ILIAD AND ODYSSEY

Regarding Homer

"Homer" is the poet of the two great surviving Greek epics, the Iliad and the Odyssey. The Iliad is often
compared to tragedy, the Odyssey to comedy.

Scholarly arguments about Homer and his poems started in ancient times and continue to this day. The main
problem is that we know nothing about Homer himself. He may have lived around 800 B.C. or somewhat earlier
or later. One common legend about him was that he was blind. Various cities claimed to be his
birthplace. Beyond this, there is no solid information.

Some scholars believe the two epics were not in fact composed by the same poet. The Iliad is usually dated
earlier than the Odyssey. Other scholars believe the two epics were the work of many poets. According to
this view, different oral poets contributed different parts of the stories to scribes who wrote them down and
who then harmonized them into the two epics we have, choosing the best of the various versions.

Regarding the Trojan War

The Trojan War was the most famous war in the ancient Western world. Scholars debate about how or if the
Trojan War really happened, but regardless of the actual history of the war, detailed legends still survive in
writing. It is these legends that ancient Greeks and Romans understood to be the "history" of the Trojan
War.

The reason there are legends of the war but little reliable history is very simple. If the Trojan War
happened, it probably happened around 1200 B.C. But at the time of the war nothing was written down. The
earliest writings we have about the war are Homer's epics, which were written down around four centuries
later. That makes 400 years of storytelling.

According to legend, the war began because of a beautiful woman. The princess Helen, daughter of Leda and
Zeus, was known to be the most beautiful woman in all Greece. As such, she had many suitors. Many of the
suitors were powerful kings or princes, and they all came to Sparta to win her hand. Her step-father, King
Tyndareus, didn't know which to choose: to choose one would anger the others, and war would result. Finally
one of the suitors, wise Odysseus from Ithaca, offered a solution. He told King Tyndareus to force all the
suitors to make a solemn oath: whoever was chosen by the king to be Helen's husband, the other suitors would
support him. And if anyone tried to break up the new marriage, the other suitors would come to the couple's
rescue. Thus the suitors all took the oath, and King Tyndareus could safely announce his decision. He would
give Helen to Menelaus, brother of Agamemnon.

Meanwhile, across the Aegean Sea, the Trojan prince Paris had just received a promise from the goddess of
love, Aphrodite. The three goddesses Hera, Athena and Aphrodite had come to Paris and asked him to judge
which of them was the most beautiful (this is the famous story of the Golden Apple). Aphrodite promised
Paris that if he chose her, she would give him the world's most beautiful woman in return. Paris chose
Aphrodite, and the goddess told him he would have to cross the sea and go to Sparta in Greece. Once he was
there, she would help him to get Helen from her husband Menelaus.

Paris stole Helen from Menelaus and took her back to Troy. When Menelaus realized his wife had left with the
foreigner, he and his brother Agamemnon sent out messengers to remind all the Greek suitors of their solemn
oath to defend the marriage. Since it would be shameful to break a solemn oath, most of the Greeks agreed to
go to Troy.
The war lasted ten years, much longer than the Greeks had expected. It finally ended when the clever
Odysseus, the same man who had suggested the oath, came up with the idea of the wooden horse (known
afterwards as the Trojan Horse). The city of Troy was destroyed, nearly all the Trojan men were killed and
the women taken as slaves, and Helen was taken back to Sparta by her husband Menelaus.

Homer's Iliad

The Iliad holds a unique place in Western literature: it is commonly recognized as the greatest work of Greek
literature, and it is also believed to be the first work of Greek literature that was written down. Though Greek
literature continued for centuries after the Iliad was written, no writer could ever achieve something greater
than that very first work.

The Iliad does not cover the whole story of the Trojan War. Instead it presents just one episode of the war:
the conflict between Achilles and Agamemnon that occurred in the war's ninth year.

Agamemnon was the commander of the Greek armies that went to Troy. As a commander, he was arrogant and
selfish, and often let his pride cloud his judgment. Achilles was the greatest warrior of all the Greeks. He
was hot-tempered and also very proud.

During the war, when girls were captured from the enemy they were kept as slaves. Girls were considered part
of the war booty. Agamemnon had one such slave girl named Chryseis. Achilles had a girl named Briseis.

The father of Agamemnon's slave girl was a priest of Apollo. When the priest came to ransom back his
daughter from Agamemnon, the Greek commander insulted him and told him if he came back again he would be
killed. As the priest left the Greek camp, he prayed to Apollo to get revenge on the Greeks.

