Oracle Architecture and Administration

Duties of a database administrator

Now that we have we fairly good understanding about what the Oracle 10g database is
used for and how users can interact with it. We now move on to what this book aims to
teach you, i.e. basic administration of the Oracle 10g database.
A database administrator is a user of the database who has responsibilities that other
regular users may not be concerned with. Every database requires at least one database
administrator (DBA). If the database is large and needs to handle many thousands of
users a group of administrators maybe required.

Since managing the database is such an important and responsible task, being an
administrator is not always easy. The individual in addition to being able to administer
the database should have certain personal strengths such as being proactive, organized
and being able to handle well under stressful situations. A DBA should also be able to
communicate well. To effectively manage enterprise databases, a DBA must understand
business reasons for storing the data in the database and the technical details of how the
data is structured and stored.

Given below is a list of tasks which the administrator may need to do:
• Install, Upgrade and configure the Oracle Database server based on the
organizational requirements.
• Since systems are not static, the DBA must be able predict growth based on
application and data usage patterns.
• Understand the logical and physical structure of the particular database.
• Ensuring the database is available to the users with minimum or no downtime, by
taking backups regularly and creating well-tested recovery strategies.
• Helping and creating primary objects such as tables, views and indexes based on
the needs of the application developments.
• The DBA must be able to design a database that holds accurate and valid data at
all times.
• Managing users and ensuring the database is accessible to only valid users.
Granting the users the privileges they need to perform various actions in the
database.
• Monitoring and optimizing the performance of the database.
• The DBA must be able to design, debug, implement and maintain stored
procedures, triggers and user defined functions that are stored.
• Security is becoming increasing important with the need for data to be available
across the internet. The DBA should ensure that the data is secure and implement
rigorous security schemes for the databases to ensure that only authorized users
have access to the data.

The list above broadly covers various aspects of the administrators work responsibilities.
By now you should have gathered that the responsibilities of an administrator are not
easy. However, companies like Oracle Corporation are making this job easier with each
new release. Oracle Database 10g is particularly popular for its introduction of new
automated and intelligent features that remove and simplify some the burden on the
DBA.
The Oracle Architecture

A database is a centralized repository of organizational data. The Oracle 10g Database

Server allows you to create, store, manage and retrieve the data in the database. A
database administrator who is responsible for administering a database should have a
complete and thorough understanding of the architecture of the database.

An analogy could be a service technician trying to fix a car that is having a problem. The
technician wouldn't know where to start unless he knows very clearly what the various
components of the car are, what they do, how they function and how they interact with
each other. This is absolutely essential before he can start to find a solution to the
problem. The same goes for a database. If a user comes to an administrator with a certain
problem, the DBA cannot come up with the right solution unless he knows everything he
possibly can about the database.

The Oracle server consists of physical files and memory components. The Oracle 10g
Database product is made up three main components namely:
• The Oracle Server – This is the Oracle database management system that is able to
store, manage and manipulate data. It consists of all the files, structures, processes
that form Oracle Database 10g. The Oracle server is made up of an Oracle instance
and an Oracle database.
• The Oracle Instance –Consists of the memory components of Oracle and various
background processes.
• The Oracle database – This is the centralized repository where the data is stored. It
has a physical structure that is visible to the Operating system made up of operating
system files and a logical structure that is recognized only the Oracle Server.

The figure 3.1 displays the architecture of the Oracle Database 10g. It is broadly divided
into the memory components which form the Oracle instance and the physical database
components where different kinds of data are stored.
 Fig 3.1: Oracle Architecture

INSTANCE – MEMORY User

COMPONENTS Library Large Pool Process
Cache

Java Pool
Data
Redo Database Server
Dictionary
Log Buffer Cache Process
Cache Streams Pool
Buffer

Shared Pool

LGWR DBWR CKPT PMON SMON

Redo Log Datafiles Control

Files Files
PHYSICAL FILES OF THE DATABASE

The Oracle Instance

The Oracle instance is made up of a number of memory-related components and
background processes. The instance is the created in memory every-time the database is
started. The instance is associated to only a single database at any time. The memory
components of the Oracle Database 10g are also known as the System Global Area
(SGA).

The instance and its components are configured using a file known as the Parameter file.
In Oracle 10g there are two types of initialization files namely the 'Server Parameter file'
(spfile) and 'The Parameter file' (pfile). The parameter files hold parameters that can set
the sizes of the various buffers and pools of the SGA. You can also specify the name of
the instance, the name of the database and other size-related parameters needed by the
Oracle instance.

A typical parameter setting would be parameter_name = parameter_value

For e.g. DB_NAME=moviedb
Here the name of the database is moviedb.
Memory Components of the SGA
The Oracle Instance is made up of the System Global area (SGA) and the background
processes. The SGA is made up of the
• Redo Log Buffer
• The Database Buffer cache
• The Shared Pool
• The Java Pool
• The Large Pool
• The Streams Pool

Redo Log Buffer – A circular buffer that stores all changes made in the database. It
contains are transferred periodically from memory to the online redo log files on disk by
the Log Writer (LGWR) background process. The contents of the redo log buffer are
essential for instance recovery purposes. The size of the redo log buffer is determined by
the LOG_BUFFER initialization parameter.

