoderm Æ lining gut & organs that dvl’p as diverticula of gut (ie: liver, pancreas)
Entire gut except ectoderm parts of mouth & anal canal
Auditory tube & middle ear
Respiratory tract
Part of urinary bladder, urethra & vagina
o Mesoderm Æ lining of UGT
Tubules of kidneys, ureter, trigone of urinary bladder
Uterine tubes, uterus, part of vagina
Testis & its duct system
Endothelium of heart, BVs & lymphatics
Mesothelium lining pericardial, peritoneal & pleural cavities & cavities of joints
Glands
x Develop as diverticula from epith surfaces
x Opening of duct usually where original outgrowth from deverticula occurs
o Endocrine Æ gland is not associated with epithelial origin
Embryology Dr. Drew Chapter 7
Mesenchyme
x Chondroblasts: form cartilage
x Osteoblasts: form bone
x Myoblasts: form muscle
x Lymphoblasts & haemocytoblasts: form various BCs
x Endothelial cells: form BVs & primitive heart tubes
x Remaining mesenchymal cells after formation of tissues Æ various types of CT
Formation of Blood
x Occurs before somites appear & continues throughout life
x 3rd week Æ formation of BVs & BCs seen in wall of yolk sac around allantoic diverticulum &
connecting stalk (clusters of mesodermal cells Æ blood islands)
o Mesodermal cells Æ precursor (haemangioblasts) = BVs & BCs
o Hematopoietic stem cells: formed in center of blood islands = precursor of all BCs
o Angioblasts: formed at periphery of islands = precursors of BVs
x Blood cells in yolk sac soon replaced by permanent stem cel;s from mesoderm around
developing aorta Æ form colonies in liver
x Late embryonic period Æ formation starts in liver
x Middle of prenatal life Æ definitive haematopoietic SCs from liver Æ colonize bone marrow;
x Birth Æ blood formation mainly in bone marrow; totipotent haemal stem cells Æ
pleuripotent haemal & lymphoid stem cells Æ colony forming units (CFU)
x Cells within 1 CFU are committed to diff into one specific line of blood cells Æ RBCs,
megakaryocytes, granulocytes, monocytes, macrophages, lymphocytes
o Erythrocytes: burst forming units (BFU) Æ CFU Æ RBCs
x Adult Æ bone marrow, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen
x Precursors of blood cells are mesodermal, but blood forming cells differentiating in relatin
ot wall of yolk sac & liver may be from endoderm
Formation of Cartilage
x Mesenchymal condensation: mesenchymal cells closely packed where cartilage to be formed
x Chondroblasts: rounded mesenchymal cells Æ form cartilage
o Influence intercellular substance of cartilage to be laid down
x Chondrocytes: chondroblasts that are trapped within intercellular substance
Embryology Dr. Drew Chapter 7
Center of ossifying cartilage is bone; as move away from center, see several layers:
x Region where cartilaginous matrix calcified & surround dead/dying cartilage cells
x Zone of hypertrophied cartilage cells in uncalcified matrix
x Normal cartilage with a lot of mitotic activity
Fate of Somites
x Paraxial mesoderm segmented Æ somites Æ lie around neural tube
x Sclerotome: ventromedial; migrate medially Æ vertebral column & ribs
x Dermatome: lateral; migrate & line deep surface of ecto, cover whole body Æ dermis of skin to
subcutaneous tissue
x Myotome: intermediate Æ striated muscle
o Each myotome innervated by 1 spinal nerve in cervical to sacral regions
Number of somites formed = number of spinal nerves
o Coccygeal region Æ # somites > # spinal nerves; many degenerate
x Occipital somites: (4-5) Æ muscles of tongue, supplied by hypoglossal nerve
x Pre-occipital somites: supplied by CN III, IV, VI
Striated Muscle
x Derived from somites & mesenchyme
x Myotomes only give origin to musculature of trunk
x Occipital myotomes Æ tongue
x Pre-occipital Æ extrinsic muscles of eyeball
Embryology Dr. Drew Chapter 7
x Epimere: dorsal part of neck & trunk Æ muscles supplied by dorsal primary ramus
o Extensors of vertebral column (muscles of back)
x Hypomere: ventral part of neck & trunk Æ muscles supplied by ventral ramus
o Muscles of body wall and limbs
x In-situ from mesenchyme Æ Limb muscles develop in limb buds; ant muscles of abdominal &
thoracic walls
Smooth Muscle
x All smooth muscle derived from mesenchyme
x Splanchnopleuric mesoderm Æ walls of viscera (ie: stomach)
x Ectoderm Æ muscles of iris (sphincter & dilator pupillae) & myoepithelial cells of sweat glands
Cardiac Muscle
x Derived from splanchnoppleuric meso of developing heart tubes & pericardium
Skin
x Epidermis from surface ectoderm
o Ectodermal cells prolif Æ stratified squamous epithelium
o Superficial layers shed off & mixed up with secretions of sebaceous glands = vernix
caseosa Æ covers skin of newborn for protection
o 3rd-5th months Æ epidermal ridges followed by characteristic patters (ie: fingerprints)
o Melanoblasts (dendritic cells) derived from neural crest Æ synthesize melanin pigments
responsible for skin & hair color
Albinism: absence of pigment in skin, hair & eyes because melanocytes can’t
synthesize melanin; autosomal recessive genetic condition
Vitiligo: similar but noncongenital; absence of pigment is patchy – degeneration
of existing melanocytes in affected areas; autoimmune disease
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o 8 -12 weeks Æ Cells of Merkel & of Langerhans appear in epidermis
x Dermis formed by condensation & differentiation of mesenchyme (derived from dermatome of
somite) under surface ectoderm
x Dermal Papillae: portions of dermis intervening bt projections of epidermis
x Aplasia: skin fails to develop in certain regions
x Dysplasia: skin may be abnormal in structure
o Congenital downgrowths of skin
o Maldevelopment of ectodermal derivatives (ie: hair, teeth, sweat & sebaceous glands)
Nails
x Develop from surface ectoderm
x Ectoderm at top of ea digit thickenedd Æ primary nail field Æ migrates onto dorsal aspect
o Skin of dorsal aspect of terminal part of digits supplied by nerves of ventral aspect
x Cells in most proximal part prolif Æ root of nail
o Cells of germinal layer multiply to form germinal matrix = thick layer of cells; these
multiply & transformed into nail substance Æ stratum lucidum of skin
x Anomychia: nails may be absent; occasionally show overdevelopment
Hair
x Derived from surface ectoderm
x Germinal layer of epidermis prolif Æ cylindrical mass grows into dermis at site of hair follicle
o Lower end becomes expanded & invaginated by condensation of meso Æ papilla
x Hair formed by prolif of germinal cells over papilla
x As grows twrds surface, cells forming wall of downgrowth surr hair Æ epithelial root sheath
x Dermal root sheath formed from surr mesenchymal cells
x Arrector pili: thin band of smooth muscle formed by meso cells Æ att to dermal root sheath
x Congenital alopecia: hair may be absent over scalp; eyebrows & eyelashes may be absent
x Atrichia: absence of hair in any part of the body
x Hypertrichosis: overgrowth of hair
Embryology Dr. Drew Chapter 7
Sebaceous Glands Æ each formed as a bud from ectodermal cells from wall of hair follicle
Sweat Glands
x Downgrowth from epidermis
x First solid then later canalized
x Lower end becomes coiled = secretory part of gland
Mammary Glands
x Situated along line that extends from axilla to inguinal region
x Ectoderm becomes thickened along line Æ mammary ridges, most of line disappears
x Each develops over part of line that is over pectoral region
x Thickened mass of epidermal cells project into dermis Æ 16-20 solid outgrowths arise and grow
into surrounding dermis Æ become canalized
x Secretory elements of gland are formed by proliferation of terminal parts of outgrowths
x Lactiferous duct formed at proximal end of each outgrowth
o Open into a pit formed by cavitation of the original epithelial thickening
o Growth of underlying mesoderm progressively pushes the wall of this pit outwards until
it becomes elevated above surface & forms nipple
x Males Æ remains rudimentary
x Females Æ ducts & secretory elements undergo extensive devl’t during puberty & pregnancy
x Amastia: gland may be absent on one or both sides
x Athelia: nipple may be absent
x Polythelia and polymastia: supernumerary nipples may be present anywhere along the milk line;
may remain rudimentary (polythelia) or may form accessory mammary glands (polymastia)
x Accessory breasts: may be found away from milk line in neck, cheeks, femoral triangle, vulva
x Inverted / crater nipple: nipple may fail to form resulting in lactiferous ducts opening into a pit
= difficulty suckling
x Micromastia: gland may be abnormally small
x Macromastia: gland may be abnormally large
x Gynaecomastia: male breat may enlarge like in females & may even secrete milk
Timetable of Events
o Stylopharyngeus
x 4 arch Æ Superior laryngeal
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Somitomeres
x 1 & 2 Æ muscles supplied by occulomotor nerve
x 3 Æ superior oblique muscle supplied by trochlear nerve
x 4 Æ muscles of 1st pharyngeal arch supplied by mandibular nerve
x 5 Æ lateral rectus supplied by abducent nerve
x 6 Æ muscles of 2nd pharyngeal arch supplied by facial nerve
x 7 Æ sylopharyngeus from 3rd supplied by glossopharyngeal nerve
x Occipital 1 & 2 Æ laryngeal muscles (from 4th & 6th) supplied by vagus
x Occipital 3 & 5 Æ muscles of tongue supplied by hypogloassal
Development of Thymus
x Develops from endoderm of 3rd pharyngeal pouch
x Pouch cut off from pharyngeal wall & surface of ectoderm early in devl’t
x After separation from inferior parathyroid rudiment, each thymic rudiment has a thinner cranial
part & broader caudal part
o Thinner part Æ cervical part of thmus
o Broader parts of 2 sides Æ thorax Æ united by CT
x Endodermal cells invaded by vascular meso Æ many lymphoblasts Æ breaks of thymic tissue
into isolated masses = lobulated appearance
x Fragmentation of cervical part of thymus Æ accessory thymic tissue (from 4th pouch)
x Thymus increases in weight until puberty then gradually undergoes atrophy
Timetable of Events
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Embryology Dr. Drew Chapter 10