Apollo listened to the priest's prayer. The Greeks began to die from a disease sent to them by the
god. Finally Agamemnon realized he would have to give the girl back. But he decided that he, as commander,
could not be left without a girl. It would be a dishonor. So he told Achillles he would take his girl, Briseis, to
replace Chryseis.

Achilles was enraged by this decision. He announced that he would no longer help Agamemnon in his war
against the Trojans. After Agamemnon took Briseis, Achilles refused to fight.

This was good news for the Trojans. Achilles was the greatest Greek warrior. With Achilles out of the battle,
the Trojan side began to dominate.

Hector was the greatest of the Trojan warriors. Although not as great a warrior as Achilles, with Achilles
refusing to fight there was no Greek warrior who could stand up to Hector. The Trojans fought their way
closer and closer to the Greek camp. If they could manage to burn the Greek ships, the Greeks would have no
hope: they would not be able to get back to Greece; their morale would be broken and their cause would be
lost. . . .

The Iliad is a story about many things. For one, it is about the power of fate, and how one cannot avoid one's
fate. Achilles knows that if he stays to fight at Troy he is fated to die there. He is told by his mother that
he has a choice: If he stays at Troy, he is fated to die, but his fame will live forever. If he returns home, if
he leaves the war, he will live a long life, but he will lose his fame.

The Iliad is also about the horrors of war: how men are broken under the kill-or-be-killed mechanics of
wartime. (One of the best essays ever written on the Iliad focuses on this aspect of the poem. See Simone
Weil: "The Iliad: Poem of Might.") The Iliad is a very interesting war story in that it is sympathetic to both
sides. Although a work of "Greek" literature, the Iliad does not present the Trojans as being morally worse
than the Greeks. They may be the enemy, but they are presented with the same sympathy and dignity as the
Greeks. (How many modern war stories, or war movies, can reach this level of humanism?)

Perhaps most obviously, the Iliad is a poem about the struggle of two characters, Agamemnon and
Achilles. Though both on the same side, the two men come to hate each other, and their conflict nearly leads
to Greek defeat.

The Iliad begins with the poet's famous evocation of the Muse:

Anger be now your song, immortal one,

Achilles' anger, doomed and ruinous,
that caused the Achaeans loss on bitter loss
and crowded brave souls into the undergloom,
leaving so many dead men--carrion
for dogs and birds; and the will of Zeus was done.
....

Regarding the Odyssey

Around the 9th c. B.C. Greeks from Euboea established the first Greek colonies in Italy. According to some
scholars (cf. especially Barry Powell), the Odyssey was most likely composed on Euboea between 800 and
750. Its audience was one of men who often listened to seamen who had traveled to the far West.

In fact Odysseus' adventures were from early times identified with geographic features around Italy:
Calypso's Ogygia with Malta, Polyphemus' island with Sicily, Scylla and Charybdis with the Straits of Messina,
etc.

Homer ("Homer") must have heard many sailors' tales or perhaps even traveled west himself.

In Homer's Odyssey the adventures of the hero Odysseus are arranged around a vision of moral purpose and
national identity. At times Odysseus nearly forgets his goal--to return to Ithaca and his family. At other
times he is shown as the lonely Greek who stands against the alien and barbaric customs of the foreign places
in which he wanders.

Like the Iliad, the Odyssey begins with an evocation of the Muse:

Sing in me, Muse, and through me tell the story

of that man skilled in all ways of contending,
the wanderer, harried for years on end,
after he plundered the stronghold
of the proud height of Troy.
....

Odysseus' Adventures

Odysseus is away from home twenty years: ten at Troy, three lost at sea, and seven on Calypso's
island. (Calypso: "concealer".) The following is a basic chronological plan of the events narrated in theOdyssey:

The Cicones in Ismarus;

 The Lotus Eaters;
Polyphemus;
Aeolus;
The Laestrygonians;
Circe on Aeaea;
Cross the river Ocean to the land of the dead to meet Tiresias;
The Sirens;
Scylla and Charybdis;
The Cattle of Helius;
Calypso on Ogygia ("the navel of the Sea");
Near Scheria, island of the Phaeacians, his boat is wrecked by Poseidon;
Saved by Ino/Leukothea;
Arrives on Scheria;
Nausicaa;
Narration to the Phaeacians;
Return home;
Eumaeus;
Reveals himself to Telemachus;
Recognized by Argus;
Meets the suitors, led by Antinous;
Meeting with Penelope;
Euryclea washes his feet;
Penelope arranges for the Contest of the Bow;
Massacre of the suitors;
Penelope's ruse of the bed.