The Database Buffer Cache – An area in memory that holds all the blocks read in from
disk for query or modification. Blocks that need to be modified, are modified in memory
and are written back to disk periodically. Modified blocks that have not yet been written
to disk are known as dirty blocks. This buffer is managed in a manner that free blocks are
always made available for new blocks being read into memory. The contents of the
database buffer cache are shared by multiple user processes. The contents of the database
buffer cache are written to datafiles on disk by the Database Writer (DBWR) background
process. The size of the default database buffer cache is sized by the DB_CACHE_SIZE
initialization parameter. The blocks that are part of the Database buffer cache are sized by
the DB_BLOCK_SIZE initialization parameter. This is the default buffer cache.

Other caches that can be created in addition to the default database buffer cache. They are
the Keep and Recycle cycle buffers. Oracle uses the technique known as LRU algorithm,
to create space for new in-coming blocks that need room in buffer cache. The oldest
blocks are the first ones to leave. There maybe certain blocks that should be retained in
memory for a longer period of time, since they are frequently accessed. The Keep cache
is used to hold such. Though they are also subject to the LRU algorithm, blocks are not
released as quickly as they would have in the default cache. Blocks from standard and
frequently accessed packages should be placed in the keep cache. The size of the Keep
cache can be specified by the DB_KEEP_CACHE_SIZE initialization parameter. The
Recycle cache on the otherhand is used to hold blocks of objects that should be released
as soon as they are used if it is unlikely that they will be reused. You can specify which
cache will be used by an object when the object is created.

The Shared Pool – The contents of this memory area are shared by multiple users and
hence the name shared pool. Two specific caches form the shared pool. The sizes of the
two caches are not set individually and are automatically determined by the Oracle
Server. However it is possible to set the overall size of the Shared pool by using the
SHARED_POOL_SIZE initialization parameter.
• Library Cache –It is responsible for storing and reusing frequently used SQL
statements, their execution plans and stored procedures. This cache prevents SQL
statements from being repeatedly parsed thus improving performance during
execution of SQL statements. When a statement is executed, Oracle looks for an
identical statement / execution plan in the library cache. If one is found it is reused, if
not a new parse tree and execution plan are created. The library cache also holds
frequently accessed PL/SQL blocks.

• The Data Dictionary Cache – Sometimes referred to as the Row Cache. The cache
consists of blocks that hold data dictionary information read in from the datafiles.
Reads that are made to the data dictionary information in the datafiles are also called
recursive reads. Typical information stored in this cache is user account information,
table, index and other object definitions, privileges and other relevant information
that is frequently accessed. This cache is also managed using the Least Recently Used
(LRU) Algorithm, which is on a first-in first-out basis.

The Large Pool – This is an optional pool. The size of this memory area is determined
by the LARGE_POOL_SIZE initialization parameter. It is used for handling large I/O
requests of server processes. Its main functions are to provide memory for session
memory (UGA) for the shared server environment, parallel execution message buffers
(when PARALLEL_AUTOMATIC_TUNING is set to TRUE). It is also used by the
Recovery Manager (RMAN) for its functioning when the BACKUP_DISK_IO =n and
BACKUP_TAPE_IO_SLAVE=TRUE initialization parameters have been set. This pool
does not use the LRU algorithm.

The Java Pool – This memory area is used by all session-specific Java code and data
within the Java Virtual Machine (JVM). Its size is determined by the
JAVA_POOL_SIZE initialization parameter.

The Streams Pool – This memory area is used by the Oracle Streams Product for its
functioning.

Automatic Shared Memory Management

In Oracle 10g, a new feature known as Automatic Shared Memory Management has been
introduced. Using this feature all you need to specify is the total amount of memory that
will be used by all the SGA components. The database then uses this value to redistribute
memory between the various memory components based on the current workload. The
parameter that needs to be configured for automatic shared memory management is the
SGA_TARGET initialization parameter. In Oracle 10g, the SHARED_POOL_SIZE,
LARGE_POOL_SIZE, JAVA_POOL_SIZE and DB_CACHE_SIZE are known as the
auto-tuned SGA parameters. If you set the value for SGA_TARGET to a value greater
than zero then the total amount of memory to be allocated for the auto-tuned parameters
is obtained by subtracting the SGA_TARGET value from the total amount of memory for
manual SGA parameters.
Setting the SGA_TARGET to a value of zero will result in disabling automatic shared
memory management. The ASSM feature uses the MMAN background process, which is
responsible for coordinating the sizes of the various pools dynamically based on the
current workload in the database.