Vertebral Column
x Formed from sclerotomes of somites
x Mesenchyme surrounds notochord and extends around neural tube; also extends laterally where
transverse processes will be and extends ventrally where ribs will be
x Perichordal Disc: middle region of segment of somite where mesenchymal cells are condensed;
develop into intervertebral disc
o Formation of interspinous & intertransverse ligaments same process
x Vertebral body formed when less condensed parts of segment fuse (cranial Æ caudal)
o Same process for neural arch, transverse processes & costal elements
x Each vertebra is made from parts of 2 somites
x Each intervertebral disc is made from 1 somite
x Transverse processes & ribs intersegmented separate muscles from 2 adjoining myotomes
x Spinal nerves come out between 2 vertebrae and lie in between 2 ribs
x BVs that supply myotome structures intersegmented Æ ICAs & lumbar arteries
x Mesenchyme converted to cartilage via centers of chondrification = cartilage model
x 3 Primary ossification centers per vertebra (1 per neural arch & 1 for body)
x Neurocentral joints: centrum (body) & neural arch joined by cartilage at birth
x Neurocentral line: junc’n bt centrum & neural arch after fusion
x Spina bifida: halves of neural arch don’t fuse in midline = gap bt neural arches
o Spina bifida occulta Æ gap is not obvious
o Meningocoele Æ bulging out of meninges through gap
o Meningomyelocoele Æ bulging out of meninges and neural elements through gap
o Ĺ$)3LQDPQLRWLFIOXLG
x Hemivertebra: only 2 primary ossification centers and 1 part doesn’t devl’p; usually assoc with
absence of corresponding rib
x Anterior spina bifida: 2 halves of vertebral body formed normally, but don’t fuse together = gap
o When gap is big enough, meninges & nerves bulge out
x Klippel-Feil Syndrome: fusion of 2+ vertebrae in cervical region
o Occipitalization of atlas: atlas fused to occipital bone
o Sacralization of 5th Lumbar Vertebra: L5 partially or completely fused to sacrum
x Lumbarization of 1st Sacral Vertebra: S1 is separate from rest of sacrum; odontoid process may
be separate from rest of axis vertebra
x Spondylolisthesia: L5 body slips fwrds over sacrum when don’t have both inf articular processes
x Diastematomylia: vertebral canal divided laterally by projected shelf of bone; spinal cord splites
into 2 longitudinally
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Embryology Dr. Drew Chapter 10
Ribs
x Ventral extensions of sclerotomic mesenchyme that forms vertebral arches
x Thoracic Æ primitive costal arch Æ chondrification Æ ossification Æ “rib”
o Some mesenchyme near transverse process NOT ossified = costotransverse joint
x Cervical, lumbar & sacral Æ chondrification & ossification only near transverse process
o Costal element – bone fused to transverse process
The Sternum
x Fusion of 2 sternal bars/plates in midline (cranial Æ caudal)
x 7th week Æ mesenchymal condensations become cartilaginous
x Sternal bars continuous with ribs
x Manubrium and body ossified separately; xiphoid ossified later in life
x Hemivertebra Æ unilateral absence of a rib
x Accessory ribs: cervical rib (C7) or lumbar rib (L1)
x Sternal bars don’t fuse properly = midline cleft Æ bifid xiphoid process or midline foramina
x Funnel Chest: lower part of sternum & att ribs pushed in
o Central tendon of diaphragm abnormally short
o Less room for lungs to expand Æ respiratory difficulties
x Pigeon Chest: upper part of sternum & ribs project forwards
The Skull
x From mesenchyme around brain
x 4 occipital somites Æ base of skull & occipital bone
x otic & nasal capsules: mesenchymal condensations surr areas of internal ear & nose
o capsules also form mesenchymal basis of skull
x mandibular & maxillary processes formed as subdivisions of 2st branchial arch
x Bones Formed by Intramembranous Ossification
o Frontal & parietal
o Maxilla (not premaxilla), zygomatic & palatine (part of temporal)
o Nasal, lacrimal & vomer ossified in mbrn of nasal capsule
x Bones formed in Cartilage
o Ethmoid & inferior nasal conchae from cartilage of nasal capsule Æ NO ossification
x Bones formed partly in Cartilage and partly in Membrane
o Occipital: interparietal part formed in membrane, rest is endochondral ossification
o Sphenoid: lateral part of greater wing & pterygoid laminae in mbrn, rest is cartilage bone
o Temporal: squamous & tympanic parts formed in mbrn; petrous and mastoid part formed
by oss of cartilage of otic capsule; styloid process from cartilage of 2nd branchial arch
o Mandible: most formed in mbrn in mesenchyme of mandibular process; ventral part of
Meckel’s cartilage embedded in bone; condylar and coronoid processes are ossified from
secondary cartilages
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Formation of Limbs
x Bones of limbs, shoulder & pelvic girdle from mesenchyme of limb buds via endochondral
ossification (clavical Æ intramembranous)
x 2nd month Æ limb buds arise from outgrowth from side-wall of embryo
x Limb buds Æ mass of mesenchyme covered by ectoderm
x Apical ectodermal ridge: thickened mass of ectoderm at tip of each limb bud
o Induces proliferation of mesenchyme cells and keep cells undifferentiated
o Areas away from ridge differentiate Æ cartilage, muscle…
x Forelimb buds appear earlier than hindlimb buds; as they grow they become subdivided by
constrictions into arm, forearm and hand
x Fingers and toes separated via interdigital cell death
x Mesenchymal cells form cartilaginous models of bones
x Preaxial (cranial) border Æ thumb & big toe
o Forearm Æ radius
o Leg Æ tibia
x Postaxial border
x Upper Limb Æ derived from part of body wall from segments C4-T2
o Innervated by corresponding spinal nerves
x Lower limb Æ form opposite to L2-S2
o rotated medially during development
o Ventral surface of limb represented by:
Inguinal region
Medial side of lower part of thigh
Popliteal surface of knee
Back of leg
Sole of foot
Joints
x From mesenchyme between ends of developing bones
x Differentiation into fibrous tissue Æ fibrous joint (syndesmosis)
x Cartilage Æ cartilaginous joint (synchondrosis or primary cartilaginous joints) Æ ossified
x site of synovial joint: mesenchyme in 3 layers
o 2 outer layers continuous w/ perichondrium on cartilaginous ends of articulating bones
o Middle layer becomes loose Æ forms cavity Æ lined by mesothelium Æ synovial mbrn
o Capsule and ligaments derived from surrounding mesenchyme
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Anomalies of Joints
x Phocomelia, Amelia: 1 or more limbs of body may be partially or completely absent; caused by
ingestion of harmful drugs
x Talipes equinovarus (club foot): foot shows marked plantar flexion & inversion
x Congenital strictures, congenital amputations, congenital contractures
x Syndactyly: abnormal fusion (bony or fibrous) bt adjoining digits
x Symphalangia: phalanges of a digit may be fused to one another
x Macrodactyly: digit abnormally large
x Brachydactyly: digit abnormally short
x Arachnodactyly: fingers long and thin – spider fingers
x Polydactyly: supernumerary digits; extra phalanx on thumb most common
x Lobster claw: palm or sole may show a deep longitudinal cleft
x Achondroplasia: limbs may remain short
x Congenital dysplasia: ends of bone imperfectly formed
x Congenital dislocation: hip joint most commonly affected
Timetable of Events
Extermities most susceptible to teratogens during 4th–7th weeks; slightly less susceptible in 8th wk
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Embryology Dr. Drew Chapter 11
x Mandibular processes of two sides grow towards each other Æ Fuse in the midline
x This fusion of the mandibular process forms – lower margin of the stomatodaeum
x Fused mandibular process gives rise to the lower lip, and to the lower jaw and mouth
Upper Lip
x Maxillary process grows medially, fuses w/ lat nasal process then w/ medial nasal proc.
x The medial and lateral nasal process both fuse with eo Æ Nasal pits = external nares
x Frontonasal process becomes narrower from side to side = exte nares coming closer to eo
x Upper lip (mesodermal basis of the lateral part of the lip) itself formed from max process.
x Overlying skin – derived from ectoderm
x Philtrum: Mesodermal basis of the median part of lip; from the frontonasal process
x Ectoderm from maxillary process overgrows this mesoderm to meet that of the opposite
maxillary process in the midline
x Skin of the entire upper lip is innervated by the maxillary nerves
x Muscles of the face and lips – from the meso of the 2nd branchial arch Æ Facial Nerve
Nose
x From the frontonasal & the medial and lateral nasal processes of the right and left sides
x External nare – nasal pits cut off from the stomatodaeum Æ fusion of maxillary process with the
medial nasal process
x External nares usually approach one another
x Frontonasal process becomes narrower and deeper part = nasal septum
x Prominence of nose ÆMesoderm heaps up in the median plane
x Forehead: groove bt regions of nose and bulging forebrain
x As nose becomes prominent – external nares come to open downwards instead of fwrds
x External form of the nose is established as such
Cheeks
x As the upper lip and lower lips are formed the stomatodaeum can be called the mouth
x Mouth – very broad
x Lateral part of mouth – bounded by the maxillary process
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Eye
x First – ectodermal thickening
x Lens placode: on the ventro-lateral side of the developing forebrain
o sinks below the surface – cuts off from the surface of the ectoderm
x Developing eye – bulge out (directed laterally at first)
x Eye lids – derived from folds of ectoderm
o Ectoderm above and below the eyes
o Mesoderm enclosed within the folds
Paranasal Sinuses
x Appear from the dverticula from the nasal cavity
x Maxillary and sphenoidal sinuses begin to develop before birth
o Other sinuses develop after birth
x Paranasal sinuses enlarge with the overall enlargement of the facial skeleton, including the jaws