Though this is a chronological list of the events as they occurred, note that it does not represent the order of
narration in the Odyssey. In his epic, Homer begins the story in the middle, allowing Odysseus to narrate to
the Phaeacians the adventures he's undergone up to that point. For a poet (or poets) working in the 8th
century B.C., this represents a very sophisticated plot device.

Odysseus in Western Literature

In Western literature the character Odysseus is always cast in one of two ways: either he is glorified as a
restless and clever seeker after the truth of the world; or he is damned as a treacherous deceiver, a denier of
the heart. Among the ancients, Homer casts him in the first mode; Sophocles (in Philoctetes), Euripides and
Vergil all cast him in the second mode.
In the Middle Ages, the great Italian poet Dante sides with his Roman model Vergil and casts Odysseus in
the negative way. (cf. Inferno, canto 26)
In the modern period, Tennyson's poem "Ulysses" puts the hero and his restlessness in a mainly positive
light. Joyce's Leopold Bloom, the 20th century's most famous evocation of Odysseus, is a merely likable
Dublin salesman.

Eric Mader
Taipei, 2004

MAHABHARATA

- ang dakilang Bharata ("Ang Dakilang Salaysay Ukol sa mga Bharata," mas mahaba at tiyak na salin), ay isa sa
dalawang pinakamahalagang sinaunang epiko ng India, bukod sa Ramayana. Tinipon sa sinaunang India ang
Mahabharata. Pinaniniwalaang si Vyasa, isang rishi o taong paham, ang kumatha ng akdang ito. Nilalahad ng
alamat na isinulat ito ng diyos na si Ganeshhabang dinikta o sinambit naman ito ni Vyasa. Sinasabing ang
Mahabharata ang pinakamahabang akda sa uri nito sa buong mundo. Naglalaman ang akda ng may 110,000 mga
taludturan na may 18 mga bahagi. Mayroon ding isang itinuturing na ika-19 bahaging tinatawag na Harivamsha.
Bahagi ng Mahabharata ang Bhagavad Gita (o Bhagavadgita), isang diyalogo o pag-uusap sa pagitan
nina Krishna at Arjuna.

Kasaysayan

Itinuro ni Vyasa ang epikong ito sa kaniyang anak na lalaking si Suka at sa kaniya ring mga mag-aaral, ang
mgaVaisampayana at sa iba pa. Nagsagawa ng dakilang pag-aalay, ang yagna, ang Haring Janamejaya, na anak na
lalaki ni Parikshit, kasama ang apong lalaki ng mga bayani ng epiko. Muling nilahad ni Vaisampayana ang epiko kay
Janamejaya, ayon sa mungkahi ni Vyasa. Sa kalaunan, may isa pang paham - si Suta - na muling naglahad ng
Mahabharata kay Janamejaya, kay Saunaka rin, at sa iba pa, habang idinaraos ang isang paghahaing pang-alay na
isinagawa ni Saunaka sa Naimisaranya, isang pook na malapit sa Sitapur sa Uttar Pradesh.

DIVINE COMEDY

The Divine Comedy is composed of 14,233 lines that are divided into three canticas (Ital. pl. cantiche)

— Inferno (Hell), Purgatorio (Purgatory), and Paradiso (Paradise) — each consisting of 33 cantos (Ital.

pl. canti). An initial canto serves as an introduction to the poem and is generally considered to be part of the

first cantica, bringing the total number of cantos to 100. The number 3 is prominent in the work, represented

here by the length of each cantica. The verse scheme used, terza rima, is hendecasyllabic (lines of eleven

syllables), with the lines composingtercets according to the rhyme scheme aba, bcb, cdc, ded, ....

The poem is written in the first person, and tells of Dante's journey through the three realms of the dead,

lasting from the night before Good Friday to the Wednesday after Easter in the spring of 1300. The Roman

poet Virgil guides him through Hell and Purgatory; Beatrice, Dante's ideal woman, guides him through Heaven.

Beatrice was a Florentine woman whom he had met in childhood and admired from afar in the mode of the
then-fashionable courtly love tradition which is highlighted in Dante's earlier work La Vita Nuova.