Background Processes
The background processes of the Oracle instance are responsible for performing
asynchronous I/O functions between the Oracle Instance and the physical files of the
Oracle database that exist on disk. There are 5 mandatory background processes in Oracle
10g. These are the Database Writer (DBWR), the Log Writer (LGWR), the Checkpoint
process (CKPT), the System Monitor (SMON) and the Process Monitor (PMON). Other
background processes can be started based on certain additional functionality required in
the database. Given below is a list of the most commonly started background process and
the actions they are responsible for in the database.

Background Process Description and Function

Database Writer This background process is mandatory. Its function is to
(DBWR) transfer modified blocks from the database buffer cache to the
datafiles. The DBWR writes to the datafiles when one of the
following events occur in the database:
• Normal or incremental checkpoint
• The number of dirty buffers reaches a pre-defined
threshold value
• The server process scans a pre-defined number of
blocks looking for free space needed by new blocks
being read in.
• Timeout occurs
• Tablespace is taken offline in normal or immediate
mode.
• Tablespace is made read-only
• Dropping or truncating a table
• Online backup is done on a tablespace using ALTER
TABLESPACE... BEGIN BACKUP command.
Log Writer (LGWR) This background process is mandatory. It transfers redo
entries that have been written to the redo log buffer to the
online redo log files present on disk. The LGWR writes to the
online redo log files when one of the following events occur
in the database:
• A commit is issued.
• The Redo Log Buffer is one-third full.
• More than 1MB of changes (updations) has been made
in the database.
• Every three seconds
• Just before the DBWR writes from the database buffer
cache to the datafiles.
Checkpoint (CKPT) This background process is mandatory. When the contents of
the database buffer cache are transferred to the datafiles by the
DBWR background process, the event is referred to as a
CHECKPOINT. When a checkpoint occurs the Checkpoint
(CKPT) background process updates the headers of the
datafiles and control files to indicate the most recent
checkpoint. This process is therefore responsible for
synchronizing the database.
System Monitor This background process is mandatory. It is responsible for
(SMON) performing recovery in the event of an instance failure.
Instance failure occurs during an abnormal shutdown of the
database, such as if a shutdown is performed using the
ABORT option. During instance recovery the SMON process
performs a roll forward operation. During this step all
committed transactions that were not written out to the
datafiles at the time of failure were be completed. This step
maybe followed by a rollback during which time either the
SMON or individual user processes undo all the changes that
were uncommitted during the time of failure.
Certain additional functions performed by the System Monitor
involve coalescing of free space in dictionary-managed
datafiles and releasing temporary segments that are created in
the datafiles.
Process Monitor This background process is mandatory. Users connect to the
(PMON) database to access data. When a user connects to the database,
a process known as a User process is started on behalf of the
user on the client machine. If the user terminates his/her
session abnormally, resources that were being used by the
user session continue to remain attached until the PMON
background process cleans it up. The PMON background
process is responsible for cleaning the resources such locks on
tables being held by failure user processes. The process also
restarts dead dispatcher processes.
Archiver (ARCH) This is an optional background process. It can be started when
you wish to operate the database in an archivelog mode. This
mode of database operation allows for complete recovery of
the database in an event of a failure. The ARCH background
process transfers the contents of the online redo log files to
archival media which could be disk or tape.
The other optional processes in Oracle 10g are the :
CJQ0 – Coordinator Job Queue background process
Dnnn – Dispatcher process
Pnnn – Parallel Query Slaves
QMNn – Advanced Queuing
RECO – Recoverer
Snnn – Shared Server Processes
MMON – Memory Monitor
MMAN and MMNL.

User Processes
A user trying to access data in the database needs to make a connection with the database
using an appropriate tool such as SQL*Plus, iSQL*Plus and a front-end database
interface tool. A connection is a communication pathway created between a user process
and the Oracle Server. The user has to first supply proper authentication credentials.
Once the user's credentials are validated a user session is established and a user process is
created on the client-side to act on behalf of the user. This process remains active till the
user completes the session. In the event that a user process is terminated abnormally the
PMON background process cleans up the resources that were held by the user process.

Server Processes
Server processes are created in Oracle to handle requests made by user processes. Server
processes are always started on the Server side. They are responsible for responding to
the user process with appropriate results. Based on the mode in which a database operates
either a 1:1 ratio or m:n exists between user and server processes. In Oracle, the instance
can operate in one of two modes:

• Dedicated server mode: Once a user process is started, a server process is created on
behalf of the user process. A one-to-one ratio is maintained between user and server
processes. The server process remains attached to the user process as long as the user
process is active. The server process remains idle during periods of inactivity. The
server process is responsible for satisfying all requests made by the user process and
responding with appropriate results. The server process communicates with the
Oracle server using the Oracle Program Interface (OPI). The disadvantage of this is
that in an OLTP environment where there can be many thousands of users accessing
the database simultaneously, a large number of server processes would need to be
active.