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x Ectoderm
o Ameloblasts Æ enamel
x Mesoderm (from neural crest)
o Odontoblasts Æ dentin
x Mesenchyme around tooth
o Cementum
o Periodontal ligament
Mouth
x From stomatodaeum and foregut Æ epithelial lining is partly ectoderm & partly endoderm
x Epithelium on inside of lips, cheeks & palate, teeth & gums Æ ectoderm
x Epithelium of tongue Æ endoderm
x Roof of mouth formed by palate (Ch. 11)
o Labio-gingival furrow: separates alveolar process of upper jaw from upper lip & cheek
x Floor of mouth Æ mandibular processes form:
o Tongue
Linguo-gingival sulcus laterally separates mandibular process & swelling
o Lower lip & lower part of cheeks
Labio-gingival sulcus forms between mand process & linguo-gingival sulcus
x Quickly deepens and tissues of mand arch (lateral) form lower lip (cheek)
o Lower jaw
Alveolar Process: elevation that forms bt 2 sulci as they deepen Æ jaw & teeth
Teeth
x Formed in alveolar process
x Dental lamina: thickened portion of epith on tip of process Æ goes into mesoderm
x Enamel organ: Series of local thickenings with dental lamina Æ each forms 1 milk tooth (5 on
each alveolar process)
x Formation of Enamel Organ & Devl’t of Tooth:
1. Enamel organ (EO) formed by localized proliferation of cells of dental lamina
2. Cap Stage: tooth germ (dermal papilla + EO) looks like a cap
a. Dermal papilla: cup-shaped downgrowth of EO w/ mesenc cells (from neural crest)
3. Ameloblasts: columnar cells of enamel organ that line the papilla
4. Bell Stage: developing tooth looks like a bell
a. Odontoblasts: mesodermal cells adjacent to ameloblasts, arranged as a continuous
layer (separated from ameloblasts via BM)
b. Pulp formed by remaining cells of papilla
5. Ameloblasts lay down enamel on superficial (outer) surface of BM;
Odontoblasts lay down dentine on deeper surface of BM
As each lay down more layers – the amelo & odonto layers grow farther and farther apart
6. Dental cuticle: thin mbrn over enamel after it has fully formed and ameloblasts disappear
Odontoblasts continue to separate dentin from the pulp throughout life of the tooth
7. Ossification of the alveolar processes Æ roots of teeth become surrounded by bone
x Root est by continued growth into underlying mesenchyme
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o As layers of dentin deposited, pulp space becomes narrower Æ gradually becomes canal
through which nerves & blood vessels pass
o No ameloblasts in this region
o Cementoblasts derived from mesenchymal cells around dentin Æ lay down cementum
o Periodontal ligament formed by mesenchymal cells; connects root to socket in jaw bone
x Formation of Permanent Teeth
o Dental lamina gives off series of buds on medial side of each developing milk tooth,
which form enamel organs just like above Æ permanent incisors, canines & premolars
o Buds from dental lamina, posterior to region of last milk tooth = permanent molars
x Dental lamina formed during 6TH WEEK
x Before Birth Æ all temp teeth & permanent lower 1st molar begin to calcify
x Birth Æ germs of all temp teeth & permanent incisors, canines & 1st molars most devlp’d; germs
of perm premolars & 2nd molars are rudimentary
x After Birth Æ formation of 3rd molar & other permanent teeth begin to calcify at varying ages
x Eruption of a tooth is preceded by a major devlp’t of its root; erupt at varying ages
o Temporary or Milk Teeth
6-9 mo Æ Lower central incisor
8-10 mo Æ Upper incisors
12-20 mo Æ Lower lateral incisors & First molar
16-20 mo Æ Canines
20-39 mo Æ Second molars
o Permanent Teeth
6-7 yrs Æ first molar
6-8 yrs Æ central incisors
7-9 yrs Æ lateral incisors
10-12 yrs Æ premolars & canines
11-13 yrs Æ second molars
17-21 yrs Æ third molars
x Anomalies of Teeth
o Anodentia: complete absence of 1+ teeth
o Supernumerary teeth may be present
o Individual teeth may be abnormal (ie: too big/small, too many cusps or roots)
o Germination: 2+ teeth fused together
o Malocclusion: incorrect alignment of upper & lower teeth; may be caused by 1 or more
of the anomalies above or defects of the jaws
o Teeth may erupt too early (ie: lower incisors present at birth)
o Eruption of teeth delayed (ie: 3rd molar may not even develop)
o Teeth may form in abnormal situations (ie: in ovary or in hypophysis cerebri)
o Improper formation of enamel or dentin of tooth
o Supplied by lingual branch of mandibular nerve (post-trematic nerve of 1st arch) &
chorda tympani of facial nerve (pre-trematic nerve of 1st arch)
x 3RD ARCH Æ Post 1/3 of tongue from cranial part of hypobranchial eminence (3rd arch grows
over 2nd and fuses with mesoderm of 1st arch)
o Supplied by glossopharyngeal nerve
x TH
4 ARCH Æ Posterior-most part of tongue
o Supplied by superior laryngeal nerve
x Musculature of the tongue from occipital myotomes (hypoglossal is nerve for these myotomes)
x Epithelium of tongue
o First made of a single layer of cells which later becomes stratified and papillae appear
o Taste buds formed in relation to terminal branches of innervating nerve fibers
x Anomalies of the Tongue
o Macroglossia: tongue too large
o Microglossia: tongue too small
o Aglossia: tongue absent (very rare)
o Tongue may be bifid bc 2 lingual swellings did not fuse
o Ankyloglossia (aka Tong-tie): apicle part of tongue anchored to floor of mouth by
overdeveloped frenulum; interferes with speech
Ankyloglossia superior: tongue adherent to palate
o Persistence of tuberculum impar Æ red, rhomboid-shaped smooth zone on tongue in front
of foramen caecum can be seen
o Thyroid tissue may be present in tongue either under mucosa or within muscles
o Remnants of thyroglossal duct may form cysts at base of tongue
o Surface of tongue may show fissures
Salivary Glands
x Devl’p as outgrowths of buccal epithelium; first solid then become canalized
x Branch repeatedly to form duct system; terminal parts Æ secretory acini
x Devl’p near junctional area bt ectoderm of stomatodaeum & endoderm of forgut (can’t tell
whether they are of ecto or endo origin)
x Submandibular & sublingual glands from linguo-gingival sulcus therefore endodermal
x 1+ salivary glands may sometimes be absent
Tonsils
x Palatine tonsil develops in relation to lateral part of 2nd POUCH
o Endodermal lining undergoes considerable proliferation
o Invades underlying mesoderm of 2nd arch Æ tonsillar stroma
o Most of pouch obliterated (Intratonsillar cleft/tonsillar fossa = persisting part of pouch)
o Lymphocyte collect in tonsillar stroma under epithelium (could have differentiated in situ
or derived from blood or from liver as lymphoblasts)
x Tubal tonsils, lingual tonsils & pharyngeal tonsils develop similarly
Pharynx
x Derived from cranial-most part of foregut
x Most of endodermal pouches lose contact with pharyngeal wall
x Opening of pharyngo-tympanic tube = site of origin of tubotympanic recess
x Inlet of larynx = Site of midline respiratory diverticulum
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Timetable of Events
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Derivatives of Foregut
x Part of the floor of mouth, incl. tongue x Duodenum Æ 1st part & superior half of
x Pharynx 2nd part (up to major duodenal papilla)
x Various derivatives of the pharyngeal x Liver and extra-hepatic biliary system
pouches, and the thyroid x Pancreas
x Esophagus x Respiratory system
x Stomach
Derivatives of Midgut
x Duodenum Æ inferior half of 2nd part x Caecum and appendix
(distal to papilla), 3rd part, 4th part x Ascending colon
x Jejunum x Right ҀRIWUDnsverse colon
x Ileum
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Derivatives of Hindgut
x Left ѿRIWUDQVYHUVHFRORQ x Upper part of anal canal
x Descending and pelvic colon x Parts of the urogenital system derived
x Rectum from the primitive urogenital sinus
Esophagus Æ FOREGUT
x Bt pharynx and stomach
x Elongates as the neck forms (w/ descent of the diaphragm and enlargement of pleural cavities)
x Musculature derived from mesenchyme surrounding foregut
o Upper Ҁ mesenchyme forms striated muscle
o Lower ѿ mesenchyme forms smooth muscle (same as rest of gut)
Stomach
x First seen as a fusiform dilatation of the foregut Æ distal to oesophagus
x Dorsal mesogastrium Æ fold of peritoneum that att. dorsal border w/ post. abdominal wall
o Gastropleuric lig Æ part of dorsal mesogastrium bt spleen & stomach
o Lienorenal ligament Æ part bt spleen & posterior abdominal wall
x Ventral mesogastrium Æ fold that attaches ventral border to septum transversum
o Septum transversum Æ liver & diaphragm
o Lesser omentum Æ part of ventral mesogastrium bt liver and stomach
o Coronary & Falciform Ligaments Æ part bt liver & diaphragm (& ant abdominal wall)
x Lesser curvature Æ ventral border now faces upward and to the left
x Greater curvature Æ dorsal border now points downward and to the left
x Rotation and growth
o left surface Æ Anterior
o right surface Æ Posterior
Duodenum
x Foregut Æ 1st part + superior half of 2nd part
x Midgut Æ lower half of 2nd part + 3rd part + 4th part
x Mesoduodenum Æ a mesentery that connects loop of duodenum to post. abdominal wall
o Fuses with peritoneum of prost. abdominal wall when loop falls to the right
o Duodenum becomes retroperitoneal
o Small part persist btw duodenum and pylorus Æ duodenal cap (in radiographs)
x Post. part of duodenum supplied by branches of celiac artery
x Distal part of duodenum supplied by branches of superior mesenteric
Ascending Colon Æ Develops from postarterial segment of midgut loop that is distal to caecal bud
Transverse Colon
x Right Ҁ develop from postarterial segment Æ superior mesenteric artery
x Left ѿDULVHVIURPKLQGJXWÆ inferior mesenteric artery
Rectum Æ from primitive rectum (dorsal part of cloaca); upper part from hindgut (prox cloaca)
Anal Canal
x Endoderm (primitive rectum) & Ectoderm (anal pit/proctodaeum)
x Pectinate line (anal valves): junction bt endoderm & ectoderm
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x Parts of the intestine that are normally retroperitoneal may have a mesentery.