In central Italy's political struggle between Guelphs and Ghibellines, Dante was part of the Guelphs, who in

general favored the Papacy over theHoly Roman Emperor. Florence's Guelphs split into factions around 1300,

the White Guelphs, and the Black Guelphs. Dante was among the White Guelphs who were exiled in 1302 by the

Lord-Mayor Cante de' Gabrielli di Gubbio, after troops under Charles of Valois entered the city, at the request

of Pope Boniface VIII, who supported the Black Guelphs. This exile, which lasted the rest of Dante's life,

shows its influence in many parts of the Comedy, from prophecies of Dante's exile to Dante's views of politics

to the eternal damnation of some of his opponents.[citation needed]

In Hell and Purgatory, Dante shares in the sin and the penitence respectively. The last word in each of the

three parts of the Divine Comedy isstelle, "stars."

EL CID CAMPEADOR

At the end of the turbulent 11th century, when the newly independent Balansiya had to dispute conflicts with
its new Muslim neighboors, the city was taken by the notorius El Cid in 1094, five years before the first fall
of Jerusalem. The siege was brutal and his rule was heavy. The suffering population was relieved in 1102,
three years after his death by a Almoravid invasion. The Almoravid army were called upon from North Africa
to help hault the Castillian Re-Conquista. Once the Almoravids besieged Balansiya, the Christian garrison saw
that they had no chance, burned the city and left.
Hollywood portrays El Cid as an idealistic hero-liberator of the Re-Conquista. It wasn't quite like that,
though...
Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar was nicknamed El Cid Campeador for his impressive one-on-one fighting skills (El Cid =
sir, lord in Andalusi Arabic and Campeador = one-on-one champion fighter in Spanish). This respectful
nickname in both Arabic and Spanish reflects his twisted loyalties.
He started as a vassal of Castilian king and went quite far up the ladder. But he had an "abrasive personality"
and fell out of favour. He continued as a mercenary general for both Muslim and Christian kingdoms until he
decided to carve out a piece for himself, in addition hyped up on the buzz of the Crusades. He first defeated
Ramon Berenguer II of Barcelona, then married his daughter to Ramon's son to cover his back, and then
exploited an uprising in Balansiya to lay siege. The siege lasted 18 months, it was a brutal ordeal with much
starvation horror within the walls, until the city finally fell in May 1094. Officially El Cid ruled under the
Castilian crown. In reality, he had his own ephemeral Crusader kingdom.
To some extent he integrated the Moorish population into the administration and the military. On the other
hand, he expelled many Moors beyond the city walls and exploited them as slaves. All of the mosques were
converted into churches and the Moors had no access to the centre of the city. It was a dark time of
oppression for the Moors of Balansiya.
El Cid did not ride out his corpse into the battle. He died quietly in his home 3 years before the Muslims
counter-attacked. For those three years the confused city ruled by his wife was steadily losing the plot until
the Almoravid "liberation army" sweeped through Spain and appeared at the city walls. Cid's wife fled with
his body and the garrison followed, after burning the city.
Far from being a romantic ballade of a hero Defender of Christ, Cid's story did, however, survive the
centuries at a high volume. An interpretation of such fame lies, perhaps, in the magnitute of Cid's rise
through the ranks. Born at the bottom of the noble ladder, Cid ended up virtually the king of one of the most
powerful kingdoms on the Iberian Peninsula of those times, making his way as a mere soldier with a sword. His
story was a fairytale of a medieval American Dream. And while he didn't do any miracles politically or
culturally, he was most certainly an inspiring portrait of a warrior knight.
Balansiya remained Muslim for over a century more. The times were not as great as before, though, with
conflicts and economic problems. An agressive Christian kingdom of Castilla was gaining ground, approaching
Balansiya. The Christian Re-Conquista was going full speed. With heavy hearts and fears for the future, the
Moors heavily fortified the walls of Balansiya, preparing to meet the agressor...

THE SONGS OF ROLAND

For seven years, the valiant Christian king Charlemagne has made war against the Saracens in Spain. Only one

Muslim stronghold remains: the city of Zaragoza, under the rule of King Marsile and Queen Bramimonde.

Marsile, certain that defeat is inevitable, hatches a plot to rid Spain of Charlemagne. He will promise to be
Charlemagne's vassal and a Christian convert in exchange for Charlemagne's departure. But once Charlemagne

is back in France, Marsile will renege on his promises. Charlemagne and his vassals, weary of the long war,

receive Marsile's messengers and try to choose an envoy to negotiate at Marsile's court on Charlemagne's

behalf.

Roland, a courageous knight and Charlemagne's nephew, nominates his stepfather, Ganelon. Ganelon is enraged,

thinking that Roland has nominated him for this dangerous mission in an attempt to be rid of him for good.