• Shared Server Mode: In this environment a pool of shared server processes satisfy the
required of user processes. A one-to-one ratio is not maintained as in the dedicated
server mode. A user process can be serviced by any available server process. This
mode of operating is particularly useful in large multi-user online transaction
processing (OLTP) environments, where many users concurrently access the database
using short transactions. The shared server environment is discussed as a separate
chapter in this book.

The Program Global Area (PGA)

This is memory area that is associated with a server process. It contains data and control
information held by a single server process or background process. It is created when a
user process is created and is released when the user process is terminated. This memory
area is not shared by server processes. The contents of the PGA however vary in
dedicated and shared server environments. The PGA is used to process SQL statements
and to hold logon and other session information. The contents of the PGA include:
 • Private SQL area – contains bind information and runtime memory structures.
Each session that issues a SQL statement has a private SQL area. The private
SQL area is in turn made up the Persistent area that contains bind information and
a Runtime area that is created as soon as an execute request is initiated. In a
dedicated server environment the Private SQL area is created in the Program
Global Area (PGA) of their server process. In a shared server environment, it is
located in the System Global area. The number of private SQL areas that a user
process can allocate is limited to the OPEN_CURSORS initialization parameter
that takes a default value of 50.
• Session Memory – This is a memory area that holds a session's variables and
session-related information. In a shard server environment, this memory area is
located in the SGA and is shared by server processes.
• SQL Work area – This memory area is used for operations such as Sorting, Hash-
joins, Bitmap Merge and Bitmap Create operations.

The Physical Files of the Database

Recalling an earlier discussion, the Oracle Server is made up of the Oracle Database and
Oracle Instance. The Oracle database has a physical and a logical structure. The physical
structure of the database is made up of the operating system files that comprise the
database. All the data of the database is stored in the physical files. Storage management
is a one of the primary functions of the database administrator. In Oracle Database 10g,
there are three types of files namely:

• Datafiles – These files contain the data of the database. All objects created in the
database by users have their data physically stored in the datafiles. Datafiles
contain the data dictionary and user created data. In order to access the data that is
physically stored in the datafiles and reduce the overhead of disk I/O, blocks from
the datafiles are read into the database buffer cache in memory. Once they are
modified or are no longer needed they are written back to the datafiles.

• Control Files – This is a very important file that is required for the Oracle
database to function. If any one of the control files is unavailable the database is
shutdown. Hence it recommended that multiple copies of the control file are
maintained in the database on separate disks. The control file keeps a record of
the names, size and locations different physical files of the database. It also hold
other control information necessary to keep the database functioning. The
following is a list of the entries maintained in the control file.
o The database identifier and name
o Timestamp of database creation
o Tablespace names
o Names and locations of data files and online redo log files
o Current online redo log file sequence number
o Checkpoint information as and when checkpoints are made
o Begin and end of undo segments
o Redo log archive information
o Backup information generated by the recovery manager utility.
 This file is size by the values specified for a number of parameters during
database creation, namely MAXLOGMEMBERS, MAXLOGFILES,
MAXLOGHISTORY, MAXDATAFILES and MAXINSTANCES.

• Redo Log Files – These files contain a record of all the changes made in the
database. These changes are referred to as redo entries. Redo entries can be used
to recover the database in the event of an instance failure. Instance failure can
occur when the contents of the SGA are lost such as in the event of a power
outage or an abnormal shutdown of the database. Any change made in the
database is first recorded in the online redo log buffer before it is actually
implemented. Hence even if modified blocks were not written in the event of an
instance failure, the changes can be recovered by using the online redo log files.
In Oracle 10g, a minimum of two redo logs should be available. These redo logs
files are known as redo groups.

Since the redo log files are very important for recovery purposes, Oracle
recommends that redo logs be multiplexed. Multiplexing is maintaining multiple
copies or additional members. In other words, each group should have more than
one member. Members of the redo log files should be off the same size and placed
on separate disks. This will prevent loss of redo data in the event of the loss of a
disk.

DISK1
Rlog1a Rlog2a

LGWR
GROUP1 GROUP2
DISK2
Rlog1b Rlog2b

Redo log groups are used in a circular fashion. Consider the figure. There are two
disks DISK1 and DISK2. There are two redo log groups GROUP1 and GROUP2.
GROUP1 has two members Rlog1 and Rlog1b. GROUP2 has two members
Rlog2a and Rlog2b. When the LGWR performs a write, it first writes
simultaneously to Rlog1a and Rlog1b. When the group becomes filled, it starts
writing simultaneously to Rlog2a and Rlog2b. The contents of the members are
identical. Now, if one of the disks is lost as a result of failure, the data is still
available in a member on another disk.
 Since the contents of the redo log files are very important for recovery purposes,
you can transfer the redo entries to another media before overwriting them. This
process is known as archiving. Archiving can be done automatically every-time a
redo log file becomes full and LGWR starts writing to another file. The event
when LGWR stops writing to one file and starts writing to another is called a Log
Switch. Archiving helps achieve complete recovery in the event of media failures.