o Volvulus: abnormal mobility of these parts = twisting
Twisting of BVs to the loop = obstruction of blood supply
x Parts of the intestines that normally have mesentery fixed by abnormal adhesions of peritoneum
x Caecum may remain sub-hepatic or descend only to the lumbar region or descend into the pelvis
Congenital Obstruction
x Atresia Æ continuity of the lumen of the gut is interfered with:
o segment of gut may be missing
o segment of the gut may be replaced by fibrous tissue
o septum may block the lumen
x Stenosis Æ lumen may be abnormally narrow
o During early devl’t, lumen undergoes epithelial occlusion, then later recanalize
o Some cases of atresia, duplication and stenosis due to abnormal recanalization
x Non-development of nerve plexuses in the wall of a part of the intestinal tract
o difficulty in the passage of intestinal contents through the part
o Megacolon/Hirschsprung’s Disease Æ part of colon proximal to defective segment
becomes greatly distended with its contents
x Abnormal thickening of muscular wall Æ typically seen at pyloric end of the stomach
(congenital pyloric stenosis), the thickened muscle bulges into the lumen and narrows it
x External pressure by abnormal peritoneal bands or abnormal BVs Æ often seen in relation to
the duodenum which can also be compressed by an annular pancreas
x Imperforate Anus Æ stenosis or atresia of the lower part of the rectum or the anal canal
Duplication
x Varying lengths of the intestinal tract may be duplicated
x Duplicate part may = small cyst or may be very long
x May or may not communicate w/ the rest of the intestine
Diverticula
x May arise from any part of gut, but most common near the duodenum
x Meckel’s diverticulum/diverticulum ilei Æ persistence of part of vitello-intestinal duct =
diverticulum at terminal part of the ileum
o may undergo inflammation Æ symptoms related to appendicitis
o pancreatic tiss or gastric type mucosa may be in its wall Æ ulceration or perforation
o fecal fistula at umbilicus Æ all of the vitello-intestinal duct present
o umbilical sinus Æ only the distal part of vitello-intestinal duct present
o enterocystoma/vitelline cyst Æ vitello-intestinal duct rep by cysts or fibrous cords
fibrous cords = danger later; coils of intestine may get twisted = strangulation
remnants of v-i duct may also give rise to growths
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Situs Inversus
x All abdominal and thoracic viscera are laterally transposed
x All parts that are normally on the right side are seen on the left and vice versa
o Appendix and duodenum lie on the left side and the stomach on the right side
Timetable of Events
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Liver
x From endodermal bud from ventral aspect of gut @ junc’n bt foregut & midgut
x Bud grows & passes into ventral mesogastrium Æ septum transversum Æ enlarges & divides
o Pars hepatica: larger, cranial part Æ right & left parts = lobes of liver
R & L divisions grow & extend into septum transversum; cells broken up into
interlacing columns – hepatic trabeculae
Sinusoids from umbilical & vitelline veins & mesenchym of septum transversum
o Pars cystica: smaller, caudal part = gall bladder & cystic duct
x Parenchyma of liver & bile capillaries from endodermal cells of hepatic bud
x Capsule & fibrous tissue basis from mesoderm of septum transversum
x Fetal liver = center of hemopoiesis
o Large aggregations of blood-forming cells present bt hepatic cells & BVs
x 3 months Æ Bile formation begins = black color of first stools (meconium) of newborn
x Rudimentary left lobe
x Anomalous lobation
x Reidel’s Lobe
x Absence of quadrate lobe w/ absence of gall bladder
x Accessory liver in falciform ligament
x Anomalies of Shape
o Phygian cap: cap-like structure that results when fundus folded on itself
o Hartmann’s pouch: wall of infundibulum may project downwards as a pouch
May be adherent to cystic duct or even bile duct
x Anomalies of Position
o Organ lies transversely on under-surface of right lobe of liver; or under left lobe
o Floating Gall Bladder: gall bladder may be lined by peritoneum on all sides
may be att to liver by a fold of peritoneum or may be completely free
o Gall bladder may be embedded in substance of the liver
x Duplication
o Lumen partially or completely subdivided by a septum that night extend into cystic duct
o Gall bladder may be partially or completely duplicated
x Sessile bladder: GB may open directly into bilde duct
x Gall bladder may be absent
x Diverticula may arise from any part of the organ
Pancreas
x From dorsal & ventral endodermal buds that arise from part of gut that will = 2nd part of duod
x Ventral bud Æ close to hepatic bud in inferior angle bt it and duodenum
x Dorsal bud Æ frm dorsal aspect of gut & grows into mesoduodenum & dorsal mesogastrium
x When duodenal loop falls to the right, ventral bud points right & dorsal bud points left
x Differential growth of wall of gut, att of ventral bud (& bile duct) also shifts to the left
o When buds shift, pancreatic tissue from buds fuse to form one mass
o Ventral bud = lower part of head & uncinate process of pancreas
o Dorsal bud = upper part of head, body & tail
x Duct system of ventral & dorsal buds anastomose with each other
o Accessory pancreatic duct bt duct of dorsal bud & duodenum
o Main pancreatic duct formed distally by duct of dorsal bud & proximally by ventral bud
Opens into duodenum at the major duodenal papilla with bile duct
x Islets of Langerhans: secretory elements of pancreas; formed by primitive duct system
x Annular Pancreas: pancreatic tissue surrounds duodenum completely & may obstruct it
x Divided pancreas: parts of pancreas derived from dorsal & ventral buds fail to fuse with ea other
x Accessory pancreatic tissue may be found in stomach, duodenum, jejunum, Meckel’s
diverticulum, gall bladder, spleen
x Inversion of pancreatic ducts: embryonic arrangement of ducts persists and greater part of
pancreas is drained through minor duodenal papilla
Spleen
x Collection of mesenchymal cells in dorsal mesogastrium (some from coelomic epithelium)
x Mesenchymal cells Æ Lymphoblasts and other blood-forming cells
o Proliferate = mass which projects left & covered by peritoneum
x Dorsal mesogastrium
o Gastrosplenic Ligament: extends from stomach to spleen
o Lienorenal ligament: extends from spleen to posterior abdominal wall
Fuses to post abd wall, fold of peritoneum passes from spleen to left kidney
x Fusion to post wall + change in orientation of stomach Æ spleen lies on left side
x Forms left boundary of lesser sac of peritoneum
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x Lobulated spleen
x Spleen may be absent (very rare)
x Accessory spleens can be seen at hilum of spleen, gastrosplenic lig or lienorenal lig, w/in
pancreas, along splenic artery
x Situ inversus Æ spleen onn right side of abdomen; liver on left side
Larynx
x Develops from cranial most part of respiratory diveritculum
x Inlet of larynx persists as comm. bt diverticulum & pharynx
x Epiglottis: formed by caudal part of hypobranchial eminence
x Thyroid cartilage: from 4th arch
x Cricoid cartilage: from 5th arch
x Arytenoid cartilage: from 6th arch
x Laryngeal muscles derived from branchial mesoderm as indicated by their nerve supply
x Laryngocoele: laryngeal saccule abnormally large; goes beyond larynx proper = swelling in neck
x Congenital stenosis or atreasia: stenosis or atresia of larynx
x Duplication of entire or part of larynx
x Laryngoptosis: larynx lies down in the neck; part of it may be behind the sternum
x One or more laryngeal cartilages may be absent
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Lungs
x Substance of the lungs formed by further subdivisions of lobar bronchi
o Before birth Æ 17 subdivisions of each main bronchus
o After birth Æ 23 subdivisions
x Alveoli formed after est of bronchial tree & expansion of terminal parts of tree
x Lung parenchyma devl’p from lobar bronchi
o Separated by mesoderm Æ forms CT basis of lung & gives rise to pleura
o Pleura: lines surface of each lobe Æ separated by fissures
x Before birth Æ subdivisions of bronchial tree lined by cubical epithelium; Canalicular phase
x After birth Æ onset of respiration Æ alveoli become dilated and lining epith becomes thin
x Some cells within respiratory passages become specialized for production of surfactant
o Surfactant Æ reduces surface tension; thin layer lining alveoli
Prevents collapse of alveoli during expiration
o Before birth Æ respiratory passages full of fluid
o After birth Æ start breathing Æ fluid rapidly absorbed & partly expelled; ĹRIDOYHROL
o Premas Æ deficiency of surfactant = difficulty in expansion of lung & could cause death
x Pulmonary circulation est in early fetal life
x Foramen Ovale & ductus arteriosus: most of blood circuited through these structures first
x Amount of blood circulating through lungs progressively increases
o 7th month Æ circulation rich enough to provide adequate oxy for sustaining life
x Agenesis & Hypoplasia: complete lung or one of its lobes (& assoc bronchi) may fail to devl'p
or may remain underdeveloped
x Absence of fissures Æ reduction of # of lobes
x Three-lobed left lung Æ transverse fissure may appear on left side = extra lobe in left lung
x Medial basal segment (cardiac lobe) of left lung may be separated by a fissure from rest of lobe
x Superior segment of lower lobe may be separated in the same way
x Upper lobe of right lung may come to lie medial to azygous vein Æ Axygous Lobe
o Azygous vein is suspended from wall of thorax by a fold of parietal pleura (mesoazygous)
x Accessory lobes: usually connected to bronchi that are not part of the normal bronchial tree
o Upper accessory lobe from trachea, above bifurcation
o Lower accessory lobe from esophagus; occasionally lobe won’t have a bronchus
x Sequestration of lung tissue: area of embryonic lung tiss may separate frm tracheobronchial tree
o Lobar sequestration Æ tissue may form a complete lobe
o Most commonly seen in lower lobe of left lung
x Lung Hernia Æ part of lung may be herniated
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Body Cavities
x Pericardial, Pleural, Peritoneal cavities from intra-embryonic coelom
x Lateral plate mesoderm splits into
o Parietal (somatopleuric)
o Visceral (splanchnopleuric)
x Mesothelium: flattened epithelial lining from differentiation of mesodermal cells lining cavities
o gives the peritoneum, pleura and pericardium their smooth surfaces
x Intraembryonic coelom Æ horseshoe shaped cavity w/ narrow midline part and 2 lateral parts
o Midline parts Æ lie cranially in the embryonic disc Æ Pericardial Cavity
o Two lateral limbs of the coelom Æ Peritoneal Cavity
x For some time pericardial cavity and peritoneal cavity are connected to each other by a pair of
narrow pericardio-peritoneal canals.
x These canals undergo great enlargement to form the pleural cavities
Pleural cavity
x After formation of head fold Æ pericardium comes to lie on the ventral aspect of the embryo
x Pericardio-peritoneal canals wind backwards on either side of the foregut
o Lung buds from foregut invaginate these canals
As the bud enlarges to form lungs, the canals balloon out = pleural cavities
x Pericardio-pleural opening: each pleural cavity comm. with the pericardial cavity
x Pleuro-peritoneal opening: each pleural cavity comm. w/ peritoneal cavity
x Openings are closed by the formation of the pericardio-pleural membranes and the formation of
pleura-peritoneal membranes respectively
Peritoneal Cavity
x Peritoneal cavity formed from the two limbs of the horseshoe shaped intra-embryonic coelom
x Two parts fuse to form one cavity Æ lateral folding of the embryonic disc
x Two parts of the cavity remain separate at the cranial end of the abdomen
x Attachment of mesentry of the primitive gut on posterior abdominal wall is initially at midline
x Changes in rotation of the gut Æ some parts of the gut becoming retroperitoneal