Ganelon has long been jealous of Roland, and on his diplomatic mission he plots with the Saracens, telling them

that they could ambush Charlemagne's rear guardas Charlemagne leaves Spain. Roland will undoubtedly lead the

rearguard, and Ganelon promises that with Roland dead Charlemagne will lose the will to fight.

After Ganelon returns with assurances of Marsile's good faith, Roland, as he predicted, ends up leading the

rearguard. The twelve peers, later known as the Paladins, Charlemagne's greatest and most beloved vassals, go

with him. Among them is Oliver, a wise and prudent man and Roland's best friend. Also in the rearguard is the

fiery Archbishop Turpin, a clergyman who also is a great warrior. At the pass of Roncevaux, the twenty

thousand Christians of the rearguard are ambushed by a vastly superior force, numbering four hundred

thousand. Oliver counsels Roland to blow his olifant horn, to call back Charlemagne's main force, but Roland

refuses. The Franks fight valiantly, but in the end they are killed to the man. Roland gives three long mighty

blasts on his olifant so that Charlemagne will return and avenge them. His temples burst from the force

required and he presently expires. He positions himself so as to face toward the enemy's land before dying,

and his soul is escorted to heaven by Saint Gabriel, Saint Michael and assorted cherubim.

Charlemagne arrives, and he and his men are overwhelmed with grief at the sight of the massacre. He pursues

the pagan force, aided by a miracle of God; the sun is held in place in the sky so that the enemy will not have

cover of night. The Franks push theSaracens into the river Ebro, where those who are not chopped to pieces

are drowned.

Marsile has escaped, though Roland succeeded in cutting off his right hand in battle. Wounded and

demoralised, he returns to Saragossa, where the remaining Saracens are plunged into despair by their losses.

But Baligant, the incredibly powerful emir of Babylon, has arrived to help his vassal. The emir goes to

Roncevaux where the Franks are mourning and burying their dead. There is a terrible battle which climaxes

with a one-on-one clash between Baligant and Charlemagne. With a touch of divine aid, Charlemagne slays

Baligant, and the Saracens retreat. The Franks take Saragossa, where they destroy

all Jewish and Muslim religious items and force the conversion of everyone in the city with the exception of

Queen Bramimonde. Charlemagne wants her to come to Christ through the agency of "love". With her as a

captive the Franks return to their capital, Aachen or Aix-la-Chapelle.

Ganelon is put on trial for treason. Pinabel, Ganelon's kinsman and a gifted speaker, nearly sways the judges to

let Ganelon go. But Thierry, a brave but physically unimposing knight, says that Ganelon's revenge should not
have been taken against a man in Charlemagne's service and constitutes treason. To decide the matter, Pinabel

and Thierry fight. Though Pinabel is the stronger man, God intervenes and Thierry triumphs. The Franks give

Ganelon a traitor's death: "Four chargers are brought out and tied to Ganelon's feet and hands...four

sergeants drive them past the spectators towards a stream...Ganelon is lost, his ligaments will be stretched
[6]
intolerably until all his limbs are torn apart." They also hang thirty of his kinsmen, including Pinabel.

Charlemagne announces to all that Bramimonde has decided to become a Christian. Her baptism is celebrated,

and all seems well. But that night the angel Gabriel comes to Charlemagne in a dream and tells him that he must

depart for yet another war against the pagans. Weary and weeping, but resigned to the will of God,

Charlemagne inwardly prepares himself for what is to come.

5 CLASSICS AND 4 BOOKS

Four Books

The Four Books of Confucianism (traditional Chinese: 四書; pinyin: Sì Shū) are Chinese classic texts that Zhu

Xi selected, in the Song dynasty, as an introduction to Confucianism. They were, in

the Ming and Qing Dynasties, made the core of the official curriculum for the civil service examinations. They

are:

Title Title
Brief Description
(English) (Chinese)

Originally one chapter in the Classic of Rites. It consists of a short main text
attributed to Confucius and nine commentary chapters by Zeng Zi, one of Confucius's
disciples. Its importance is illustrated by Zeng Zi's foreword that this is the gateway
Great
大學 of learning.
Learning
It is significant because it expresses many themes of Chinese philosophy and political
thinking, and has therefore been extremely influential both in classical and modern
Chinese thought. Government, self cultivation and investigation of things are linked.