Other physical files relevant to the database include:

The password file – This file is used to hold the names of privileged users who have
been granted the SYSDBA and SYSOPER roles. These roles contain the privileges
needed to perform actions such as a startup, shutdown or recovering the database. The
password will is used only when you use database authentication i.e. the database is
responsible for validating user credentials.

The parameter file – The parameter file is a file which contains a number of parameters
that can be used to configure the Oracle 10g instance. There are two kinds of parameter
files available. The first one is called the Server parameter file (spfile) introduced in
Oracle 9i, which allows you to specify the values to parameters that can be enforced
without bouncing the database as well as after re-starting the database. These are called
persistent parameters. The second kind of file is called Parameter file (pfile) which has
been around for a while now. It holds parameters and their values however any change to
a parameter's values requires you to bounce or restart the database.

The archive files – These are files that can be created by a process known as archiving.
When a database operates in archivelog mode, the contents of the redo log file are
transferred to an offline file known as the archive file. This file is very useful in the event
of a failure and is used for recovery purposes. Usually complete recovery up to the point
of failure is possible if all archive files are available. Archive files can be created on disk
and transferred to tape to create space for new archive files.
Parameter Files in Oracle
The Oracle 10g server is made up of the Oracle Instance and the Oracle database. The
Oracle instance is created in real memory. Most actions are first performed in memory
and then transferred to disk. It is therefore very important the Oracle instance be
configured properly. When a database administrator starts the Oracle database, the first
step involves creating the instance in memory. Various memory structures and
background processes are started.

To create the instance the Oracle server uses a file known as the Initialization Parameter
File. There are two types of initialization parameter files,
• The Static parameter file, PFILE, known as the initSID.ora file
• Persistent parameter file, SPFILE, known as the spfileSID.ora file

The initialization parameter file consists of a list of parameters. Each parameter has a
name and a value. Most parameters have default values. Explicit values can also be
assigned to the parameters. The initialization parameter file specifies information such as
the values for various memory structures of the instance, the database name, the number
of processes the can concurrently access the instance, parameters associated with
archiving and so on. A comprehensive list of initialization parameters has been displayed
along with a brief description.

In Oracle 10g, the number of initialization parameters to be configured has been greatly
reduced compared to previous versions of Oracle. Parameters have been categorized into
basic and advanced parameters. The basic parameters are a list of parameters that are
sufficient for day-to-day interaction.

The most important ones being:

Initialization Parameter Description

Compatible Refers to the version of the server with
which the instance should be
compatible.
Processes The maximum number of operating
system processes that can connect
simultaneously to the instance.
Sessions
Pga_aggregate_target
Nls_language
Nls_territory
Db_domain
Shared_servers
Instance_number
Cluster_database
Db_block_size
Sga_Target
Control_files
Db_name
Db_recovery_file_dest
Remote_listener
Db_recovery_file_dest_size
Db_create_online_log_dest_n
Db_create_File_des
Log_archive_Dest_n
Log_archive_dest_state_n
Remote_login_passwordfile
Db_unique_name
A list of the initialization parameters are their values can be viewed from the Enterprise
Manager Console.

Select Database Control Home Page -> Instance Section -> All
Initialization Parameters link.

The Static Parameter File (PFILE)

The PFILE can be created when a database is creating using the Database Configuration
Assistant and manually. This file is a text file which can be read and modified. Each entry
in the PFILE shows the values

parameter_name = parameter_value

Where

parameter_value can consist of a single value or a list of values separated by commas and
enclosed in single quotes. Parameters can be specified in any order. A parameter can be
commented in the parameter file by using the #.

It is possible to dynamically change certain initialization parameter. The change will

however only affect the current instance. Dynamic changes are done by using the ALTER
SYSTEM command. An example of a dynamic change that will affect the current
instance could be:

ALTER SYSTEM SET SGA_TARGET = 300;

This change will affect only the current instance. When the database is restarted, the
previous value present in the parameter file will be used.
Any permanent change you make to a parameter requires that the database be restarted.
By default the parameter file is located in the %ORACLE_HOME%\dbs directory. It has a
name like initSID.ora where SID is the system identifier of the database. It can be
quite difficult to remember the names of all the parameters and set them properly. There
is a sample file created in the Oracle database, which can be copied and modified based
on your requirements. It is possible to create multiple initialization parameters files
however only one will be active at any time.

Persistent Parameter File (spfile)

The persistent parameter file often called the spfile was introduced in Oracle 9i. It is
located at the server-side. The spfile cannot be modified by the user and any manual
change to the file will render it useless. It is also located in the %ORACLE_HOME%\dbs
directory. When using the Database Configuration Assistant, you are given the option of
creating an SPFILE for the database. This option is not available when you create a
database manually using the CREATE DATABASE command. The CREATE
DATABASE command has not been discussed in the book and more information about it
can be retrieved from the Oracle Documentation. If you are using the SPFILE file, it can
be backed up using Recovery Manager, since it is located on the server side.