o The line of attachment of the mesentry becomes complicated
x Peritoneal cavity subdivides into many pockets that are partially sep’d by folds of peritoneum
Diaphragm
x Partition separating thoracic and abdominal cavities
x Cranial Æ Pericardial and pleural cavities
x Caudal Æ Peritoneal cavity
x Cranial part of liver helps form the diaphragm
x Septum transversum forms a mesodermal mass lying caudal to the pericardial cavity
o separates the pericardial and peritoneal cavities
o Posterior Æ pleural and peritoneal cavities comm thru the pleuro-peritoneal canals that
lie o either side of esophagus
x partition b/w the thorax and abdomen is completed when the pleuro-peritoneal canals are closed
by the formation of the pleura-peritoneal membranes
x Development of Diaphragm
o pleural cavities increase size Æ thorax as a whole also expands
o diaphragm also enlarges at the expense of body wall
o diaphragm formed from the following components
septum transversum
pleuro-peritoneal membranes
ventral and dorsal mesenteries of esophagus
mesoderm of body wall ĺLQFOXGLQJPHVRGHUPDURXQGWKHGRUVDODRUWD
o nerve supply of the diaphragm from the C3, C4, C5 nerves
o diaphragm has undergone great migration in caudal direction during development
x Diaphragmatic hernias: Abdominal contents may pass through gap in muscle where parts of
diaphragm failed to develop
o Posterolateral Æ due to failure of a pleuro-peritoneal canal to close
o Posterior Æ due to failure of the development of the crura
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o Retrosternal Æ abnormally large gap between the sterna and costal parts of the muscle
o Central Æ thru dome of diaphragm (sometimes entire half of diaphragm absent)
x Accessory diaphragm in the thoracic cavity Æ divides the lung into two parts
x Congenital eventration of the diaphragm Æ muscle may be thin and aponeurotic Æ may bulge
upwards into the thorax (unilateral or confined to a small area)
Timetable of Events
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x Septum Primum & Secondum: separates primitive atrium into R & L atria
x Foramen ovale: bt 2 septa, valvular = passage of blood from right Æ left atrium
x Ventricles formed by proximal 1/3 of bulbus cordis, cornus & primitive ventricle; R & L sep by:
o Interventricular septum: grows from floor of primitive ventricle upwards
o Bulbar septum: divides conus into 2 parts
o gap bt 2 parts of conus filled via prolif of A-V cushions (formed by A-V canal)
x Truncus arteriosus continuous with aortic sac Æ has R & L horns
o Each horn continuous with 6 pharyngeal (aortic) arch arteries – join dorsal aorta; only
3rd, 4th, 6th arch remain; caudal part of R & L dorasal aortae fuse = 1 median aorta
x Arch of aorta Æ left horn & left 4th arch artery of aortic sac
x Descending aorta Æ left dorsal aorta & partly from fused median vessel
x Brachiocephalic artery Æ right horn of aortic sac
x Common Carotid Artery Æ part of 3rd arch artery
x Pulmonary Artery Æ 6th arch artery
x Arteries to the gut Æ ventral splanchnic branches of dorsal aorta
x Renal, suprarenal & gonadal arteries Æ lateral splanchnic branches of dorsal aorta
x Arteries to body wall & limbs Æ dorsolateral (somatic intersegmental) branches of aorta
x L Subclavian Æ 7th cervical intersegmental artery
x R Subclavian Æ 7th cervical intersegmental artery & R 4th arch artery
x Portal v/.ein Æ anastomosis between R & L vitelline veins
x Superior Vena Cava Æ part of R ant cardinal vein & R common cardinal vein
x IVC Æ R post cardinal, R subcardinal, R supracardinal veins & R hepatocardiac channel
The Heart
x From splanchnopleuric meso cranial to prochordal plate Æ cardiogenic area
x Right and left endothelial heart tubes fuse Æ median tube with dilatations
o Bulbus cordis
dilated proximal 1/3 Æ primitive R ventricle (trabeculated part)
middle 1/3 = conus Æ outflow tracts of R & L ventricles
distal 1/3 = truncus arteriosus Æ ascending aorta & pulmonary trunk
x continuous with aortic sac which is cont’s with R & L arch arteries
x arteries arch backwards & become cont’s with R & L dorsal aortae
o Ventricle Æ primitive L ventricle (trabeculated part)
o Atrium Æ partitioned into R & L atria
o Sinus Venosus Æ right & left horns; venous end of heart
1 vitelline vein (from yolk sac) Æ part of inferior vena cava
1 umbilical vein (from placenta) Æ disappears
1 common cardinal vein (from body wall) Æ part of superior vena cava
left horn retrogresses; remnant forms part of coronary sinus
o Bulbo-ventricular sulcus Æ between ventricle & bulbus cordis
o Atrio-ventricular canal Æ connects atrium & ventricle
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Formation of Atria
1. Opening between sinus venosus & primitive atrial chamber becomes narrower and shifts right
2. R & L venous valves fuse cranially Æ septum spurium
3. A-V canal divides into R & L halves
4. atrio-ventricular cushions form on dorsal & ventral walls then fuse Æ septum intermedium
Development of Ventricles
Bulbus Cordis
x Spiral septum: divides truncus arteriosus into ascending aorta & pulmonary trunk,
o formed by union of superior (R) & inferior (L) truncus cushions
o at lower end, PT is ventral to aorta, but upper end Æ PT is found left of aorta
x Conus Æ outflow tracts of both R & L ventricles
x Proximal 1/3 merges with cavity of primitive ventricle
x Bulbo-ventricular Cavity
o Dilated lower part (from proximal 1/3 & primitive ventricle) comm. with atria
o Conical upper part (from conus) comm. w/ truncus arteriosus
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Pericardial Cavity
x Part of i-e coelom in midline, cranial to prochordal plate
x After head fold Æ lies on ventral side of body of embryo
x Heart tube invaginates pericardial sac from dorsal aspect
x Parietal layer of serous & fibrous pericardium from somatopleuric meso on ventral side
x Visceral serous pericardium from splanchnopleuric meso on dorsal side of pericardial cavity
x Heart tube initially suspended w/in pericardial cavity by dorsal mesocardium
o After dorsal meso disappears Æ layers of pericardium cont’s at arterial & venous ends
x Folding Æ Arterial & venous ends get closer; space in bt = transverse sinus of pericardium
x Arterial end Æ aorta & pulmonary trunk
x Venous end Æ SVC, IVC & 4 pulmonary veins
x Rearrangement of veins at venous end = formation of isolated pouch of pericardium near
pulmonary veins Æ oblique sinus of pericardium
Anomalies of Position
x Dextrocardia: all structures that are usually on right are on left and v.v.
x Ectopia cordis: heart is exposed on front of chest due to defective devl’t of chest wall
Atresia or Stenosis
x Atresia: orifices have no opening at all
x Stenosis: any of the orifices may have too narrow opening
o Aortic & Pulmonary passages show supra- or subvalvular stenosis
o Pulmonary Æ foramen ovale & ductus arteriosus is patent Æ blood flows into aorta
x Openings may be too large Æ valves become incompetent
Abnormal Growth
x Accessory cusps in valves
x Congenital tumors
x LA may be partially subdivided by a transverse septum
x Hypoplasia Æ myocardium poorly developed
Tricuspid atresia: fusion of endo cushions too much to the right; upper part of IV septum defective
x Ĺ3LQ5$Æ foramen ovale doesn’t close
x Cor biloculare: 2 chambered heart Æ common ventricle & atrium
x Cor triloculare: 3-chambered heart; single ventricle with 2 atria,
x Cor triloculare biventriculare: 3-chambered with single atrium & 2 ventricles
Fallot’s Tetrology
x Interventricular septal defect
x Aorta overriding free upper edge of ventricular septum
x Pulmonary stenosis
x Hypertrophy of Right Ventricle
The Arteries
Pharyngeal Arch Arteries
x R & L primitive aortae cont’s with 2 endocardial heart tubes
o Ventral aorta Æ ventral to foregut
o Arched portion Æ 1st pharyngeal arch
o Dorsal Aorta Æ dorsal to gut
x After fusion of tubes Æ R & L ventral aortae fuse partially = aortic sac, R & L horns of sac
x Successive arterial arches in 2nd-6th pharyngeal arches Æ connected ventral to R or L horns of
aortic sac and dorsally to dorsal aorta
x Most of 1st & 2nd arch disappear
o 1st Æ maxillary artery (in adult)
o 2nd Æ stapedial artery (in fetus); may contribute to external carotid artery
x 5th also disappears
x Aortic sac Æ 3rd, 4th, & 6th arches
o 3rd & 4th Æ open into ventral part
o 6th Æ open into dorsal part
x Spiral septum extends into aortic sac & fuses with posterior wall
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Other Arteries
x 3 groups of branches from primitive dorsal aortae
o Ventral splanchnic arteries Æ supply gut only celiac, superior & inf mesenteric remain
to supply infradiaphragmatic part of foregut, midgut & hindgut; bronchial & esophageal
arteries are also remnants of vessels
o Lateral/intermediate splanchnic Æ renal, suprarenal, phrenic, spermatic & ovarian
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Vertebral Artery
x 1st part of artery from origin to point of entry into foramen transversarum of 6th cervical vertebra,
formed by dorsal division of 7th cervical intersegmental artery
x 2nd part Æ foramina transversaria, from post-costal anastomoses bt 1st & 6th cervical interseg As
Arteries of Limbs
x Lateral branches of somatic intersegmental arteries
x Each limb has own axis artery Æ runs along central axis of limb; original axis artery disappears
x Axis artery of upper limb formed by 7th cervical intersegmental artery
o Axillary, brachial, anterior interosseous arteries Æ deep palmar arch
o Radial & ulnar later
x Left subclavian = main stem of 7th cervical intersegmental A & proximal part of lateral division
x Axis artery of lower limb derived from 5th lumbar intersegmental artery Æ branch of internal
iliac and runs on dorsal aspect of thigh; proximally gets linked above with external iliac &
below with popliteal artery
o Inferior gluteal A
o Small artery with Sciatic Nerve
o Part of popliteal artery that lies above level of popliteus muscle
o Distal part of peroneal artery
o Part of plantar arch
Umbilical Artery
x Continuations of distal ends of dorsal aortae
x After fusion of aortae Æ lateral branches of single dorsal aorta
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x Each umbilical artery linked up with that part of 5th lumbar interseg artery Æ internal iliac artery
x After birth Æ proximal part of umbilical artery becomes superior vesical artery; distal part
obliterated Æ medial umbilical ligament
Veins
Visceral Veins
x Vitelline veins: from yolk sac (aka omphalomesenteric veins)
x Umbilical veins: right & left from placenta
x Open into sinus venosus
x Liver Æ in septum transversum
o Vitelline & umbilical veins get broken up into many small channels Æ sinusoids
o Hepatocardiac channels Æ drain into sinus venosus (left disappears)
o Common hepatic vein Æ forms cranial-most part of IVC
o Right umbilical vein disappears Æ all blood reaches developing liver thru left vein
o Ductus Venosus Some sinusoids enlarge to create direct passage connecting left
umbilical vein to right hepatocardiac channel
Portal Vein
x Proximal parts of 2 vitelline veins lie on right & left sides of developing duodenum
x Veinsinterconnected by 3 transverse anastomoses Æ 2 are ventral to duod, 3rd connects dorsally
x Superior mesenteric & splenic veins develop independently & join left vitelline vein
x Parts of vitelline vein disappear:
o Part of Right vitelline vein, caudal to dorsal anastomosis
o Part of Left vitelline vein caudal to entry of superior mesenteric & splenic veins
o Caudal ventral anastomosis
o Left vitelline vein bt dorsal anastomosis & cranial ventral anastomosis
x Portal vein derived from parts of vitelline veins that remain:
o Left vitelline vein bt entry of superior mesenteric & spenic veins & dorsal anastomosis
o Dorsal anastomosis itself
o Right vitelline vein bt dorsal anastomosis & cranial ventral anastomosis
x left branch of portal vein formed by cranial ventral anastomosis & part of left vitelline vein
cranial to the anastomosis