Another chapter in Classic of Rites, attributed to Confucius' grandson Zisi. The purpose
of this small, 33-chapter book is to demonstrate the usefulness of a golden way to gain
perfect virtue. It focuses on the "way" (道) that is prescribed by a heavenly mandate
Doctrine of
中庸 not only to the ruler but to everyone. To follow these heavenly instructions by learning
the Mean
and teaching will automatically result in a Confucian virtue. Because Heaven has laid
down what is the way to perfect virtue, it is not that difficult to follow the steps of the
holy rulers of old if one only knows what is the right way.

Analects of 論語 A compilation of speeches by Confucius and his disciples, as well as the discussions they
 held. Since Confucius's time, the Analects has heavily influenced the philosophy and
moral values of China and later other East Asian countries as well. The Imperial
Confucius examinations, started in the Jin Dynasty and eventually abolished with the founding of
the Republic of China, emphasized Confucian studies and expected candidates to quote
and apply the words of Confucius in their essays.

A collection of conversations of the scholar Mencius with kings of his time. In contrast
Mencius 孟子 to the sayings of Confucius, which are short and self-contained, theMencius consists of
long dialogues with extensive prose.

[edit]Five Classics

The Five Classics (simplified Chinese: 五经; traditional Chinese: 五經; pinyin: Wŭ Jīng) are five ancient Chinese

books used by Confucianism as the basis of studies. These books were compiled or edited by Confucius himself.

They are:

Title Title
Brief Description
(English) (Chinese)

A collection of 305 poems divided into 160 folk songs, 105 festal songs sung at court
Classic of
詩經 ceremonies, and 40 hymns and eulogies sung at sacrifices to gods and ancestral spirits
Poetry
of the royal house.

A collection of documents and speeches alleged to have been written by rulers and
Classic of officials of the early Zhou period and before. It is possibly the oldest Chinese
書經
History narrative, and may date from the 6th century B.C. It includes examples of early Chinese
prose.

Classic of Describes ancient rites, social forms and court ceremonies, a restoration of the original
禮記
Rites Lijing lost in the third century B.C.

Also known as I Ching or Book of Changes. The book contains a divination system
Classic of
易經 comparable to Western geomancy or the West African Ifá system. InWestern cultures
Changes
and modern East Asia, it is still widely used for this purpose.

Spring and 春秋 Also known as Līn Jīng (麟經), a historical record of the state of Lu, Confucius's native
Autumn state, from 722 B.C. to 481 B.C. compiled by Confucius, with implied condemnation of
 Annals usurpations, murder, incest, etc.

BOOK OF THE DEAD

The "Book of the Dead" is the modern name of an ancient Egyptian funerary text, first used at the beginning

of the New Kingdom (around 1550 BC) and still in use around 50 BC.[2] The original Egyptian name for the

text, rw nw prt m hrw[3] is translated as "Book of Coming Forth by Day",[4] or perhaps "Utterances of Going

Forth by Day"[5], and the text consists of a number of magic spells intended to assist a dead person navigate

their way through the afterlife.

The Book of the Dead was most commonly written on a papyrus scroll and placed in the coffin or burial

chamber of the deceased. A number of the spells which make up the Book were also inscribed on tomb walls

and sarcophagi. The Book - along with other rituals like mummification - was intended to assist the deceased in

the Duat', or afterlife.

There was no single or canonical Book of the Dead. The surviving papyri contain a varying selection of religious

and magical texts and vary considerably in their illustration. Some people seem to have commissioned their own

copies of the Book of the Dead, perhaps choosing the spells they thought most vital in their own progression to

the afterlife.

The Book of the Dead was the product of a long process of evolution starting with the Pyramid Texts of

the Old Kingdom through the Coffin Texts of the Middle Kingdom. About one third of the chapters in

the Book of the Dead are derived from the earlier Coffin Texts.[6] The Book of the Dead itself was adapted

into The Book of Breathings in the Late Period, but remained popular in its own right until the Roman period.

BIBLIYA

Ang Bibliya, Biblya (ponemikong baybay), o Biblia[1][2] (mala-Kastila at maka-Griyegong pagbabaybay)