Given below is a sample extract from a spfile file.

In the case of the static parameter file any permanent change to a parameter would
require a bounce of the database. Using the spfile you can modify parameters such that
the change will not only affect the current instance but also affect future instances of the
database. Hence the term persistent.

When changing a parameter dynamically, you can set the SCOPE option. The values
taken by the SCOPE option are MEMORY, SPFILE or BOTH. The value BOTH is the
default. When you set SCOPE=MEMORY, the change you are making will only affect the
current instance. If you set SCOPE=SPFILE the change will be made in the parameter
file and will come into effect when the database is restarted. If you set SCOPE=BOTH
then the change will affect both the current instance and will affect future instances for
the database. An example of a dynamic change only affecting the spfile is displayed
below.

ALTER SYSTEM SET SGA_TARGET=300M SCOPE=SPFILE;

The ALTER SYSTEM command and the SPFILE file

The ALTER SYTEM SET command is used to modify the values of instance parameters
after the instance has been created. The complete syntax of its usage is displayed below:

ALTER SYSTEM [SET|RESET] parameter_name=parameter_value

[COMMENT 'text'] [SCOPE = MEMORY|SPFILE|BOTH] [SID='sid' | '*']
Parameter_name : the name of the parameter to be changed
Parameter_value : the new value to be assigned to the parameter
COMMENT: A comment to be added to the SPFILE next to the parameter that is being
altered.
SCOPE: Determines if the change should be made in MEMORY, SPFILE or both areas
MEMORY: The change affects only the current running instance
SPFILE: The change affects only the SPFILE file
BOTH: The change affects both the current instance and the SPFILE.
SID : Identifies the system identifier (ORACLE_SID) for the SPFILE being used
currently.
'sid': Specific SID to be used in altering the SPFILE
'*': Uses the default SPFILE
RESET: This causes the parameter to revert to its default value

Example of dynamic changes the may or may not affect the changes:
1. Modify the size of the default database buffer cache to 20M, both for the current
and future instances.
ALTER SYSTEM SET DB_CACHE_SIZE=20M SCOPE=BOTH;

CREATING THE PARAMETER FILES

As mentioned earlier it the DBCA tool gives us the option of creating an SPFILE, for
the database, during database creation. However when a database is created manually,
only the PFILE can be created. If you wish to create an SPFILE using a PFILE you
can do so by issuing the command:

CREATE SPFILE [= 'location of the spfile'] FROM PFILE [= 'location of the pfile'] ;

If you do not specify the location, which is optional it will be created in the default
location %ORACLE_HOME%\dbs directory.

It is possible to create the PFILE from the SPFILE by using the command:

CREATE PFILE FROM SPFILE;

An editable parameter file will be created in its default location if a path is not
specified.

Retrieving the initialization parameter values using the data dictionary

Parameter values stored in the Static parameter file can be viewed using the
V$PARAMETER view. The parameter values from the Persistent parameter file can be
viewed by issuing a query against V$SPPARAMETER data dictionary view.
Lesson 4: Starting and Stopping the Oracle Database

STARTING THE DATABASE

A database needs to be started before it can be accessed by users. Starting up a database
should be done by a privileged user. Users who have been granted the SYSDBA or
SYSOPER roles can perform a startup or a shutdown of the database. When a database is
started three important steps are executed. The first involves creation of the Oracle
instance in memory, followed by mounting the database where the control files are read
and finally opening the database where all the data stored in the database is accessible to
the users of the database. To get a complete understanding let us deal with each stage
individually.

1) Instance Creation – This is the first step in starting the database. The initialization
parameter file is read, (spfile or pfile depending on the options used in the STARTUP
command) and the System Global Area (SGA) is configured. The parameter file
identifies the name of the database, and various sizes for the memory pools, the
optional background processes and so on. During instance creation, the mandatory
and optional background processes are started. The alert log file and other trace files
are also started.

2) Mounting the Database – After instance creation, the database is mounted. When a
database is mounted a database administrator can perform certain maintenance or
administrative tasks. For e.g. putting a database in archivelog mode, renaming
datafiles or performing a full database recovery requires the database to be mounted.
During mounting, a database is associated with its previously started instance. The
control files of the database are opened and read. The control file contains
information about the other files of the database, their status, location and
synchronizing information. This information is needed for the next stage of startup
which is opening of the database.

3) Opening the database – This is the last stage in starting a database. This phase has to
be performed so that users of the database can access the data in the database. Once
the control file has been read and the location of the physical files of the database
identified after mounting, the files are opened and made available to the users. The
files that are opened are the online datafiles and the online redo log files. If any of the
files are unavailable, an error will be reported and the database will not be opened. It
is at this point that the Oracle server verifies the consistency of the database. In case
the database was shutdown improperly the last time, it will be detected at this point
and the SMON background process will perform instance recovery.