x right branch formed by right vitelline vein cranial to ventral anastomosis
x venae advehentes: sinusoids that carry blood of R & L branches to liver substance
x venae revehentes: sinusoids that drain blood to IVC Æ tributaries of hepatic veins
x left umbilical vein ends in left branch of portal vein, ductus venosus connects left branch of
portal vein to IVC (right hepatocardiac channel)
Somatic Veins
x Anterior cardinal Æ drain cranial part of embryo (incl. brain)
o Joined by subclavian veins Æ drain forelimbs; interconnected via transverse anastomosis
o Left ant cardinal caudal to anastomosis retrogresses & left common cardinal retrogress
x Posterior cardinal Æ drain caudal part of embryo
x Common cardinal (aka Duct of Cuvier) open into corresponding horns of sinus venosus
x Superior Vena Cava Æ opens into RA (right horn of sinus venosus)
o Right anterior cardinal vein caudal to transverse anastomosis w/ left ant cardinal
o Right common cardinal
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x R Brachiocephalic Vein from anterior cardinal bt point of junc’n w/ subclavian & point of
junc’n with transverse anastomosis
x L Brachiocephalic Vein derived from
o L ant cardinal vein corresponding to R BCV
o Transverse intercardinal anastomosis
x Internal Jugular veins from parts of ant cardinal veins cranial to junction w/ subclavian
x External Jugular veins secondary channels Æ not derived from anterior cardinal veins
x Intersegmental veins from body wall Æ anterior & posterior cardinal veins
x Subclavian veins formed by enlargement of one of these veins in region of upper limb bud
x Left Superior Intercostal Vein & Coronary sinus from retrogressing left veins
o Left superior intercostal vein Æ left ant cardinal vein caudal to transverse anastomosis &
most cranial part of left pos cardinal vein; 2nd & 3rd intercostal veins drain into this vein
o Coronary sinus Æ medial part from left horn of sinus venosus; lateral part from proximal
part of LCCV
x Oblique vein of left atrium Æ remaining part of LCCV
Veins of Abdomen
x Posterior cardinal veins: cranial ends join anterior cardinal veins Æ common cardinal veins
o Near caudal ends, receive veins of lower limb bud & pelvis
o Caudal ends interconnected via transverse anastomosis
x Subcardinal Veins: formed in relation to mesonephros
o Cranially & caudally comm. w/ posterior cardinal veins
o Receive veins from developing kidneys
o Intersubcardinal anastomosis: 2 subcardinal interconnected at level of renal veins
o Cranial part also est anastomosis w/ right hepatocardiac channel
x Supracardinal veins (aka thoracolumbar veins): comm. cranially & caudally w/ posterior
cardinal veins; also comm. with subcardinal veins thru anastomoses which join subcardinals just
below renal veins
x Inferior vena cava derived from (caudal to cranial):
o Lowest part of R posterior cardinal vein (bt junc’n w/ supracardinal and anastomosis
bt 2 posterior cardinals
o Lower part of R supracardinal vein (bt junc’n with posterior cardinal & supracardinal-
subcardinal anastomosis)
o Right supracardinal-subcardinal anastomosis
o Renal segment of IVC Æ Right subcardinal vein bt above anastomosis & the anast bt
subcardial vein & R hepatocardiac channel
o Hepatic segment of IVC Æ right hepatocardiac channel
x Right common iliac vein from most caudal part of right posterior cardinal vein
x Left common iliac vein = anastomosis bt 2 posterior cardinal veins
x Right renal vein Æ mesonephric vein that originally drains into subcardinal vein Æ opens into
part of vena cave that is derived from subcardinal vein
x Left renal vein
o Mesonephric vein that originally drains into left subcardinal vein
o Small part of left subcaridnal vein
o Inter-subcardinal anastomosis (lies in front of aorta)
x Suprarenal Veins = remnants of part of subcardinal veins above intersubcardinal anastomosis
x Testicular/Ovarian veins = remnants of parts of subcardinal veins below intersubcardinal anast
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Anomalies of Veins
x Left superior vena cava: failure of left anterior & common cardinal veins to retrogress; opens
into RA thru large coronary sinus; normal SVC might be smaller or even absent
x Double IVC: generally, only below level of renal veins
o Persistence of both subcardinal & supracardinal veins below level of kidneys Æ Both
channels present on right side
o Additional channel may form on left side
x Left IVC: infrarenal part of vena cava my be present on left side only
x Azygos continuation of IVC: hepatic segment of IVC may be absent due to devlp’t of anast bt R
subcardinal vein & R hepatocardiac channel Æ upper part of IVC follows course of azygos
vein & opens into SVC; hepatic veins open into RA at usual site of IVC
x Pre-ureteric vena cavae: IVC may be anterior to right ureter; ureter hooks around to left side of
vena cava; normally caused when infrarenal part of vena cava devl’ps from subcardinal vein
instead of supracardinal vein (posterior to ureter)
Fetal Circulation
x Source of oxy blood is placenta not lung
x Oxy blood from placenta Æ umbilical vein Æ left branch of portal vein Æ IVC via ductus
venosus (sphincter-like controls blood flow)
x Oxy-rich blood reaching RA via IVC towards foramen ovale Æ div into 2 by septum secundum
o Most passes thru foramen ovale Æ LA
o Rest gets mixed up with blood returning to RA thru SVC & passes into RV
x From right ventricle, mostly deoxy blood, enters PT Æ only some reaches lungs & passes into
LA; most is short-circuited b yductus arteriosus into aorta
x LA receives oxy blood from RA & some deoxy blood from lungs
o Oxy rich blood passes into LV and then into aorta
o Some passes into carotid & subclavian As to supply brain, head & neck & upper limb
o Rest gets mixed up with poorly oxygenated blood from ductus arteriosus Æ parts of body
that are supplied by branches of aorta arising distal to its junc’n with ductus arteriosus,
receive blood with only moderate oxygen content
o Much of the blood of aorta carried by umbilical arteries to placenta where it is
oxygenated & returned to the heart
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Lymphatic System
x Lymph sacs Æ independent formations from mesenchym
x R & L Jugular Sacs: near junc’n of post cardinal & subclavian veins
x R & L Posterior (Iliac) Sacs: lie around corresponding common iliac vein
x Retroperitoneal sac: unpaired; lies in relation to root of mesentery
x Cisterna chyli: unpaired; lies in midline caudal to retroperitoneal sac
x Lymphatic vessels = extension from sacs or may form de novo & extend into various tissues
x All sacs except cisterna chyli are invaded by CT & lymphocytes Æ lymph nodes
x Thoracic Duct: derived from R & L channels that connect cisterna chyli to corresponding
jugular sac; 2 channels anastomose across midline
o From caudal part of R channel, anastomosis bt R & L channel, & cranial part of L chanl
x Right Lymphatic duct from cranial part of right channel
x UG Sys from intermediate mesoderm & primitive UG sinus (UGS) - part of cloaca
x Primitive UGS Æ vesicourethral canal & definitive UGS
o Vesicourethral canal Æ urinary bladder & primitive urethra
o Definitive UGS Æ pelvic part & phallic part
x Kidneys
o Metanephros Æ excretory tubules (nephrons) = lowest part of nephrogenic cord which is
derived from intermediate mesoderm
o Ureteric bud Æ collecting tubules (arises from mesonephric duct) & ureters
x Urinary bladder from cranial part (endoderm)
o epithelium of trigone derived from absorbed mesonephric ducts
x ƂXUHWKUD Æ primitive urethra & pelvic part of UGS
x ƃÆ prostatic urethra (like Ƃ
membranous urethra (from pelvic part of UGS)
penile urethra (from phallic part of UGS)
Terminal part is ectodermal
x Prostate formed by buds from caudal part of vesico-urethral canal & pelvic part of UGS
x Ƃparamesonephric ducts (mesoderm)
o Uterine tubes
o Uterus from utero-vaginal canal (fused R & L parameso ducts)
x External genitalia Æ swellings around UG membrane
x Gonads (testis & ovary) Æ coelomic epithelium covering nephrogenic cord
o PGCs from yolk sac Æ ova & spermatozoa
o Testis formed in lumbar region and later descends to scrotum (ova stay in abdomen)
x Duct system of testis from mesonephric tubules from mesonephric duct
Intermediate Mesoderm
x Intra-embryonic mesoderm
o Paraxial mesoderm Æ somites
o Lateral plate mesoderm Æ intra-embryonic coelom
o Intermediate mesoderm between paraxial & lateral plate meso
x Nephrogenic cord: bulging on posterior abdominal wall, lateral to att of dorsal mesentery of gut
o Forms after folding of embryonic disc & formation of peritoneal cavity
o Surface covered by coelomic epithelium (same as lining of peritoneal cavity)
o Extends from cervical Æ sacral regions of embryo
o Various structures formed on each side of nephrogenic cord thru/o devl’t
Excretory tubules assoc w/ devl’t of kidney
Nephric duct: formed in relation to developing exc tubules Æ mesonephric duct
Paramesonephric duct Æ lateral to nephric duct
Gonad (testis/ovary) from coelomic epith lining medial side of cord
Cloaca
x Subdivides into primitive UGS & rectum
x Primitive UGS subdivides
o Cranial Æ vesico-urethral canal
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Development of Kidneys
x Pronephros Æ early kidney; formed in cervical region of nephrogenic cord; non-functional in
humans, disappears right away; but nephric duct ending in cloaca persists
x Mesonephros Æ appears in the thoracolumbar region; series of excretory tubules that drain into
nephric duct (= mesonephric duct); most tubules disappear, but some modified Æ testis duct sys
x Metanephros Æ form of definitive human kidney; found in sacral region; lowest part of cord
o Nephrons Æ excretory tubules
o Metanephric blastema
x Ureteric bud Æ collecting part of kidney; arises from lowest part of nephrogenic cord
o As grows cranially twrds metanephric blastema, growing end dilates Æ ampulla
o Ampulla divides repeatedly
Pelvis of kidney from fusion of first 3-5 generations of branches
Major calyces = next divisions
Minor calyces & collecting tubules from further divisions
o Collecting tubules Æ 1-3 million
o Cells of metanephric blastema that touch ampulla Æ differentiate Æ nephron
Differentiation induced by ampulla
Loosely arranged cells of blastema form solid clumps near ampulla Æ vesicles
Vesicles become pear-shaped & open into ampulla & becomes an S-shaped tube
x Distal end invaginated by tuft of capillaries Æ glomerulus
x Ascent of Kidney (RELATIVE ASCENSION)
o Differential growth of abdominal wall causes kidney to ascend to lumbar region
o Metanephros initially receves blood supply from lateral sacral arteries, but as kidney
becomes higher it is supplied by higher branches of the aorta
o Definitive renal artery = branch of lateral splanchnic branch of aorta at L2
o During ascent, kidneys pass thru fork-like interval bt R & L umbilical arteries (if these
come in the way = block ascent of kidneys)
x Rotation of Kidney
o Hilum initially faces anteriorly Æ gradually rotates so hilum faces medially
x Agenesis: one or both kidneys may be absent
x Hypoplasia: kidney underdeveloped
x Hyperplasia: kidney overdeveloped
x Adrenal tissue may be present within substance of kidney
x Hydronephrosis Æ distension of pelvis with urine due to obstruction in urinary passages
x Duplication Æ extra kidney on one side; may separate or be fused to normal kidney
x Anomalies of Shape
o Horseshoe kidney: lower poles of 2 kidneys fused
Connecting isthmus may be in front of or behind aorta & IVC
Can’t ascend past inferior mesenteric A
o Pancake kidney: 2 kidneys may form one mass, lying in midline or on one side
o Two kidneys may lie on one side, one above the other Æ adjacent poles fused
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Development of Ureter
x From part of ureteric bud that lies bt pelvis of kidney & vesico-urethral canal
x Ureter may be partially or completely duplicated Æ could lead to duplication of kidney