ay isang kalipunan ng mga itinuturing na Banal na Kasulatan sa Kristiyanismo. Bagaman isinulat lamang
ito ng mga tao, itinuturing din itong "mismong salita ng Diyos." Inilalarawan ang Bibliya bilang isang
napakalaking aklat, naglalaman ng ilang maituturing na mga nakalilitong mga pananalita, may mga
gawing pambihira ang mga tauhan ng Bibliya kung ihahambing sa mga gawi ng mga mamamayang
nabubuhay sa pangkasalukuyan, partikular na ang sa ika-21 daantaon.[3] Isang aklat ng sari-saring mga
bagay ang Bibliya na kinalalagakan ng Lumang Tipan, Bagong Tipan, at Apokripa. Isang tala ng isang
"sinaunang pangako" ng Diyos sa Israel o mga Hudyo ang Lumang Tipan. Tinatalakay naman sa Bagong
Tipan ang "katuparan" ng Kristiyanismo sa pamamagitan ng katauhan at mensahe ni Hesus. Sa gitna
ng Luma at Bagong mga Tipan, nagsasalaysay ng kasaysayan at mga diwa ang Apokripa.[2]
A THOUSAND AND ONE NIGHTS

One Thousand and One Nights (Arabic: ‫ كتاب ألف ليلة وليلة‬Kitāb 'alf layla wa-layla; Persian: ‫هزار و یک‬
‫ شب‬Hezār-o yek šab) is a collection of Middle Eastern andSouth Asian stories and folk tales
compiled in Arabic during the Islamic Golden Age. It is often known in English as the Arabian
Nights, from the first English language edition (1706), which rendered the title as The Arabian
Nights' Entertainment.[1]

The work as we have it was collected over many centuries by various authors, translators and
scholars across the Middle East and North Africa. The tales themselves trace their roots back to
ancient and medieval Arabic, Persian, Indian, Egyptian and Mesopotamian folklore and literature. In
particular, many tales were originally folk stories from the Caliphate era, while others, especially
the frame story, are most probably drawn from the Pahlavi Persian work Hezār Afsān(Persian: ‫هزار‬
‫افسان‬, lit. A Thousand Tales) which in turn relied partly on Indian elements.[2] Though the oldest
Arabic manuscript dates from the 14th century, scholarship generally dates the collection's genesis
to around the 9th century.

What is common throughout all the editions of the Nights is the initial frame story of the
ruler Shahryar (from Persian: ‫شهریار‬, meaning "king" or "sovereign") and his
wife Scheherazade (from Persian: ‫شهرزاده‬, possibly meaning "of noble lineage"[3]) and the framing
device incorporated throughout the tales themselves. The stories proceed from this original tale;
some are framed within other tales, while others begin and end of their own accord. Some editions
contain only a few hundred nights, while others include 1,001 or more.

Some of the best-known stories of The Nights, particularly "Aladdin's Wonderful Lamp", "Ali Baba
and the Forty Thieves" and "The Seven Voyages of Sinbad the Sailor", while almost certainly
genuine Middle-Eastern folk tales, were not part of The Nights in Arabic versions, but were
interpolated into the collection by Antoine Galland and other European translators.[4]

CANTEBURY TALES

The Prologue
In the Prologue to The Canterbury Tales Geoffrey Chaucer introduces the speaker of the poem as a
man named Chaucer, who is traveling from London with a group of strangers to visit Canterbury, a
borough to the southeast of London. This group of people is thrown together when they travel
together on a trip to the shrine of Saint Thomas à Becket, who was murdered in Canterbury in 1170.
The Prologue gives a brief description of the setting as they assemble at the Tibard Inn in
Southwark to prepare for their trip. It describes each of the pilgrims, including ones who were
meant to be discussed in sections of the book that were never written before Chaucer died. After
the introductions, the Host, who owns the inn that they gather at and who is leading the group,
suggests that they should each tell two stories while walking, one on the way to Canterbury and one
on the way back, to pass the time more quickly. He offers the person telling the best story a free
supper at the tavern when they return.

The Knight’s Tale

The first pilgrim to talk, the Knight, tells a long, involved tale of love from ancient Greece about
two knights, Arcite and Palamon. They were captured in a war between Thebes and Athens and
thrown into an Athenian prison to spend the rest of their lives there. From the tower they were
locked in, they could see a fair maiden, Emily, in the window of her chamber every morning, and they
each fell in love with her. An old friend of Arcite arranged for his release, and the ruler of Athens,
Duke Theseus, agreed with just one condition: that Arcite had to leave Athens forever or be killed
if he ever returned. In exile, all he could do was think about Emily, while Palamon, who was in prison,
could at least look at her every day.

For two years Arcite wandered, suffering so much from lovesickness that he became worn and pale.
When the god Mercury came and told him to return to Athens, he realized that he did not even look
like the man he had once been. Upon returning, he secured a job in Emily’s court and became one of
her servants. Meanwhile, Palamon, after seven years in prison, escaped. The two former companions
soon ran into each other in the forest and fought. While they were fighting, Theseus stumbled upon
them and, finding out who they were, was ready to have them both killed. His wife, however, was
moved by their love for Emily and convinced them to settle their argument by leading the best
soldiers in the land against each other, with the winner marrying Emily.