STARTUP command
The syntax of the STARTUP command with its important options has been displayed:

STARTUP [FORCE] [RESTRICT] [PFILE= filename]

[OPEN [RECOVER] [database] [READ ONLY] | MOUNT | NOMOUNT]
FORCE: Used when a startup does not occur as a result of some kind of problem, you can
use this option to abort the running instance and perform a normal startup.

RESTRICT: This option is used when you want only users who possess the
RESTRICTED SESSION privilege to access the database. This option can be used is you
wish to perform some kind of maintenance on the database such as an export and import.

PFILE=filename: this option starts up the database using the static non-default parameter
file to startup the database.

OPEN [database_name]: The instance will be created; database will be mounted and then
opened for all the users. You can optionally specify the database name. This is the default
option.

MOUNT: The instance will be created and the database mounted. The option can be used
for performing certain maintenance tasks.

NOMOUNT: Only the instance is created. The SGA will be created in memory and the
background processes will be started. You may have to use this option for certain
operations such as when creating a database manually.

RECOVER: used to perform media recovery when starting the database.

READ ONLY: used to open the database for queries only. DML statements are not
allowed in the database.

You can also start a database using the EM Console.

The ALTER DATABASE Command

If you have started the database using the NOMOUNT option, only the instance is
created. In order to then mount / open the database you can use the following ALTER
DATABASE command. It is not possible to re-issue the STARTUP command with the
MOUNT or OPEN options.

Current state of the database: NOMOUNT

To change it to the MOUNT state, issue:

ALTER DATABASE [database_name] MOUNT;

To change it to the OPEN state directly, issue:

ALTER DATABASE [database_name] OPEN;

Current state of the database: MOUNT

To change it to the OPEN state, issue:
ALTER DATABASE [database_name] OPEN;

It is possible to open a database in a read only or read write mode using the ALTER
DATABASE command. To startup the database in a read only or read write mode from a
NOMOUNT or MOUNT stage you can issue;
ALTER DATABASE OPEN [READ ONLY | READ WRITE];

Where:
READ ONLY – only queries are allowed on the database.
READ WRITE – the database is opened for normal read and writes.

SHUTTING DOWN THE DATABASE

A database may be shutdown to make it unavailable for use. You can either perform a
proper or improper shutdown. During a proper shutdown, three phases complementary to
the startup are performed in the reverse order. First the database is closed; this involves
performing a checkpoint on all available datafiles and closing the files. Next the database
is dismounted. At this time, the control file is synchronized and closed. Finally the
instance that was created in memory is released. The SGA no longer exists in memory
and all background processes are stopped.

The SHUTDOWN command

The syntax of the SHUTDOWN command
SHUTDOWN [NORMAL | IMMEDIATE | TRANSACTIONAL | ABORT]

NORMAL: This is the default mode for shutting down the database. The Oracle server
waits for all currently connected users to disconnect their sessions. No new connections
are permitted. A checkpoint is performed on all the databases and the files are closed.
When a database is shutdown is this mode, an instance recovery will not need to be done
during the subsequent startup.

IMMEDIATE: When a database is shutdown in this mode, the Oracle server

automatically rolls back all currently active transactions. After the transactions have been
rolled back the user sessions are terminated. No new connections are allowed. The
database is then closed, dismounted and the instance released. No instance recovery will
be performed during subsequent startup.

TRANSACTIONAL – When the database is shutdown using this option, all currently
active transactions will be allowed to complete. As soon as a user's transaction completes
the user is automatically disconnected. No new user connections will be allowed. The
database is then closed, dismounted and the instance released. No instance recovery will
be performed during subsequent startup.

ABORT – When the database is shutdown using this option, the instance is shutdown
down. This is a case of an improper shutdown. No checkpointing is done. All user
connections are abnormally terminated. The database is not closed or dismounted.
However, the next startup will require an instance recovery to be performed by the
SMON background process.

Startup Command and Parameter files

The command that is used to startup a database is:

SQL> STARTUP;

If the database has an spfile, by default the spfileSID.ora will be used to configure the
instance. If the spfileSID.ora file does not exist, Oracle will look for a default SPFILE on
the server side. If one cannot be found the initSID.ora file on the server side will be used.
There may be times when you wish to startup the database using the PFILE. To do so,
you issue the STARTUP command with the PFILE='filename' option as shown:

SQL> STARTUP PFILE='location of the parameter_file\init<SID>.ora

If the SPFILE for a database is not located in its default location

%ORACLE_HOME%\dbs, then an entry in the PFILE pointing to it location can be
specified.
Example: SPFILE=<location of the SPFILE>

Diagnostic Files of an Oracle Database

The ALERT log file

An important function of a database administrator is to ensure that the database is running
properly without errors. Error information is usually recorded automatically by the Oracle
Server as and when an error occurs in diagnostic files. The most important file that
contains information about errors and changes affecting the database is the ALERT log
file. This file is located in the directory path specified by the
BACKGROUND_DUMP_DEST initialization parameter. The file has a name similar to
alert<sid>.ora. The file contains errors both fatal ORA-600 errors and warnings
about impending error situations. It contains a record of all structural changes made to the
database such as creation of a tablespace. It can also contain checkpoint and day-to-day
operational information such as startups and shutdowns and when an instance recovery
occurs during startup. Every entry in the alert file contains a timestamp. It also contains
values of non-default initialization parameters. Since the file contains very important
information a database administrator must view its contents at least once a day.