x Rare Æ >2 ureters on 1 kidney or both sides Æ 1 will open to bladder and other to abnormal site
x Ureter may end at abnormal sites
o ƃprostatic urethra, ductus deferens, seminal vesicles or rectum
o ƂXUHWKUDYDJLQDYHVWLEXOHUHFWXP
x Upper end of ureter may be blind (not connected to kidney)
x Hydroureter: ureter may be dilated due to obstruction of urine flow
x Ureter may have valves or diverticula
x Right ureter may pass behind IVC, then hooks around left side of IVCÆ kinking & obstruction
Development of Urethra
x Female Æ caudal part of vesico-urethral (endoderm)
o Posterior wall from mesonephric ducts (mesoderm)
o Slight contribution from pelvic part of UGS
x Male
o Caudal part of vesico-urethral canal (endoderm) Æ urethra from bladder to ejac ducts
o Posterior wall derived from absorbed mesonephric ducts (mesoderm)
o Prostatic urethra & membranous urethra Æ pelvic part of definitive UGS
o Penile urethra (except terminal part) Æ epith of phallic part of definitive UGS
o Terminal part of penile urethra lies in glans Æ ectoderm
x Obstruction to urethraat junc’n with bladder
x Urethra may show diverticula
x May be duplicated entirely or partly
x Urethra may have abnormal comm. w/ rectum, vagina or ureter
x Hypospadias & Epispadias
Development of Prostate
x Devl’ps from lg number of buds that arise from epith of prostatic urethra (ie: from caudal part of
vesico-urethral canal & pelvic part of definitive UGS) Æ secretory epithelium of gland
x Inner glandular zone: buds that arise from emsodermal part of prostatic urethra
o Affected in senile hypertrophy of organ
x Outer glandular zone: buds from rest of prostatic urethra (endoderm)
o differentiates earlier than inner; in later life Æ site of carcinomatous change
x muscle & CT of gland derived from surr mesenchym which also forms capsule of the gland
x secretory elements of prostate are rudimentary at birth Æ development at puberty
x progressive atrophy in old age Æ may undergo benign hypertrophy or may be absent (rare)
x Female Homologs of Prostate
o Endodermal buds, similar to those in prostate can be seen in female
o Buds from caudal part of vesico-urethral canal Æ urethral glands
o Buds from UGS Æ paraurethral glands of Skene
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Paramesonephric Ducts
x Present in intermediate mesoderm
x Formed by invagination of coelomic epithelium
x Lateral to mesonephric ducts in cranial part of nephrogenic cord
x When traced caudally Æ cross to medial side of mesonephric ducts
o Ducts of 2 sides meet & fuse in midline Æ utero-vaginal canal (uterine canal)
o Caudal end of uterine canal comes in contact w/ dorsal wall of definitive UGS
o ƂÆ uterine tubes, uterus & superior 2/3 of vagina
x ƃ Æ paramesonephric ducts remain rudimentary
o Greater part of each duct eventually disappears
o Appendix of testis: small rounded body att to testis that remains at cranial end of ea duct
x may occasionally give rise to cysts
o prostatic utricle = homolog to vagina (and maybe part of uterus)
Development of Vagina
x lower end of utero-vaginal canal comes in close contact w/ dorsal wall of part of UGS
x vaginal plate Æ separates utero-vaginal canal & UGS
o vagina Æ development of lumen w/in vaginal plate
o sinovaginal bulbs: 2 swellings formed by prolif of endodermal cells of UGS
o bulbs fuse together = one mass Æ vaginal plate
o part of vaginal plate near future cervix derived from meso cells of utero-vaginal canal
x hymen situated at junc’n of lower end of vaginal plate w/ UGS; both surfaces lined by endoderm
x Vagina may be duplicated Æ usually assoc with duplication of uterus
x Lumen may be subdivided longitudinally or transversely by a septum
x Vagina may be absent; condition may or may not be assoc with absence of uterus
x Hymen may be imperforate
x Rectovaginal fistula: vagina may have abnormal comm. w/ rectum
x Vesicovaginal fistula: vagina may have abnormal comm. with bladder
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Development of Testes
x Develops from coelomic epithelium that covers medial side of mesonephros
x Genital ridge: region where testis is to devl’p Æ germinal epithelium becomes thickened
x Sex cords: formed by prolif’n of cells of germinal epith Æ grow into underlying mesenchyme
x Medullary cords: sex cords reach deep into gonad
x Seminiferous tubules: cords become canalized
o PGCs migrate to genital ridge and get incorporated in seminiferous tubules
x Interstitial cells from sex cords that are NOT canalized; some also from surr mesenchyme
x Tunica albuginea: dense layer of fibrous tissue formed by mesenchymal cells around region
o Completely separates sex cords from germinal epithelium Æ epith can no longer make
any contribution to testicular tissue
x Testis may be absent on one or both sides
x Testis may be duplicated
x 2 testes may be fused together
x Cyrptorchidism: anomalies of descent Æ descent may fail to occur or may be incomplete;
organ may lie in lumbar region, iliac fossa, inguinal canal or in upper part of scrotum
o Testis may complete its descent after birth
o Spermatogenesis often fails to occur in undescended testis
o Undescended testis is more likely to devl’p a malignant tumor than a normal testis
o Condition can be surgically corrected
x Ectopia: abnormal positions
o Under skin of lower part of abdomen
o Under skin of front of thigh
o In femoral canal
o Under skin of penis
o In perineum behind the scrotum
x Hermaphroditism
Descent of Testes
x Develop in relation to lumbar region of posterior abdominal wall
x Fetus Æ gradually descend to scrotum
x 3rd month Æ reach iliac fossa & lie at site of deep inguinal ring
x 7th month Æ pass through inguinal canal
x 8th month Æ testis in scrotum by end of the month
x Factors that assist descent of testes
o Differential growth of body wall
o Formation of inguinal bursa
6th month Æ various layers of abd wall show outpouching twrds scrotum
Pouch progressively increases in size & depth Æ reaches bottom of scrotal sac
Descending testis enters pouch to reach scrotum
Cavity of inguinal bursa becomes inguinal canal and the various layers of its
wall forme the coverings of the testis and spermatic cord
o Gubernaculum: band of mesenchyme that extends from lower pole of testis to scrotum
Reaches bottom of inguinal bursa
When embryo increases in size, gubernaculum does NOT undergo a
corresponding increase in length Æ relative shortening of gubernaculum = testis
assumes a progressively lower position
Helps dilate inguinal bursa
Provides cont’s pathway for descending testis
o Processus Vaginalis: diverticulum of peritoneal cavity; actively grows into gubernacular
mesenchyme of inguinal canal & scrotum
As testis descends, it invaginate the processus vaginalis from behind
After descent done, loses all connection w/ peritoneal cavity Æ tunica vaginalis
Inguinal Hernia: abdominal contents may enter bc part that extends from deep
inguinal ring to tunica vaginalis may not disappear
x Congenital hernia
x Funicular hernia
x Infantile hernia
x Interstital hernia
Hydrocoele: fluid may accumulate in same area
x Congenital hydrocoele
x Vaginal hydrocoele
x Hydrocoele of cord
x Infantile hydrocoele
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Development of Ovary
x Genital ridge: Coelomic epith on medial side of mesonephros becomes thickened
x Sex cords & medullary cords proliferate from germinal epithelium & grow into mesoderm
x PGCs migrate to region of developing ovary and give rise to oocytes
x Primordial follicle: Sex cords become broken up into small masses Æ ea mass surr 1 PGC
x Medullary sex cords undergo regression in ovary Æ replaced by cortical cords which arise from
coelomic epithelium Æ give rise to Follicular cells
x Interstitial gland cells differentiate from mesenchyme of gonad
x No tunica albuginea is formed Æ germinal epith may contribute to ovary in postnatal life
x Descent of Ovary
o Descends from lumbar region Æ true pelvis
o Gubernaculum extends from ovary to laium majus Æ becomes att to developing uterus
at junc’n w/ uterine tube
Round Ligament of Ovary: part that persists bt ovary & uterus
Round Ligament of Uterus: part bt uterus and labium majus
x Ovary may be absent on one or both sides
x Ovary may be duplicated
x Ovary may descend into inguinal canal or even labium majus
x Adrenal or thyroid tissue may present in ovary; sometimes contains cells that are capable of
differentiating into various tissues Æ bone, cartilage, hair & growth of these cells Æ teratoma
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Hermaphroditism
x Hermaphrodite: person is both male and female
x True hermaphrodite: person has both testes and ovaries
o Person has at least one testis & one ovary
o External genitalia may be male or female or midway
o Chromosomal sex may be either male or female
x Pseudohermaphrodite: external genitalia look like those of one sex, & internal look like other
o Gonads are of one sex while genitalia (internal, external or both) are of opposite sex
o If patient has testis Æ male hermaphrodite
o If patient has ovary Æ female hermaphrodite
Caused by adrenogenital syndrome Æ excess of androgens produced by fetal
suprarenal gland; or by admin of progestins to mother during pregnancy
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Timetable of Events
External genitalia are most susceptible to teratogens bt 7th & 9th weeks; but can still be affected later
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x Ependymal
x Mantle Æ basal lamina (ventral) & alar lamina (dorsal) sep by sulcus limitans
o Alar lamina
Spinal cord Æ posterior grey colomn
Medulla, pons & midbrain Æ afferent nuclei
Myencephalon Æ olivary (migrate ventrally) & pontine nuclei (pons)
Metencephalon Æ cerebellum
Mesencephalon Æ colliculi, red nucleus & substantia nigra
o Basal lamina
Spinal cord Æ ventral grey column
Medulla, pons & midbrain Æ efferent cranial nerve nuclei
x Marginal Æ white matter
Neural Crest
x Neurons of spinal posterior (dorsal) nerve root ganglia
x Neurons of sensory ganglia of CN 5, 7, 9, 10
x Neurons & satellite cells of sympathetic ganglia, preaortic ganglia
x Neurons & sat cells of parasymp ganglia of CNs (ie: ciliary, submadibular, sphenopalatine, otic)
x Parasymp ganglia (enteric ganglia) of GIT & ganglia of pelvic viscera
x Schwann cells
x Specific cells of adrenal medulla
x Chromaffin tissue
x Melanoblasts of skin
x Pia-mater & arachnoidmater
x Mesenchyme of dental papilla, odontoblasts & dentine
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x Bones of face & part of vault of skull (frontal, parietal, squamous temporal, sphenoid,
maxilla, zygomatic, nasal, vomer. Palatine, mandible)
x Dermis, smooth muscle & fat of face & ventral aspect of neck
x Muscles of ciliayr body
x Sclera & choroid of eye
x Substantia propria & posterior epithelium of cornea
x CT of thyroid, parathyroid, thymus & salivary glands
x Derivatives of 1st, 2nd & 3rd pharyngeal cartilages
x C cells of thyroid gland
x Cardiac semilunar valves & conotruncal septum (spiral + bulbar septum)
x Hirschsprung’s disease, aorticopulmonary septal defects of heart, cleft lip/palate,
frontonasal dysplasia, neurofibromatosis, tumors of adrenal medulla, albinism…
Spinal Cord
x Ependymal
x Mantle Æ basal lamina (ventral) & alar lamina (dorsal) sep by sulcus limitans
o Grows faster in ventral part of neural tube and becomes thicker than dorsal part
o Alar lamina Æ posterior grey colomn Æ sensory structures (ie: interneurons)
o Basal lamina Æ ventral grey column Æ motor structures
o Posterior median septum formed when dorsal part of cavity obliterated
o Ventral part of cavity Æ central canal
o Anterior median fissure: formedd by further enlargement of basal lamina Æ projects
forwards to either side of midline = furrow, fissure bt projecting basal laminae of 2 sides
x Dorsal nerve roots formed by axons of cells that devl’p from neural crest
x Dorsal nerve root ganglia: grps of nerve roots that collect on dorsolateral aspect of spinal cord
o Central processes Æ spinal cord Æ dorsal nerve roots