The Knight’s Tale goes on for hundreds of lines detailing the historic noble personages who
participated in the battle and the preparations they made, including sacrifices to gods. In the
battle, Palamon was injured, but no sooner was Arcite declared the winner than his horse reared up
and dropped him on his head. He died that night and was given a hero’s funeral, and Palamon married
Emily. They lived happily ever after: “Thus endeth Palamon and Emelye,” the Knight’s Tale ends,
“And God save al this faire companye! Amen.”

UNCLE TOM’S CABIN

Uncle Tom’s Cabin Summary

How It All Goes Down

Uncle Tom’s Cabin opens as Mr. Shelby and a slave trader, Mr. Haley, discuss how many slaves

Mr. Shelby will need to sell in order to clear up his debt. Despite his misgivings, Mr. Shelby

decides to sell Tom, a faithful and honest man, and Harry, the son of his wife’s favorite slave,

Eliza.

Eliza overhears that her son has been sold and makes a split-second decision to take him and

run away to Canada that very night. Earlier that day, her husband, George Harris, had let her

know that he planned to leave his own master, and she hopes they will both be able to escape

and reunite in Canada.

As Eliza takes off, the slave trader Mr. Hadley follows her and almost catches her. She

escapes into Ohio by crossing a river on a piece of floating ice. Mr. Haley sends slave catchers

after her, and returns to collect his remaining property, Tom. Tom chooses not to run because

he knows his master (at this point, Mr. Shelby) relies on his honesty.

Tom and Mr. Haley leave for the South. En route, Tom saves a little girl from drowning. The

girl's father decides to buy Tom to be his daughter's personal servant. Tom has lucked out

(insofar as being sold can be called lucky) because the girl’s father, Augustine St. Clare, treats

his slaves relatively well. The little girl, Eva, is also a sweet child, devoted to her servants and

family. Unfortunately, the mother, Marie St. Clare, is a more typical slave owner and runs her

slaves ragged as they try to satisfy her endless demands.

Tom grows fond of little Eva. They discuss their mutual Christian faith on a daily basis. Eva

even transforms the life of a hardened young slave girl named Topsy, and begins to teach
another slave, Mammy, to read.

When it is clear that Eva is ill and going to die, she calls all the slaves together to give them a

speech about God’s love (and her love) for them. She gives each slave one of her blonde curls

so they will remember her. Then she dies of consumption (known now as tuberculosis).

Meanwhile, Eliza and her husband George are reunited in a Quaker camp. From there, they

escape to Canada successfully, though not without a couple of run-ins with slave catchers on

the way.

Back at St. Clare household, Augustine St. Clare is heartbroken at his daughter Eva’s death, as

are all the slaves. St. Clare promises Tom his freedom but, before he finishes making out the

papers, he is killed in a barroom brawl. Tom is sold at auction, along with many of the other St.

Clare slaves.

Tom’s new master is Simon Legree, an evil and violent man who works his slaves until they die,

then buys new ones cheaply in a never-ending cycle. Despite Legree’s treatment, Tom maintains

his honest, kind behavior. Legree does his worst to "harden" Tom so that he can use Tom as an

overseer on the plantation, but Tom refuses to change no matter how hard or how often

Legree beats him.

When Tom encourages two female slaves, whom Legree uses as prostitutes, to escape, Legree

beats Tom to death. It takes a few days for him to die, however, and in the meantime, his old

master’s son, George Shelby, arrives to emancipate (or free) Tom – too late. Instead, "Master"

George buries Tom then leaves.

The two female slaves who escaped Legree’s house, Cassy and Emmeline, end up on the same
ship as George Shelby. Cassy confesses her story to him, realizing that George’s heart is soft

towards the plight of escaping slaves. Another woman on the ship soon confesses her story to

George as well, and it turns out that she is George Harris’s sister, sold south into slavery many

years earlier.

George Shelby relates that George Harris married Eliza and they both escaped to Canada.

Cassy, overhearing the story, puts two and two together and realizes that Eliza is her own

daughter, who was taken from her many years before.

The two women travel to Canada together and are reunited with their families. Although Tom’s

life ended in tragedy, there is much happiness among these slaves who survived and escaped

the trials and tribulations of slavery, either through emancipation or by fleeing to Canada.