Background Trace Files

Background trace files are created whenever an error is encountered by a background
process. These trace files are created in the location specified by the
BACKGROUND_DUMP_DEST initialization parameter file. The name of the trace file
depends on the background process that created it. A typical trace file created by a
background process would have a name like sid_processname_PID.trc. A trace file
created by the DBWR would typically have a name like ORCL_DBWR_1011.trc, where
ORCL is the name of the SID, and 1011 is a process identifier.
Background trace file contains information that can be used for diagnosing and
troubleshooting problems associated with the background process.

User Trace Files

A user can initiate SQL tracing to determine performance statistics for the SQL
statements in a session. A user may initiate tracing in a session by setting the
SQL_TRACE initialization parameter to TRUE. A user trace file will be created in the
location specified by the USER_DUMP_DEST initialization parameter. The trace file has
a naming convention of sid_ora_pid.trc.User trace files may contain user error
information too.

To initiate SQL tracing in a session, a user can issue:

ALTER SESSION SET SQL_TRACE=TRUE;

A database administrator can initiate SQL tracing in a particular session by using the
DBMS_SYSTEM.SET_SQL_TRACE_IN_SESSION packaged procedure.

To initiate SQL tracing at an instance level, you can issue set the SQL_TRACE
initialization parameter to TRUE. In this case all user sessions will be traced.
Lesson 6: Enterprise Manager Database Control

Enterprise Manager is a web-based integrated management solution provided by Oracle.

All components and services of the enterprise, including hosts, databases, listeners,
application servers, HTTP servers and Web applications are easily accessible and
managed using the Enterprise Manager.

Enterprise manager provides two configurations with which to monitor your database:
Database Control and Grid Control.

The Oracle Enterprise Manager 10g Database Control is one of the main functional areas
of the entire Enterprise Manager framework. It is a web-based application for managing
the Oracle 10g database. The database control is installed and available with every Oracle
Database 10g installation. Using the Database Control, you can monitor a single Oracle
Database instance or a clustered database.

You can configure Database Control from the database configuration assistant (DBCA)
when a new database is being created or reconfigure and existing database.

Controlling the Database Control on UNIX

To control the Database Control, you can use the emctl command-line utility that is
found in the ORACLE_HOME/bin directory.

Enter the command:

$PROMPT> ./emctl start dbconsole

Stopping the Database Control on UNIX

You can stop database control utility by issuing:
$PROMPT> ./emctl stop dbconsole

Controlling the Database Control on Windows

To start the database control on Windows you would need to start a service in the
following manner.

1. Select Services from the Start -> Settings -> Administration Tools menu
2. Locate the Database Control service, OracleDBConsoleDatabase_name
3. Start the service

OR

To start the database control using the MS-DOS prompt

Enter
$PROMPT>%ORACLE_HOME%\BIN\emctl start dbconsole

To stop the database control on Windows

To stop the database control on Windows you would need to start a service in the
following manner.

1. Select Services from the Start -> Settings -> Administration Tools menu
2. Locate the Database Control service, OracleDBConsoleDatabase_name
3. Stop the Service
OR

To stop the database control using the MS-DOS prompt

Enter
$PROMPT>%ORACLE_HOME%\BIN\emctl stop dbconsole

Launching Enterprise Manager Database Control

The Enterprise Manager console has become a database administrator's most useful and
resourceful companion in Oracle 10g. Its web-based interface has greatly simplified
database administration. Using the interface

The Oracle Enterprise Manager Database Control, is used to perform administrative tasks
such as creating schema objects (tables, tablespaces, users), managing user accounts,
backup and recovering the database, performance tuning, proactive maintenance, cloning
a database and so on. The SYS or SYSTEM user accounts are administrative accounts
that can be used when trying to logon to the EM console.

After successful logon into the EM console, you will be displayed the Database Home
page.
The various sections of the Database Home page, and its related links provide a DBA
with a wealth of information about the database's environment and health.

Property pages exist on each home page. These are categorized based on management
tasks. For e.g. the maintenance tab can be accessed to perform backups of the database.

The suggested related links can be accessed to obtain further information.

This web-based interface provided for database administration is complete in itself,

allowing a database administrator to perform all administrative actions with ease.