o Peripheral processes Æ sensory components of spinal nerves
x Marginal Æ white matter
o Ascending tracts: axons of neurons in posterior grey column enter marginal layer
o Descending tracts: axons of cells devl’ping in brain grow downwards
x Full term Æ lower end of cord is at L3 (vertebral column elongates more than spinal cord)
x Adult Æ spinal cord usually ends L1 (lower border)
x After birth Æ recession of spinal cord cont’s Æ intervertebral foramina no longer lie at level
where corresponding nerves emerge from spinal cord
Medulla Oblongata
x Sulcus limitans divides ea lateral wall Æ dorsal (alar) lamina & ventral (basal) lamina
x Cells developing in lateral part of each alar lamina migrate ventrally & reach marginal layer
overlying ventrolateral aspect of basal lamina Æ bulbo-pontine extension Æ olivary nuclei
x Gracile & cuneate nuclei derived from lower-most part of somatic afferent column
Pons
x Cranial part of bulbo-pontine extension also contributes to pons Æ pontine nuclei
x Axons of pontine nuclei grow transversely Æ middle cerebellar peduncle
x Rhombic lip: lateral part of alar lamina Æ specialized = cerebellum
x Ventral part of alar lamina Æ sensory cranial nerve nuclei of pons
x Basal lamina Æ motor cranial nerve nuclei of pons
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Midbrain
x Basal lamina
o Occulomotor nerve nucleus, Trochlear nerve nucleus, Edinger Westphal nucleus (GVE)
x Alar lamina Æ cells of colliculi; red nucleus & substantia nigra
x Marginal layer of ventral part of mesencephalion invaded by downward growing fibers of
corticospinal, corticobulbar & cortico-pontine pathways Æ basis pedunculi
Cerebellum
x From dorsolateral part of alar lamina of metencephalon
x R & L primordial extend medially in roof plate Æ fuse across midline
x Intraventricular part: bulges into cavity of developing 4th ventricle
x Extraventricular part: bulging on surface; later constitutes almost the whole of organ
x some cells of mantle layer migrate into marginal layer Æ cerebellar cortex
x other cells Æ dentate, emboliform, globose, fastigal nuclei
x superior cerebellar peduncle: axons growing out of dentate nucleus
x middle cerebellar penduncle: axons growing into cerebellum from cells of pontine nuclei
x inferior cerebellar peduncle: fibers that grow into cerebellum from spinal cord & medulla
Cerebral Hemisphere
x from lateral telencephalic vesicles of prosencephalon
x Telencephalic vesicles Æ cerebral cortex & corpus striatum
x Diencephalon Æ thalamus, hypothalamus & related structures
x Telencephalon grows and completely covers lateral surface of diencephalon Æ cerebral cortex &
corpus striatum lie lateral to thalamus & hypothalamus
x Cavity of diencephalon Æ 3rd ventricle
x Cavities of telencephalic vesicles Æ lateral ventricles
o Spherical Æ elongated
o Temporal lobe formed by downwards and forwards growth of posterior end of t vesicle
Cavity Æ inferior horn Æ lateral ventricle becomes C-shaped
o Backward growth Æ occipital pole
Cavity Æ posterior horn
x Growth of t vesicles Æ medial walls become apposed to eo Æ surfaces continuous with eo in
floor of groove bt them = roof of 3rd ventricle
x Choroid fissure: lateral invagination of medial wall into lateral ventricle
o Telachoroidea: formed by fold of pia mater that extends into fissure
o Choroid plexus: bunch of capillaries that formes within fold; ependymal covering
formed by the original wall of ventricle
o Becomes C-shaped after temporal pole & inferior horn are formed
o Inferior part of fissure invaginates into inferior horn of lateral ventricle
Corpus Striatum
x Formed by cells in mantle layer
x Medial & lateral subdivisions
x Internal Capsule: Axons that are growing downwards from cerebral cortex of going towards
cortex pass thru corpus striatum Æ divided into deep & superficial parts
o Caudate Nucleus: deep to internal capsule
o Lentiform Nucleus: superficial Æ putament, globus pallidus
Cerebral Cortex
x Formed by migration of cells from mantle Æ marginal layer
x Full term Æ several layers of cells
x Thickening and side-to-side expansion of cortex = increased surface area (faster than hemis)
x Folding = sulci & gyri
x Hippocampal cortex Æ hippocampus & indusium griseum; devl’ps in medial wall of telenceph
o Follows curve of choroid fissure & assumes ring-like config’n
o Superior part separated from fissure by formation of corpus callosum Æ insdusium gris.
o Lower part develops more Æ hippocampus & dentate gyrus
o Structures pushed into cavity of inferior horn of lateral ventricle by growth of neocortex
x Pyriform cortex Æ olfactory sensations; marginal layer of telen, superificial to corpus striatum
o Uncus
o Anterior part of parahippocampal gyrus
o Anterior perforated substance
x Neocortex Æ expands greatly = whole of cerebral cortex that’s seen on superolateral & medial
surfaces of cerebral hemisphere & cortex of inf surface (excl pyriform); superolat of teleneph
Cerebral Commissures
x Lamina terminalis: part of wall of neural tube that closes cranial end of prosencephalon
o In anterior wall of 3rd ventricle after appearance of telencephalic vesicles
o Any neurons growing from one hemi to the other must pass through lamina
x Commissural plate: formed when lamina terminalis becomes thickened
x Anterior Commissure
x Hippocampal Commissure
x Corpus callosum: rapidly increases and extends bkwrds & roofs over anterior diencephalon
x Optic chiasma
x Habernular commissure
x Posterior commissure
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Sympathetic Neurons
x Preganglionic Neurons: devl’p in mantle layer of T1 – L2/3
o Near sulcus limitans Æ lateral horn of spinal cord
o Myelinated axons Æ ventral roots Æ spinal nerves Æ postganglionic neurons
o Fibers that go to visceral sympathetic ganglia pass through branches of sympathetic trunk
to reach visceral ganglia
x Postganglionic Neurons: axons grow towards and innervate various viscera of body
o Some enter spinal nerves & distrib to BVs, hair & sweat glands
o Derived from neural crest cells
Parasympathetic Neurons
x Preganglionic from Cranial Parasympathetic Outflow
o Formed in relation to general visceral efferent nuclear column of brainstem
o Edinger-Westphal nucleus, salivatory & lacrimatory nuclei, dorsal nucleus of Vagus
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Timetable of Events
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Pineal Gland
x Arises as a diverticulum from roof of the diencephalon
x At first hollow but later becomes solid
x Specific cells of pineal body are believed to be modified neuroglial cells
x Secrete a number of hormones that have a regulatory influence on other endocrine glands
Adrenal
x Consist of a superficial cortex and a deeper medulla
x Cortex Æ cells arise from coelomic epithelium (mesoderm)
o Cells from the angle btw developing gonads and att of mesentery
x Medulla Æ cells derive from neural crest (ectoderm)
o Cells similar to the postganglionic sympathetic neurons
o Preganglionic sympathetic neurons terminate in relation to them
o Cells migrate to the region around the developing cortical cells
x Cells from coelomic epithelium divide into 2 groups
o The first cells formed are large and acidophilic
Surround the medulla and form fetal cortex Æ disappears after birth
o Give rise to smaller cells that surround the fetal corex Æ definitive cortex
x Differentiation of cortical zones begins in late fetal period
o Zona glomerulosa and zona fasciculata are present at birth
o Zona retiularis becomes recognizable only at the end of 3rd year
x Suprarenal is same size in the fetus as in the adult
o Quite large compared to the fetal kidney
o Size of gland (particularly fetal cortex) becomes smaller during the 1st year
x Adrenal gland begins to develop in 5th week
x Adrenal cortical tissue may be present at various ectopic sites
x Entire adrenal may be ectopic and lie deep to the capsule of the kidney
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Chromaffin Tissue
x Made up of cells similar to that of the adrenal medulla
o Also derived from neural crest
x Seen in relation to the abdominal aorta Æ forms paraaortic bodies
x Seen in relation to sympathetic ganglia and plexuses and along the splanchnic nerves
Timetable of Events
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Internal Ear
x Otic placode Æ thickening of surf ecto overlying the developing hindbrain Æ memb labyrinth
x Otic pit Æ otic placode become depressed
x Otic vesicle Æ otic pit become rounded and seperates from surface ectoderm
x Membranous labyrinth Æ differential growth of various pt of otic vesicle wall
o Give rise to specialized sensory end organs of hearing and of equilibrium
Cristae of semicircular ducts
Maculae of utricle and saccule
Organ of Corti of cochlea
o Innervated by peripheral processes of the cells of the vestibulocochlear ganglion
Derived form the neural crest Æ cells remain bipolar throughout life
x Bony labyrinth Æ formed from mesenchyme surrounding membranous labyrinth
x Otic capsule Æ mesenchyme becomes condensed Æ converted into cartilage
x Loose periotic tissue bt cartilage and membranous labyrinth
o Spaces of bony labyrinth created by disappearance of periotic tissue
x Endolymph Æ fluid that fills the membranous labyrinth
x Perilymph Æ fluid that fills the periotic spaces
x Vestibule Æ space where periotic tissue disappears around utricle and saccule
x Semicircular canals Æ space where periotic tissue disappears around semicircular ducts
x Two spaces are formed on either side of the cochlear duct
o Scala tympani Æ grows towards tympanic cavity from which it is separated by a membr
o Scala vestibuli Æ communicates with the vestibule
x The cartilaginous labyrinth becomes ossified to form the bony labyrinth
Middle Ear
x Tubo-tympanic recess Æ epithelia lining the middle ear and pharyngo-tympanic tube is derived
o Develops from the dorsal pt of 1st pharyngeal pouch and contribution from 2nd pouch
x Tympanic antrum and mastoid air cells are formed from extensions from middle ear
x Malleus and incus Æ derived from dorsal end of Meckel`s cartilage
x Stapes Æ derived from dorsal end of cartilage from 2nd pharyngeal arch
x Ossicles are 1st outside the mucous mbrn of developing middle ear
o Invaginate mucous mebrn which covers them throughout life
o Fully ossify in the 4th month of intrauterine life Æ 1st bones in the body to ossify
x Tensor tympani Æ derived from meso of 1st pharyngeal arch and stapedius from 2nd arch
External Ear
x External acoustic meatus Æ derived from dorsal pt of 1st ecto cleft
o Deeper pt formed from proliferation of lining epi which grows toward middle ear
o Meatal plug Æ when proliferation is solid Æ later canalized
x Pinna (auricle) Æ formed from 6 meso thickening called tubercles or hillocks
o Appear on mandibular & hyoid arches around opening of dorsal pt of 1st ecto cleft
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x Mandibular arch forms only the tragus and sm area around it, rest formed from hyoid arch
o Consistent w/ the fact that auricular muscles are supplied by facial nerve
Tympanic Membrane
x Formed from apposition of the tube-tympanic recess and 1st ecto cleft
o Forming the inner (endodermal) and outer (ectodermal) epithelia linings of membrane
o Intervening mesoderm forms the CT basis
x Handle of malleus grows into CT from above
x Chorda tympani nerve 1st outside membrane, but later comes to lie w/in bc of upward ext
Timetable of Events
Age Developmental Events
Eye
22nd day Appearance of optic sulcus (over the neural plate)
th
4 week Optic vesicle comes in contact w/ surface ectoderm
Lens placode is forming
5th week Eye primordium is completely surrounded by loose mesenchyme
6th week Choriod fissure is formed; Lens vesicle is seen
th
7 week A solid lens is formed
The eyeball is most susceptible to teratogens during the 4th to 8th week, and can get affected till the
end of pregnancy.
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